1. UNDERSTAND THE CONCEPT OF RAPID-PROTOTYPING (RP) 1.

1 HISTORY OF RAPID-PROTOTYPING
In the late 1960s, Herbert Voelcker then an engineering professor at the University of Rochester, now at Cornell University went on sabbatical and asked himself how to do "interesting things" with the automatic, computer-controlled machine tools that were just beginning to appear on factory floors. In particular, Voelcker wanted to find a way to take the output from a computer design program and use it to program the automatic machine tools. With funding from NSF, Voelcker tackled the problem first by developing the basic mathematical tools needed to unambiguously describe three-dimensional parts (see the chapter on Visualization: Staking the Pioneers). The result was the early mathematical theory and algorithms of solid modeling that today form the basis of computer programs used to design almost everything mechanical, from toy cars to skyscrapers. During the 1970s, Voelcker's work transformed the way products were designed, but for the most part they were still made the same old way. That is, either a machinist or a computercontrolled machine tool would cut away at a hunk of metal until what remained was the required part, in much the same way as Michelangelo removed chips of marble from a block until all that remained was a statue of David. But then in 1987, University of Texas researcher Carl Deckard came up with a better idea. Instead of making a part by cutting away at a larger chunk of material, why not build it up layer by layer? Deckard imagined "printing" three-dimensional models by using laser light to fuse metallic powder into solid prototypes, one layer at a time. Deckard took his ideaconsidered too speculative by industryto NSF, which awarded him a $50,000 Small Grant for Exploratory Research (SGER) to pursue what he called "selective laser sintering." Deckard's initial results were promising and in the late 1980s his team was awarded one of NSF's first Strategic Manufacturing (STRATMAN) Initiative grants, given to the kind of interdisciplinary groups often necessary for innovation in the realm of manufacturing. The result of Voelcker's and Deckard's efforts has been an important new industry called "free form fabrication" or "rapid prototyping" that has revolutionized how products are designed and manufactured. An engineer sits down at a computer and sketches her ideas on screen with a computer-aided design program that allows her to make changes almost as easily as a writer can change a paragraph. When it's done, the design can then be "printed" on command, almost as easily as a writer can print a draftexcept this draft is a precise, three-dimensional object made of metal or plastic.

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The method can be used to make things that are more than prototypes. "Because you can control it in this incredible way, you can make objects that you just couldn't think of machining before," says George Hazelrigg, group leader of DMII's research programs. "For example, you can make a ship in a bottle." More practically, the method has been used to make a surface with lots of tiny hooks that resembles Velcro. These new surfaces are proving to be ideal substrates for growing human tissue. NSF-funded researchers have already grown human skin on these substrates and are looking to grow replacements of other organs as well. "So these are pretty fundamental things," Hazelrigg says. "I think it's fair to say that we played a major role in it." Bruce Kramer, acting division director of NSF's Engineering and Education Centers, is even more definite: "For a majority of successful rapid prototyping technologies, the first dollar into the technology was an NSF dollar."

ANOTHER HISTORY OF RAPID-PROTOTYPING

Rapid prototyping is quite a recent invention. The first machine of rapid prototyping hit the markets in the late 1980s. The early rapid prototyping process derived its name from the activities and the purpose for which the earlier machines were utilized. What is Rapid Prototyping? Rapid prototyping refers to physical objects that are automatically constructed with the aid of additive manufacturing technology.

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Rapid prototyping in its earlier days was applied to production of models and prototype parts. But nowadays with the advancement in technology, rapid prototyping is used widely for many applications that include manufacturing production-quality parts. The manufacturing of these quality parts however are very small in numbers. Apart from industrial applications, rapid prototyping is also used in sculpting. The application of rapid prototyping in sculpting is to generate fine arts exhibitions. Rapid prototyping as mentioned earlier, involves the use of additive manufacturing technology which actually takes the virtual designs from computer aided design (CAD) or animation modeling software (AMS).

These designs are further transformed into thin, virtual, horizontal cross sections and then the process of creating successive layers continues till the model in complete. On completion of the model, one may find that the virtual model is almost same as the physical model. Over here a process called WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) takes place wherein the final product is same as the image created. Once the layers which correspond to the virtual cross section from CAD are formed, they are either joined or fused automatically to yield the final shape. Additive fabrication has the benefit of creating any shape or geometric feature.

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Working of Rapid Prototyping Machines CAD software and the rapid prototyping machine are connected with a data interface that is called as the STL file format.

This STL file format enables the approximation of a shape of a part or the entire assembly using triangular facets. Smaller the facet, higher is the quality surface. One should consider the meaning of the word rapid as relative, as the construction process of a model with the contemporary methods can take up a long time which can be several hours to several days. It actually depends upon the complexity and size of the model. The method used over here also plays an important role. Sometimes the type of machine being used also influences the time taken for the creation of a new model though the additive systems are applied. Even here the size and the number of models to be created play an equally important role. There are some other techniques that are used in the construction of parts. The technique used in solid free-form fabrication involves the use of two materials in the construction of parts. One of it is the building material of that part and the other is the support material. The use of support material is to provide support to the projecting features during construction. In case of manufacturing polymer products in higher quantities, a process called traditional injection molding is more feasible in terms of cost, but when it comes to manufacturing parts in smaller volumes, the application of additive fabrication is recommended more and is cost effective.

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Prototyping Technologies Some of the prototyping technologies used in various rapid prototyping machines are as follows: Selective Laser Sintering (SLS):

This technology involves the use of high power laser for the fusion of tiny particles of plastic, metal etc, into a mass that represents a desired 3D object, through the help of a SLS machine. This is an additive manufacturing technique. Materials used in this technique are metal powders and thermoplastics.

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Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM): This additive manufacturing technology was invented in the late 1980s by S. Scott Crump and is used for applications like modeling, prototyping and production. This technology involves the use of eutectic metals and thermoplastics. Stereo lithography (SLA):

This also is an additive manufacturing technology and is used for production of models, patterns etc through the Stereo lithography machine. Photo-polymer is the principle material used in this technique. Laminated object manufacturing (LOM):

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Paper material is the base material used in this technology. In this method layers of adhesivecoated plastic, paper or metal laminates are fused together and cut into shape with the aid of a knife or a laser cutter. 3D Printing:

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This too is an additive manufacturing technology and involves the use of various materials. In this technology successive layers of material create a 3D object. 3D printing technology actually is said to be more affordable, easy to use and speedy than the additive manufacturing technologies. Though production applications are actually dominated by the additive manufacturing technologies, 3D has a great potential to prove useful in the production applications.

Rapid prototyping, is now entering into rapid manufacturing which is more advanced as compared to rapid prototyping machines as it can be used for large products. This is an additive fabrication technique, that would be applied to the manufacturing of solid objects. This process involves the sequential delivery of energy, material (material sometimes may not be used) to the specified points in space, in order to produce a particular part. Rapid manufacturing is an advanced form of this technology.

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1.1.2 DESCRIBE THE ADVANTAGES OF RP

Rapid prototype is a process wherein a working model or prototype is developed for the purpose of testing the various product features like design, ideas, features, functionality, performance and output. This process of development of working model is quite quick. The user can give an early feedback regarding the prototype. Rapid prototyping is, generally, a significant and essential part of the system designing process and it is believed to decrease the project cost and risk. The Rapid prototype that is developed by the process of rapid prototyping is based on the performance of earlier designs. Hence, it is possible to correct the defects or problems in the design by taking corrective measures. The product can be produced if the prototype meets the requirements of all designing objectives after sufficient refinement. There are many advantages of rapid prototyping. Rapid prototyping is a well defined process of developing software. Here the physical objects are automatically created using solid freeform fabrication, popularly known as SFF. A rapid rapid prototyping system by and large involves making of a 3D objects based on design data. This is rendered from a CAD system. Seeing the efficiency of rapid prototypes, a Full color 3D analysis model can be easily created. Then and there it can be tested for its functionality, presentation and output. As this program makes different models simpler, easily one can get the user feedback. This helps in easy implementation of the ideas and better communication of ideas. Some of the advantages of rapid prototyping systems are: 1) Reduction in project cost and risk. 2) Can be used in different industries. 3) Easily the errors in previous design can be detected and errors can be rectified. 4) Only upon the complete satisfaction the complete product is designed. Factors like manufacturability, robustness and functionality of design are checked before sending it for production. 5) Greater visualization capabilities are improved right from the first stage if designing. This helps the user in knowing how the final product will look like. 6) All the designing flaws can be detected easily before the manufacturing of the product starts. 7) Manufacturer, designer and user can discuss the product and work forward to get the best product. This helps to give the user higher output product.

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Seeing so many advantages of rapid prototype, you would like to know the industries where this system works well. Rapid prototyping systems are used in industries such as designing and engineering, aerospace, automotive, defense, medical, and consumer products. Professionals have made use rapid prototyping systems wisely. Using their skill and expertise, they have been able to meet the future requirements of the customers more successfully. Engineering & Manufacturing Services Inc (EMS) is one of the leading provider of rapid prototyping services and rapid prototype models.

ANOTHER ADVANTAGES OF RP
In today's world, faster is better. Because of the competition to get products to market more quickly, companies are using rapid prototyping techniques to build parts for testing and analysis. Rapid prototyping techniques hold a number of advantages--like speed, time to market, and cost savings--when compared to traditional prototyping methods. Speed According to "The Benefits of Rapid Prototyping", the time spent using rapid prototyping techniques has decreased by as much as 90 percent compared to other prototype methods. Creating the tooling for injection molding and other conventional prototyping processes can take days. With rapid prototyping, the same model parts can be made within hours. Time to Market The faster a prototype is created, the quicker designers and engineers can analyze it for design flaws and make necessary adjustments. The next step after making these adjustments is manufacturing. A 60 to 90 percent reduction in prototype creation has a direct impact on how quickly companies can release their products to market. Cost Savings/Reduction Creating the tooling for injection molding prototypes is not only laborious, but expensive. In addition, tooling can only be used for creating that particular part. Rapid prototyping systems build parts in an additive, layer-by-layer manner. These systems can be used over and over again to build a variety of different parts within their build size.

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2. CLASSIFY THE THREE MAJOR GROUP PROCESS OF RP 2.1 EXPLAIN THE SUBTRACTIVE PROCESS
Subtractive process : This is the most conventional method of getting the circuit pattern. The basic material for fabrication is a laminate with copper foil bonded to the substrate. Through holes are drilled/.punched in these clad laminates. The image of the circuit pattern is produced either by printing and screen printing with ink resist or by photofabrication techniques.

2.2 EXPLAIN THE ADDITIVE PROCESS

Additive process : The raw material for the manufacture of PCB by additive or semiadditive technique is basically an unclad laminate and copper which is pattern plated selectively only where it is the fully additive process, while load on etching is brought to a minimum in the semiadditive pattern plating technique. Selective plating on conducting areas is carried out by several methods such as : (a) Selective desensitization of areas of the catalyst coated surface by exposure to light of suitable wavelength. (b) Mechanical transfer of the sensitizer in the conducting path by image transfer by printing (stamping), screen printing or offset printing method.

2.3 EXPLAIN THE VIRTUAL PROCESS

a. Fused-deposition modelling In this technique, filaments of heated thermoplastic are extruded from a tip that moves in the x-y plane. Like a baker decorating a cake, the controlled extrusion head deposits very thin beads of material onto the build platform to form the first layer. The platform is maintained at a lower temperature, so that the thermoplastic quickly hardens. After the platform lowers, the extrusion head deposits a second layer upon the first. Supports are built along the way, fastened to the part either with a second, weaker material or with a perforated junction. Stratasys, of Eden Prairie, MN makes a variety of FDM machines ranging from fast concept modelers to slower, high-precision machines. Materials include ABS (standard and medical grade), elastomer (96 durometer), polycarbonate, polyphenolsulfone, and investment casting wax.

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Schematic diagram of fused deposition modeling.

b. Stereolithography Patented in 1986, stereolithography started the rapid prototyping revolution. The technique builds three-dimensional models from liquid photosensitive polymers that solidify when exposed to ultraviolet light. As shown in the figure below, the model is built upon a platform situated just below the surface in a vat of liquid epoxy or acrylate resin. A low-power highly focused UV laser traces out the first layer, solidifying the models cross section while leaving excess areas liquid.

Schematic diagram of stereolithography.

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Next, an elevator incrementally lowers the platform into the liquid polymer. A sweeper recoats the solidified layer with liquid, and the laser traces the second layer atop the first. This process is repeated until the prototype is complete. Afterwards, the solid part is removed from the vat and rinsed clean of excess liquid. Supports are broken off and the model is then placed in an ultraviolet oven for complete curing. Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA) machines have been made since 1988 by 3D Systems of Valencia, CA. To this day, 3D Systems is the industry leader, selling more RP machines than any other company. Because it was the first technique, stereolithography is regarded as a benchmark by which other technologies are judged. Early stereolithography prototypes were fairly brittle and prone to curing-induced warpage and distortion, but recent modifications have largely corrected these problems.

c. Selective Laser sintering Developed by Carl Deckard for his masters thesis at the University of Texas, selective laser sintering was patented in 1989. The technique, shown in Figure 3, uses a laser beam to selectively fuse powdered materials, such as nylon, elastomer, and metal, into a solid object. Parts are built upon a platform which sits just below the surface in a bin of the heat-fusable powder. A laser traces the pattern of the first layer, sintering it together. The platform is lowered by the height of the next layer and powder is reapplied. This process continues until the part is complete. Excess powder in each layer helps to support the part during the build. SLS machines are produced by DTM of Austin, TX.

Schematic diagram of selective laser sintering.

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d. Ballistic particle manufacturing A rapid prototyping process which deposits materials by means of inkjet technology. At one time the term was used to refer to a specific company's technology, BPM, Inc., now defunct, but prior to that it was an early generic term for inkjet-based RP. The term is not often used at present.

e. Laminated-object manufacturing and solid ground curing In this technique, developed by Helisys of Torrance, CA, layers of adhesive-coated sheet material are bonded together to form a prototype. The original material consists of paper laminated with heat-activated glue and rolled up on spools. As shown in the figure below, a feeder/collector mechanism advances the sheet over the build platform, where a base has been constructed from paper and double-sided foam tape. Next, a heated roller applies pressure to bond the paper to the base. A focused laser cuts the outline of the first layer into the paper and then cross-hatches the excess area (the negative space in the prototype). Crosshatching breaks up the extra material, making it easier to remove during post-processing. During the build, the excess material provides excellent support for overhangs and thinwalled sections. After the first layer is cut, the platform lowers out of the way and fresh material is advanced. The platform rises to slightly below the previous height, the roller bonds the second layer to the first, and the laser cuts the second layer. This process is repeated as needed to build the part, which will have a wood-like texture. Because the models are made of paper, they must be sealed and finished with paint or varnish to prevent moisture damage.

Schematic diagram of laminated object manufacturing.

Helisys developed several new sheet materials, including plastic, water-repellent paper, and ceramic and metal powder tapes. The powder tapes produce a "green" part that must be sintered for maximum strength. As of 2001, Helisys is no longer in business.

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Solid ground curing Developed by Cubital, solid ground curing (SGC) is somewhat similar to stereolithography (SLA) in that both use ultraviolet light to selectively harden photosensitive polymers. Unlike SLA, SGC cures an entire layer at a time. Figure 5 depicts solid ground curing, which is also known as the solider process. First, photosensitive resin is sprayed on the build platform. Next, the machine develops a photomask (like a stencil) of the layer to be built. This photomask is printed on a glass plate above the build platform using an electrostatic process similar to that found in photocopiers. The mask is then exposed to UV light, which only passes through the transparent portions of the mask to selectively harden the shape of the current layer.

3. UNDERSTAND DIRECT MANUFACTURING AND RAPID TOOLING.

3.1. EXPLAIN BASIC METHODOLOGY FOR RP PROCESS USE AS A MANUFACTURING STEP IN PRODUCTION.
1. Create a CAD model of the design (CAD/CAM). Mereka bentuk

2. Convert the CAD model to STL format (STL Data). Tukar format

3. Slice the STL file into thin cross-sectional layers (Check drawing error). Pemeriksaan reka bentuk.

4. Construct the model one layer atop another (Building). Pembinaan

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5. Clean and finish the model (Post processing). Penyudahan

CAD Model Creation: First, the object to be built is modeled using a ComputerAided Design (CAD) software package. Solid modelers, such as Pro/ENGINEER, tend to represent 3-D objects more accurately than wire-frame modelers such as AutoCAD, and will therefore yield better results. The designer can use a pre-existing CAD file or may wish to create one expressly for prototyping purposes. This process is identical for all of the RP build techniques. Conversion to STL Format: The various CAD packages use a number of different algorithms to represent solid objects. To establish consistency, the STL (stereolithography, the first RP technique) format has been adopted as the standard of the rapid prototyping industry. The second step, therefore, is to convert the CAD file into STL format. This format represents a three-dimensional surface as an assembly of planar triangles, "like the facets of a cut jewel." 6 The file contains the coordinates of the vertices and the direction of the outward normal of each triangle. Because STL files use planar elements, they cannot represent curved surfaces exactly. Increasing the number of triangles improves the approximation, but at the cost of bigger file size. Large, complicated files require more time to pre-process and build, so the designer must balance accuracy with manageablility to produce a useful STL file. Since the .stl format is universal, this process is identical for all of the RP build techniques.

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Slice the STL File: In the third step, a pre-processing program prepares the STL file to be built. Several programs are available, and most allow the user to adjust the size, location and orientation of the model. Build orientation is important for several reasons. First, properties of rapid prototypes vary from one coordinate direction to another. For example, prototypes are usually weaker and less accurate in the z (vertical) direction than in the x-y plane. In addition, part orientation partially determines the amount of time required to build the model. Placing the shortest dimension in the z direction reduces the number of layers, thereby shortening build time. The pre-processing software slices the STL model into a number of layers from 0.01 mm to 0.7 mm thick, depending on the build technique. The program may also generate an auxiliary structure to support the model during the build. Supports are useful for delicate features such as overhangs, internal cavities, and thin-walled sections. Each PR machine manufacturer supplies their own proprietary preprocessing software. Layer by Layer Construction: The fourth step is the actual construction of the part. Using one of several techniques (described in the next section) RP machines build one layer at a time from polymers, paper, or powdered metal. Most machines are fairly autonomous, needing little human intervention.

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Clean and Finish: The final step is post-processing. This involves removing the prototype from the machine and detaching any supports. Some photosensitive materials need to be fully cured before use. Prototypes may also require minor cleaning and surface treatment. Sanding, sealing, and/or painting the model will improve its appearance and durability.

Basic methodology for RP process .

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4. EXPLAIN RAPID TOOLING USES. RAPID TOOLING

Indirect Tooling Most rapid tooling today is indirect: RP parts are used as patterns for making molds and dies. RP models can be indirectly used in a number of manufacturing processes: 1. Vacuum Casting: In the simplest and oldest rapid tooling technique, a RP positive pattern is suspended in a vat of liquid silicone or room temperature vulcanizing (RTV) rubber. When the rubber hardens, it is cut into two halves and the RP pattern is removed. The resulting rubber mold can be used to cast up to 20 polyurethane replicas of the original RP pattern. A more useful variant, known as the Keltool powder metal sintering process, uses the rubber molds to produce metal tools. 17 Developed by 3M and now owned by 3D Systems, the Keltool process involves filling the rubber molds with powdered tool steel and epoxy binder. When the binder cures, the "green" metal tool is removed from the rubber mold and then sintered. At this stage the metal is only 70% dense, so it is infiltrated with copper to bring it close to its theoretical maximum density. The tools have fairly good accuracy, but their size is limited to under 25 centimeters. 2. Sand Casting: A RP model is used as the positive pattern around which the sand mold is built. LOM models, which resemble the wooden models traditionally used for this purpose, are often used. If sealed and finished, a LOM pattern can produce about 100 sand molds. 3. Investment Casting: Some RP prototypes can be used as investment casting patterns. The pattern must not expand when heated, or it will crack the ceramic shell during autoclaving. Both Stratasys and Cubital make investment casting wax for their machines. Paper LOM prototypes may also be used, as they are dimensionally stable with temperature. The paper shells burn out, leaving some ash to be removed. To counter thermal expansion in stereolithography parts, 3D Systems introduced QuickCast, a build style featuring a solid outer skin and mostly hollow inner structure. The part collapses inward when heated. Likewise, DTM sells Trueform polymer, a porous substance that expands little with temperature rise, for use in its SLS machines. 4. Injection molding: CEMCOM Research Associates, Inc. has developed the NCC Tooling System to make metal/ceramic composite molds for the injection molding of plastics. 18 First, a stereolithography machine is used to make a match-plate positive pattern of the desired molding. To form the mold, the SLA pattern is plated with nickel, which is then reinforced with a stiff ceramic material. The two mold halves are separated to remove the pattern, leaving a matched die set that can produce tens of thousands of injection moldings.

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Direct Tooling To directly make hard tooling from CAD data is the Holy Grail of rapid tooling. Realization of this objective is still several years away, but some strong strides are being made: 1. RapidTool: A DTM process that selectively sinters polymer-coated steel pellets together to produce a metal mold. The mold is then placed in a furnace where the polymer binder is burned off and the part is infiltrated with copper (as in the Keltool process). The resulting mold can produce up to 50,000 injection moldings. In 1996 Rubbermaid produced 30,000 plastic desk organizers from a SLS-built mold. This was the first widely sold consumer product to be produced from direct rapid tooling. Extrude Hone, in Irwin PA, will soon sell a machine, based on MITs 3D Printing process, that produces bronze-infiltrated PM tools and products. 2. Laser-Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) is a process developed at Sandia National Laboratories and Stanford University that can create metal tools from CAD data. 21 Materials include 316 stainless steel, Inconel 625, H13 tool steel, tungsten, and titanium carbide cermets. A laser beam melts the top layer of the part in areas where material is to be added. Powder metal is injected into the molten pool, which then solidifies. Layer after layer is added until the part is complete. Unlike traditional powder metal processing, LENS produces fully dense parts, since the metal is melted, not merely sintered. The resulting parts have exceptional mechanical properties, but the process currently works only for parts with simple, uniform cross sections. The system has been commercialized by MTS corporation (www.mts.com) 3. Direct AIM (ACES Injection Molding): A technique from 3D Systems in which stereolithography-produced cores are used with traditional metal molds for injection molding of high and low density polyethylene, polystyrene, polypropylene and ABS plastic. 22 Very good accuracy is achieved for fewer than 200 moldings. Long cycle times (~ five minutes) are required to allow the molding to cool enough that it will not stick to the SLA core. In another variation, cores are made from thin SLA shells filled with epoxy and aluminum shot. Aluminums high conductivity helps the molding cool faster, thus shortening cycle time. The outer surface can also be plated with metal to improve wear resistance. Production runs of 1000-5000 moldings are envisioned to make the process economically viable. 4. LOMComposite: Helysis and the University of Dayton are working to develop ceramic composite materials for Laminated Object Manufacturing. LOMComposite parts would be very strong and durable, and could be used as tooling in a variety of manufacturing processes.

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5. Sand Molding: At least two RP techniques can construct sand molds directly from CAD data. DTM sells sand-like material that can be sintered into molds. Soligen (www.3dprinting.com) uses 3DP to produce ceramic molds and cores for investment casting, (Direct Shell Production Casting). A much-anticipated application of rapid prototyping is rapid tooling, the automatic fabrication of production quality machine tools. Tooling is one of the slowest and most expensive steps in the manufacturing process, because of the extremely high quality required. Tools often have complex geometries, yet must be dimensionally accurate to within a hundredth of a millimeter. In addition, tools must be hard, wearresistant, and have very low surface roughness (about 0.5 micrometers root mean square). To meet these requirements, molds and dies are traditionally made by CNCmachining, electro-discharge machining, or by hand. All are expensive and time consuming, so manufacturers would like to incorporate rapid prototyping techniques to speed the process. Peter Hilton, president of Technology Strategy Consulting in Concord, MA, believes that "tooling costs and development times can be reduced by 75 percent or more" by using rapid tooling and related technologies. Rapid tooling can be divided into two categories, indirect and direct.

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CONCLUSION
1. Rapid Prototyping is the future for the next generation of design and manufacturing with the traditional way of design and manufacturing found that there are many advantages with Rapid Prototyping. 2. The key advantages highlighted are decreasing development time, minimize sustain engineering changes and increasing the number of variants of products.

3. The main advantages of Rapid Prototyping is the ability to produce physical models using digital methods instead of traditional impression techniques. The disadvantages of equipment costs could be overcome by establishing a centralized service. 4. Rapid Prototyping is an emerging technology that a brighter and efficient future. A technology that is worth looking forward to the future, or perhaps a technology, which would be able to take over the current technology. 5. Once the required corrections were carried out no more problems were encountered in the subsequent prototype, and the further steps of the components mass production process could be carried out. For the studied Upper Case part, injection molding, the risk of component failure was reduced.

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REFERENCE 1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_prototyping 2. Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/1571938

3. Buku rujukan workshop technology 4. http://www.expertsmind.com/questions/subtractive-rapidprototyping-process,additive-process-and-virtual-process3019050.aspx

5. http://www.me.psu.edu/lamancusa/rapidpro/primer/chapter2.htm#p rocess 6. Source: Mohd Zuhri b. Mohamed Yusoff UTem Melaka 2007.

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