Field

Crops
ELSEVIER Field Crops Research 55 (1998) 57-72
Research

Improving maize (Zea mays)yields in semiarid highlands of

Kenya: agroforestry or inorganic fertilizers?
M.N. Mathuva, M.R. Rao*, P.C. Smithson, R. Coe
International Centrefor Research in Agroforestry (1CRAF), P.O. Box 30677, Nairobi, Kenya
Received 19 December 1996; accepted 26 May 1997

Abstract

Farmers' maize (Zea mays) yields in semiarid Kenya are low because of low and erratic rainfall and soil nutrient
depletion. An experiment was conducted in Machakos, Kenya, during November 1989-July 1995 to explore the potential of
hedgerow intercropping (HI) with Leucaena leucocephala as an alternative strategy to the use of inorganic fertilizers for
improving maize yields in semiarid bimodal highlands. The study, conducted in a randomized block design with three
replications, evaluated on an operational scale with four treatments: sole maize with or without fertilizer; and HI with
prunings of L. leucocephala hedges used as green manure or with prunings and maize stover fed to oxen and manure
returned to soil. About 1.4 t h a - 1 of L. leucocephala foliar biomass and 1.2 t ha 1 manure were incorporated each season
in green-manure and ox-manure systems, respectively. Although sole maize responded to inorganic fertilizer in six of 11
seasons, maize yield was improved by HI, with prunings used as green manure, only once, 5 yrs after the commencement of
the study, when rainfall exceeded 500 mm. Over the experimental period, maize yields were 15% and 30% less in
green-manure and ox-manure systems, respectively, than in unfertilized maize, primarily because of the competition of
hedgerows with crops for water. The fodder system of HI recycled only 27% of N and 50% of P exported from the field in
fodder, grain and stover, and depleted nutrients more than the other systems. The green-manure system made a positive N
balance, with similar P depletion as in the fodder system. No changes were detected in soil organic carbon or cations in any
of the systems during the experimental period while extractable P was significantly improved by fertilizing maize. Net
present value of returns from fertilizing maize at 40 kg N and 18 kg P ha -1 was 10% higher than from the unfertilized
control. Fertilizer use would be 25% more profitable, however, if P were applied only to match the amount of P removed by
crop (9 kg P ha ~ per season) and if maize were not topdressed (amounting to 50% of the recommended N) in poor rainfall
seasons. Of the two HI systems, only the fodder system was more profitable than either system of sole-cropped maize
because the high value of fodder more than compensated the smaller maize yield obtained in HI. However, the fodder
system may not give higher economic returns than a sole L. leucocephala fodder bank. Hence, HI using competitive species
such as L. leucocephala and with the level of productivity observed in this study, is not appropriate for semiarid climates to
increase cereal yields, either directly through green manuring or indirectly by fodder production and nutrient cycling through
livestock. © 1998 Elsevier Science B.V.

Keywords." Agroforestry; Alley cropping; Hedgerow intercropping; Maize (Zea mays); Leucaena leucocephala; Tree fodder; Semiarid
tropics; Nutrient budgets; Economic returns; Sustainability

* Corresponding author. Fax: + 254-2-521001; e-mail: m.rao@cgnet.com.

0378-4290/98/$19.00 © 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

PH S037 8-4290(97)00067- 1
58 M.N. Mathuva et al. / Field Crops Research55 (1998) 57-72
1. Introduction
Hedgerow intercropping (HI; synonymous with
alley cropping) has been shown to increase soil
fertility and crop yields in the subhumid and humid
tropics on base-rich Alfisols and Entisols (Kang et
al., 1990). The system involves growing food crops
in the alleys formed by closely planted and fre-
quently pruned hedgerows of woody leguminous
species. The aboveground biomass thus harvested is
either incorporated into the soil or applied as mulch
on the soil surface. On sloping lands, establishment
of hedgerows on contour was found to control soil
erosion effectively (Kiepe and Rao, 1994). The po-
tential of alley cropping to improve yields depends
on the nutrients added or recycled through hedgerows
if the local constraint is nutrient supply, and on the
ability to increase soil water by increased infiltration
and decreased runoff if the constraint is water. The
net benefit of the system to crop production is
determined, however, by the extent of competition
between hedges and crops and by potential improve-
ments in nutrients and water.
If species such as Leucaena leucocephala and
Calliandra calothyrsus, which are palatable and yield
protein-rich fodder, are employed for hedgerows, the
biomass could be harvested for feeding livestock.
Studies in the subhumid coastal region of Kenya
have demonstrated that the yields of maize (Zea
mays) intercropped with L. leucocephala and cow-
pea could be increased substantially and the need for
fertilizer nitrogen reduced by returning dairy cattle
slurry to the field (Mureithi et al., 1995). No such
studies integrating agroforestry with livestock have
been conducted in semiarid tropics. If the hedges
exploit residual water and nutrients that crops cannot
utilize, then the system might result in increased
biological productivity compared with sole annual
cropping. In the semiarid tropics where water is
often limited, however, hedgerows were found to
suppress crop yields through competition for water
(Singh et al., 1989; Ong et al., 1991; Rao et al.,
1991; Jama et al., 1995). The success of alley crop-
ping in semiarid tropics depends on how well the
competition between hedgerows and crops is man-
aged through choice of suitable tree species, height
and frequency of pruning the hedgerows, and hedge
spacing.
In addition to factors affecting the economic re-
turns, the adoption of agroforestry systems encoun-
ters labour requirements for planting and pruning of
hedgerows, problems with the availability of tree
seedlings, ownership of trees, and for farmers own-
ing oxen, the feasibility of carrying field operations
with oxen. Although HI has been tested extensively
for its biological productivity in the tropics, the few
socioeconomic studies that have been done were
based on results from small plots. Those studies did
provide some insight into the system; for example,
labour requirement for HI was estimated to be greater
than for sole annual cropping (Swinkels and Franzel,
1997; Ngambeki, 1985) and HI gave higher eco-
nomic returns only where crop yields were substan-
tially improved, mostly in the subhumid and humid
tropics (Ngambeki, 1985). In the semiarid tropics,
the system was profitable over sole cropping only
when L. leucocephala was considered for fodder
instead of soil fertility improvement (Walker, 1987;
Rao et al., 1991). It is, however, important to exam-
ine the nutrient budgets of HI where hedgerow prun-
ings are used as fodder, as all fodder systems greatly
increase the opportunities for nutrient losses.
The semiarid highlands of Kenya are character-
ized by 1300 to 1600 m elevation, low and erratic
rainfall (550 to 800 mm yr - l ) in two rainy seasons,
moderately fertile Alfisols but nutrient depletion be-
cause of continued cultivation with few or no exter-
nal inputs, and soil erosion (McCown et al., 1992).
Maize yields on farms barely exceed 800 kg ha -1
and those of food legumes 500 kg ha- 1. Contrary to
the general belief that soil fertility is not a problem
in this region, earlier research has shown that maize
responds to 30 to 40 kg N ha -t (Ikombo, 1984;
Nadar and Faught, 1984; McCown et al., 1992). But
few farmers use fertilizer because of the lack of
awareness, conflicting government policies, insuffi-
cient cash to buy fertilizer in time and high cost of
fertilizer. Farmers are aware of the value of farmyard
manure, but the quantity available is too small to
cover the 2 to 3 ha of land cultivated annually by
each household and manure quality is poor (Probert
et al., 1995). Food legumes with which maize is
intercropped or grown in rotation hardly benefit
maize as their residues are taken out for livestock
feeding. Exploring alternative strategies for improv-
ing maize yields and overcoming farm-level con-
 M.N. Mathuva et al. / Field Crops Research 55 (1998) 57-72 59

straints have been the preoccupation of the national cropped twice a year with maize-cowpea rotation
and international research programmes operating in until the start of the present study in the second
the region. season of 1989.
In the quest for improving maize yields in semi-
arid Kenya, we explored the potential of HI in 2.2. Experimental treatments
comparison with inorganic fertilizer, using L. leuco-
The study evaluated the following four cropping
cephala as the hedgerow species, with two manage-
systems:
ment options: (1) green-manuring of hedgerow prun-
1. M - F --- sole maize without fertilizer
ings; and (2) feeding the prunings to livestock and
2. HIg = hedgerow intercropping with clippings of
recycling manure. These systems were evaluated for
hedgerows as green manure
agronomic performance, economic returns and sus-
3. Him = hedgerow intercropping with ox manure
tainability, as examined by nutrient budgets.
4. M + F = sole maize with 40 kg N and 18 kg P
h a - ~ every season
2. Materials and methods The HI system used was the 'best-bet' prototype
based on previous studies at Machakos (Njiru, D.M.,
2.1. Site description 1991, unpublished; Jama et al., 1995) and at other
sites in the semiarid tropics (Rao et al., 1991),
The experiment was conducted on the research
keeping in mind the productivity of hedgerows and
station of the International Centre "for Research in
their potential for competition with crop. The HI
Agroforestry (ICRAF) at Machakos, Kenya (1°33'S,
plots had three hedgerows per plot and were larger
37°14'E and 1560 m above sea level). The site is
(about 550 m 2) than the sole maize plots, which
semiarid with an annual average rainfall of 755 m m
were 350 to 400 m 2. To prevent the roots of L.
(SD = 185), high rainfall variability between years
leucocephala hedgerows from interfering with neigh-
and seasons and average annual pan evaporation of
bouring sole maize plots, 0.5 m wide and 1 m deep
1800 ram. There are two distinct rainy seasons, with
trenches were dug along all plot boundaries, L.
330 (SD = 150) mm in the first season (mid-March
leucocephala roots are severed and trenches closed,
to July) and 365 (SD = 125) mm in the second
at the start of every second rainy season beginning in
season (mid-October to mid-February). The mean
1992 and also during the first rains in 1995. To
annual temperature is 19.2°C, August being the cold-
prevent erosion from plots upslope from entering the
est month with a mean monthly temperature of 17. I°C
plots downslope, trash bunds were constructed be-
while March is the warmest month with a mean
tween plots on contour at the start of each season
monthly temperature of 21.3°C. The soils are Kandic
using maize stover removed from plots, and runoff
Rhodustalfs (USDA soil taxonomy) and are repre-
diverted to outside the plots.The fertilizer rate for
sentative of the soils in semiarid Kenya (Kibe, J.M.,
M + F was based on the recommended rate for the
Ochieng, H., Macharia, P.N., 1981, unpublished).
semiarid zone in Kenya (Nadar and Faught, 1984;
The top 15-cm soil has the following characteristics:
McCown et al., 1992) and closely corresponds with
clay = 28% sand = 63%; pH (1:2.5 soil:water sus-
the expected N added or recycled through hedgerow
pension)=6.1; KC1 extractable M g = 1.3 cmol c
prunings in HIg (Jama et al., 1995). The experiment
kg-~; KC1 extractable Ca = 3.3 cmol c kg ~, bicar-
was initiated in November 1989 and continued until
bonate-EDTA extractable K = 0.6 cmolc kg -~, bi-
July 1995 in a randomized block design, replicated
carbonate-EDTA extractable P = 7.0 mg kg -~, or-
three times.
ganic carbon (acid-dichromate oxidation at 150°C) =
0.86% and bulk density = 1.56 g cm -3. The soil at 2.3. Plot management
the experimental site was moderately deep (1.3 to
1.7 m) and had 8.5% slope from north to south and L. leucocephala hedgerows were established in HI
about 3% slope from east to west. The area was systems, on contour, on 1 November 1989, using
brought into cultivation in 1983 after clearing the 6-month-old seedlings (accession 19/81 of prove-
native scrub vegetation and since then had been nance Honduras) at a spacing of 5.4 m between rows
60 M.N. Mathuva et al. / Field Crops Research 55 (1998) 57-72
and 0.4 m within rows. Two crops were grown per
year in all systems. To permit good establishment of
L. leucocephala, a less competitive and short-dura-
tion bean (Phaseolus uulgaris cv. Nyayo; maturity
cycle about 90 days) was grown, using 0.45 m
between rows and 0.1 m within the rows, in all
treatments in the first season of the study. Maize (Z.
mays, cv. Katumani composite; maturity cycle about
120 days) was used in all the subsequent seasons.
Maize was grown at a constant population (37,000
plants ha -~) in all treatments at a spacing of 0.9 m
between rows and 0.3 m within the rows. The spac-
ing between hedgerow and the adjacent maize row in
HI systems was 0.45 m. Maize in M + F was fertil-
ized every season with 40 kg N h a - l and 18 kg P
ha -~ in compound fertilizer, incorporated during
land preparation. In the 1995 first season, only 40 kg
N ha-1 was applied because soil tests in the previ-
ous seasons had consistently shown adequate plant-
available P. Inter-row cultivation was done by bul-
locks at 2 and 4 weeks after maize emergence;
within-row weeds were removed manually. As a
p r e v e n t i v e m e a s u r e against stalk borers,
trichlorophon 2.5% (Dipterex) granules were applied
into maize whorls at 2 weeks after emergence. Maize
stover was removed from plots in all systems, typical
of local farming practice, and valued in the economic
analysis.
L. leucocephala was pruned for the first time l yr
after planting, at the beginning of the 1990 second
season. L. leucocephala in HIg was pruned twice per
season to 0.5 m height and the prunings returned to
the soil as green manure. The clippings of the first
pruning, done at the beginning of each rainy season,
were incorporated into soil during land preparation.
The clippings of the second pruning, done usually 4
to 6 weeks after maize sowing, were spread on the
surface or incorporated if the pruning coincided with
interculturing.
Prunings and maize stover from each plot of Him
were fed to a pair of oxen and the manure collected
separately and returned to the respective plots, where
it was spread uniformly and incorporated in the soil
during land preparation. If manure available was
small in any given season (say < 0.5 t h a - ~), it was
returned to the plots in the subsequent season after a
sufficient quantity had accumulated. The manure was
preserved on a polythene sheet spread on the ground
under a tree near the cattleshed and protected from
rain by covering it with another polythene sheet. L.
leucocephala in Him was also pruned to 0.5 m
height. During the dry season, about 6 to 8 m
hedgerow was harvested daily to meet (together with
stover) the needs of oxen. However, any regrowth of
hedges at the beginning of rainy season and later in
the midseason was harvested at the same time as
those of HIg, and the material dried and preserved as
hay for feeding the oxen later when maize stover
from Him was available.
A L. leucocephala psyllid (Heteropsylla cubana
Crawford) appeared in this trial in March 1993 and
seriously damaged the L. leucocephala growth in the
following months. The hedges were not sprayed
initially, but when it became clear that they would
not grow without chemical protection, from Septem-
ber 1993 they were sprayed about once every 3
weeks, with dimbthoate 45 EC (at 1.2 ml 1-~ water),
cypermethrin 50 EC (at 1.5 ml 1-1 water) or lambda-
cyhalothrin 17.5 EC (at 2.5 ml 1-1 water). Spraying
was stopped in Him 2 weeks prior to harvesting the
hedgerows to avoid risk to animal health.
2.4. Data collection and analyses
Crop yields were determined by harvesting eight
quadrats of 32.4 m 2 (5.4 X 6 m) in the case of the
preliminary beans and four quadrats of the same size
in the case of maize, randomly spread over each plot.
The grain yields were adjusted to 13% moisture and
stover yields to oven-dry weight determined on sub-
samples by drying at 70°C for 48 h. Mean yields
from each plot were subjected to the analysis of
variance. L. leucocephala biomass was determined
by discarding a 2- or 3-m border at each end of the
hedgerows and harvesting the middle 30 m length.
The three hedgerows within a plot were harvested
separately, but final plot yield was estimated based
on the sum of all three hedgerows.
Land slope was measured using a surveyor's level
before the start and at the end of the experiment. In
HI systems, elevation of the ground on either side
(i.e., upslope and downslope) of all hedgerows and
distance between hedgerows in all plots were mea-
sured and average slope in the alleys calculated.
Soil water was monitored in the last two seasons
of the study (second season of 1994 and first season
 M.N. Mathuva et aL / Field Crops Research 55 (1998) 57-72
of 1995) in HIg and M - F. Two transects of alu-
minium access tubes (six per transect) were installed
across the alley between rows of maize and in the L.
leucocephala row. In sole maize, three tubes were
installed between the rows at three randomly chosen
places. Neutron counts were monitored using a neu-
tron probe (Didcot Instruments, UK) at 15-cm depth
intervals from 0.3 to 1.2 m at different times after
crop sowing, and the count data were converted to
gravimetric water content based on calibrations de-
veloped between counts and gravimetric water con-
tent. Bulk density was estimated in each replication
by taking samples of known soil volume at different
depths on the profile wall of a 1.2-m-deep pit. Soil
water in the top 0.3 m depth was determined gravi-
metrically. Total soil water contents of the profile in
both seasons are reported for the two systems.
2.5. Nutrient budgets
The nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) concentra-
tions of L. leucocephala prunings were determined
at every harvest, starting with the first season of
1992. The coppice growth of two plants from each
hedgerow was collected at each pruning, chopped
into pieces, and 0.5 kg of this material was dried at
70°C and weighed. The material was ground in a
Wiley mill to pass a 0.5 mm sieve and analyzed for
N and P following the methods described by Parkin-
son and Allen (1975). The N and P removed through
maize grain and stover harvests were also estimated
each season, using the same procedures on a sample
of five maize plants chosen randomly from each plot
at harvest. The nutrients recycled by L. leucocephala
or manure and those removed through maize har-
vests in HIg and Him were estimated by multiplying
the tissue nutrient concentration with dry matter
yields of the respective plant components.
Nitrogen and phosphorus contents of manure ap-
plied each season in Him were also determined. A
0.5 kg sample was collected from the replication-wise
manure generated and the material dried in shade for
several days before it was crushed, sieved and ana-
lyzed. Nutrient budgets of the four systems were
estimated, based on the nutrients input into or recy-
cled within the plots and nutrients exported from the
plots for the period March 1992 (first season) to July
1995 (first season). No estimate of biological nitro-
61
gen fixation (BNF) by L. leucocephala was made. In
the absence of BNF, a correct nutrient budget cannot
be estimated for HIg and Him, so a Nutrient Export
Index [NEI = (nutrient exported)/(nutrient recycled
or inputted)] was calculated as a relative measure of
nutrient balance. An index greater than 1.0 indicates
nutrient depletion and lower than 1.0 positive nutri-
ent balance.
2.6. Soil nutrient status
The soil nutrient status was determined plot-wise
in the topsoil (0-15 cm) at the beginning of the
study and in August 1994 for all parameters. An
additional sampling for soil carbon was done at the
end of the trial also (August 1995). Soil was col-
lected from 10 locations in each plot, and a compos-
ite sample prepared for analyses by drying under
shade, crushing and sieving (2-mm sieve). Soil was
analyzed for organic carbon, exchangeable cations
and extractable phosphorus. Data were analyzed us-
ing ANOVA.
2. 7. Economic analysis
Average costs were used for operations unaffected
by treatments such as land preparation, sowing and
interculturing. Where operations were affected by
different treatments, as was the case for insecticide
application, harvesting and threshing of crops, and
hedgerow pruning and mulch or manure application,
then treatment-specific costs were estimated. Cost of
ploughing and weed control twice per season by
oxen was estimated (US$65 ha -1 ) based on average
hire cost among ox and non-ox owning farmholdings
in the area. The costs of inputs used were those
current in the first season of 1995. The inputs were
(labour at US$1.56 day-1, 50 kg ha-J of bean seed
at US$1.48 kg -1, 25 kg ha -~ of maize seed each
season at US$1.3 kg -1, 5090 L. leucocephala
seedlings h a - I at US$27.8 per 1000; Average costs
per season for insecticides were sole maize = US$13
ha-1 and HI systems = US$22 ha -~, compound fer-
tilizer at US$0.38 kg - I , urea at US$0.4 kg -I and
manure containing 1.8% N and 0.4% P at US$13.2
t -1. Cost of manure was adjusted for nutrient con-
centration in different seasons. Value of outputs
(bean grain at US$390 t -1, haulms at US$26 t - l ,
62 M.N. Mathuva et al. / Field Crops Research 55 (1998) 57-72

maize grain at US$144 t -1, stover at US$26 t - 1 ,
wood at US$27.8 t-l and L. leucocephala fodder at
US$185 t -~) were based on the average prices pre-
vailing during March to August 1995. L. leuco-
cephala fodder was valued on the basis of the di-
gestible crude protein equivalent of commercial dairy
meal. Digestibility of L. leucocephala protein (22%
crude protein in fodder) was considered as 60%
(Wheeler et al., 1994) while that of local dairy meal
supplement (15% crude protein) as 80% (Patterson,
R., ICRAF, personal communication).
Financial analysis of the four cropping systems
was conducted in each season, taking input costs and
output value into account. Net returns calculated
plot-wise after deducting the input costs from the
gross value of the outputs were subjected to standard
ANOVA. Net present values (NPV) of the four
cropping systems across seasons were calculated in
each plot using the 1995 discount rate (10% per
season) and were analyzed by ANOVA. The sensi-
tivity of economic returns of the systems to different
price scenarios was assessed by calculating the NPV
at different maize and bean grain prices (50, 75, 125
and 150% of present price), fertilizer prices (75 and
125% of present price) and fodder value (75 and
125% of present value).
3. Results
3.1. L. leucocephala prunings and manure
When L. leucocephala was pruned for the first
time at the beginning of the 1990 second season, it
produced about 1 t ha -1 of foliar biomass (Table 1)
and 1.5 t ha-1 of wood; the wood was removed as
fuelwood. The hedges did not produce any substan-
tial quantity of wood in subsequent prunings and the
entire aboveground biomass thereafter was therefore
used as green manure or ox fodder. The average
yield of L. leucocephala prunings across seasons
was similar for the two HI systems at 1.4 t h a - 1. The
two HI systems did not differ significantly in most
seasons, and whenever they differed, it was because
the hedges had been pruned in different times of the
season. Average yield of L. leucocephala prunings
was similar between the two rainy seasons; the first
rainy reason averaged 1.5 t ha -1 (SE = 0.27) com-
pared with 1.3 t ha -1 (SE = 0.14) in the second
season. The yield of L. leucocephala prunings was
not related to seasonal rainfall because the hedges
were able to utilize residual water from one season
to the next season. Little biomass was harvested in
the 1993 first season because of a severe infestation
of L. leucocephala psyllid. The three hedgerows
within a plot behaved similarly in their biomass
yields in different seasons (data not presented), which
indicates that root pruning effectively controlled any
potential interference between plots and it did not
affect normal growth of hedgerows.
Manure was applied for the first time in the 1990
second season, and in six subsequent seasons, at
quantities varying from 0.44 t to 3.63 t ha-1 (Table
1). The average quantity of manure applied per
season was 1.23 t ha - l .
3.2. Maize yields
Unfertilized sole maize produced more than 2 t
ha-1 when rainfall exceeded 400 mm in a season
and even with 300 mm rainfall when distribution

Table 1
Yield of L. leucocephala prunings from the two hedgerow intercropping (HI) systems and manure returned to H i m system at Machakos,
Kenya
Systems 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Mean
2a 1a 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
L. leucocephala prunings (t ha 1)
HI (green manure) 0.94 1.27 0.83 1.64 2.22 0,17 1.43 1.47 1.33 2.78 1.41
HI (ox manure) 0.96 1.66 0.92 2.67 1.37 0,19 1.73 1.43 1.38 1.92 1.42
SED b 0.12 0.18 0.04 0.29 0.08 0.01 0.05 0.10 0.14 0.39
Manure added (t h a - 1)
HI (Ox manure) 2.11 0.44 - 2.89 0.99 - 0.90 - 3.63 1.96 1.23

al = first season (mid-March to July); 2 = second season (mid-October to mid-February).

bStandard error of difference of means.
 M.N. Mathuva et aL / Field Crops Research 55 (1998) 57-72 63

Table 2
Grain yields (t h a - 1) of beans and maize in unfertilized (M - F) and fertilized (M + F) sole crops and hedgerow intercropping (HI) systems
from 1989 to 1995 at Machakos, Kenya
System Bean Maize
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Mean
2a 1a 2 1 2 1 2 1b 2 1 2 1
Sole crop (M - F) 1.38 2.42 1.80 1.40 1.66 1.98 2.78 - 2.48 2.01 2.23 2.67 1.95
HI (green manure) 1.23 1.75 1.66 0.92 1.24 1.17 2.99 - 1.27 1.23 3.09 2.82 1.65
HI (ox manure) 1.47 1.65 1.39 0.87 1.05 1.00 2.28 - 1.33 1.35 2.25 1.83 1.37
Sole crop (M + F) 1.44 3.18 2.27 1.89 2.41 2.27 3.95 - 2.79 2,25 3.85 3.52 2.59
SED 0.24 0.14 0.23 0.22 0.18 0.35 0.33 - 0.31 0.26 0.38 0.33 0.10
Seasonalrainfall(mm) 294 483 364 226 399 253 804 50 317 234 524 289

al = first rainy season or 'long rains' (mid-March to July); 2 = second rainy season or 'short rains' (mid-October to mid-February).
bCrop failed due to poor rains in the first season of this year.

during the season was uniform (Table 2). In all such
seasons (which were six of 11), sole maize gave a
significant response to fertilizer, twice in the first
season and on four occasions in the second season.
The yield increase over unfertilized maize varied in
these seasons from 0.75 to 1.62 t ha-1 (i.e., 30 to
73% increase over the control). Maize stover yields
due to fertilizer application increased by a greater
margin of 0.85 to 1.88 t ha -~ (42 to 137%) than the
grain yield increase (Table 3). Stover yields were
slightly more variable than grain yields, and the
average harvest index over seasons of fertilized maize
(54%) was slightly lower than that of other treat-
ments (58%). The magnitude of response to fertilizer
was dependent on the amount and distribution of
rainfall. Absolute yields and response to fertilizer
were greater in second seasons because of higher and
more reliable rainfall than in first seasons.
Bean and L. leucocephala did not affect each
other in the 1989 second season, when the experi-
ment was first established. While the sole-cropped
bean produced 1.41 t ha -~ grain, the intercropped
bean produced on average 1.35 t ha-1 despite losing
8.3% land area to L. leucocephala. In the following
season (i.e., 1990 first crop), maize yields in both the
HI systems were significantly less than that of unfer-
tilized sole maize. Maize was harvested 10 out of the
11 cropping seasons; the crop in the 1993 first
season failed because of poor rainfall. From the 1990
second season (i.e., after commencement of L. leu-
cocephala pruning), alley maize in HIg gave signifi-
cantly lower yield than the unfertilized sole-cropped
maize in four seasons and yields similar to the sole
crop in four seasons. The alley maize gave signifi-
cantly higher yield than the unfertilized sole maize
only once, in the 1994 second season, 5 yrs after the

Table 3
Bean haulms and maize stover yield (t h a - 1 ) in unfertilized (M - F) and fertilized (M + F) sole crops and hedgerow intercropping (HI)
systems from 1989 to 1995 at Machakos, Kenya
System Bean Maize
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Mean
2a 1a 2 1 2 1 2 1b 2 1 2 1
Sole crop (M - F) 0.87 1.76 1.37 1.20 1,02 1.97 1.38 - 2.10 1.18 1.37 2.05 1.40
HI (green manure) 0.94 1.43 1.38 0.91 1,19 1.15 1.35 - 1.22 0.92 1.75 1.80 1.19
HI (ox manure) 0.97 1.32 1.44 0.78 0.81 1.06 1.04 - 1.58 0.97 1.27 1.11 1.03
Sole crop (M + F) 0.88 2.99 2.37 1.38 1.87 2.66 2,29 - 2.54 1.63 3.25 2.91 2.17
SED 0.18 0.14 0.26 0.27 0.21 0.47 0,18 - 0.45 0.21 0.44 0.44 0.16

al and 2 refer to first and second rainy seasons of the respective years.
bcrop failed due to poor rainfall in this season.
64 M.N. Mathuva et al. / Field Crops Research 55 (1998) 57-72

450 a) 1994 second season

commencement of the study when the rainfall ex- I Sed weeks
ceeded 500 mm. Alley-cropped maize in Him yielded 400 I Sed systems
significantly less than unfertilized sole-cropped maize 350
in six seasons and similar to the sole crop in other
300 - - - HIg
seasons. Between the two HI systems, the green-
°" ~ M-F "o
manure system caused less reduction in maize yield 250
g
(15% over all seasons) than the ox-manure system g 200 Tasseling~ Si~king Harvest~
(30% overall). The difference was greater in first .=
150 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
rainy seasons than in second rainy seasons, which ,-j
o 0 5 10 15 20
was directly related to less rainfall in first seasons.
b) 1995 first season
Maize growth across alleys of HI was generally 450

uniform, but in some drier-seasons, rows adjacent to I Sed weeks

400
I Sed systems
L. leucocephala seemed to perform better than in the 350
middle of the alleys. Maize yields in the fertilized
300
sole system and the two HI systems were linearly
related with seasonal rainfall ( r 2 = 0 . 4 7 to 0.59, 250
"o .e
P < 0.05) whereas the relationship between yields of 200 Tasseling~ ~ilking H . . . . t~,
unfertilized sole maize and rainfall was not signifi-
150
cant. Yields of different systems did not reveal any
5 10 15 20
significant time-related trends over seasons; how- W e e k s after s o w i n g
ever, yields of HIg and M + F tended to exhibit
Fig. 1. Total soil water in 1.2 m profile depth under hedgerow
positive trends over time and maize in Him and
intercropping (HIg) and unfertilized sole maize ( M - F) at differ-
M - F exhibited N-deficiency symptoms during early ent times during the 1994 second season and the 1995 first season
stages of growth in the last two seasons of the study. at Machakos, Kenya.

3.3. Terracing
Hedgerows were found to serve as physical barri-
ers to whatever small erosion that occurred and thus,
conserve the soil. This was evident from the forma-
tion of terraces with 20 to 25 cm high risers (at the
base of hedgerows) and reduction of slope from the
initial 8.6% to 5.3% in the alleys over years.
3.4. Soil water
Measurement of soil water in the wet 1994 second
season and the dry 1995 first season indicated the
total soil water status under HI and M - F systems
in contrasting seasons (Fig. 1). Except at the begin-
ning of the season, total soil water under both sys-
tems in 1994 was greater than in 1995 because of
43% greater rainfall, One week after sowing, HIg in
1994 had 40 mm less water to 1.2 m than M - F,
and this situation continued throughout the season. In
the following 1995 first season, at 2 weeks after
sowing, the profile under HIg had 90 mm less water
than under M - F. Although the gap between the
two systems narrowed at certain times of the season,
soil water under HIg was always less than that under
M - F. Less soil water in HIg was due to less water
particularly at depths below 50 cm, which was more
pronounced in the 1995 first season because of less
than normal rainfall.
3.5. Nutrient budgets
Nitrogen and P concentrations of L. leucocephala
prunings were unusually low in the first season of
1993 because of psyllid damage to L. leucocephala
foliage (Table 4). For the other seasons, N concentra-
tion of prunings varied from 2.4% to 4.3% and P
concentration from 0.13% to 0.27%. Nitrogen and P
concentrations of L. leucocephala prunings did not
differ significantly between the two HI systems (data
not presented), but their concentrations in prunings
harvested in midseason were significantly higher than
those in the first prunings harvested at the beginning
of rainy season. Midseason prunings of the green-
manure system contained 3.8% N and 0.24% P
 M.N. Mathuva et a L / Field Crops Research 55 (1998) 57-72 65

Table 4
Nutrient concentration and yield of L. leucocephala prunings and nutrients recycled in hedgerow intercropping (HIg) over six seasons from
October 1992 to July 1995 at Machakos, Kenya
Season Prunings(t ha - I ) Nutrient concentration (% dry matter) Nutrients recycled (kg h a - l)
Nitrogen Phosphorus N P
PS a MS a PS MS
1992(2) b 2.22 2.85 4.31 0.13 0.27 75.1 4.4
1993(1) b 0.17 1.61 - 0.11 - 2.7 0.2
1993(2) 1.43 2.43 3.88 0.15 0.26 44.5 2.7
1994( 1) 1.47 3.02 3.63 0.19 0.20 46.6 3.0
1994(2) 1.33 3.54 3.88 0.21 0.22 49.0 3.0
1995( 1) 2.78 3.60 3.56 0.13 0.25 93.4 5.8
Total 9.40 . . . . 313.3 19.1
Average 1.57 2.84 3.85 0.15 0.24 52.2 3.2
SED (PS vs. MS) 0.24 0.011

aps = preseason and MS = midseason prunings of each crop cycle.

bl and 2 in parentheses refer to the first and second rainy seasons of the respective years.

compared with 2.8% N and 0.15% P in the prunings
harvested at the beginning of the season.
A three-fold variation was observed in N and P
concentrations of manure among seasons (Table 5).
The manure applied in the 1994 second crop season
contained the lowest N (0.9%) and P (0.17%), while
that applied in the 1993 second crop season con-
tained the highest N (2.9%) and P (0.52%).
The amount of N and P recycled through L.
leucocephala prunings or manure varied among sea-
sons, depending on the L. leucocephala biomass
harvested or the manure applied and their respective
nutrient concentrations. Nutrients recycled per sea-
son by L. leucocephala in HIg averaged 52 kg N and
3.2 kg P ha -1 (Table 4). Nutrients recycled per
season through manure in Him averaged 20 kg N
and 3.7 kg P ha -~ (Table 5). Thus, the ox-manure
system recycled less than one-third the quantity of
nitrogen, but 16% more P than the green-manure
system.
Maize harvested from M + F contained signifi-
cantly higher N concentration in its grain (1.73% _+
0.10) and stover (0.60% ___0.03) than that harvested
from other systems. Those systems did not differ
significantly among them and averaged over seasons
1.50% (SE = 0.05) N in grain and 0.52% (SE = 0.05)

Table 5
Nutrient concentration and total nutrients recycled through cattle manure applied in hedgerow intercropping (Him) over six seasons from
October 1992 to July 1995 at Machakos, Kenya
Season Manure (t ha- l ) Nutrient concentration (% dry matter) Nutrients recycled (kg h a - l )
N P N P
1992(2) a 0.99 2.56 0.37 25.3 3.4
1993(1) a . . . .
1993(2) 0.90 2.86 0.52 25.7 4.7
1994(1) . . . .
1994(2) 3.63 0.90 0.17 32.7 6.2
1995(1) 1.96 1.77 0.41 34.7 8.0
Total 7.48 - - 118.4 22.3
Average 1.25 - - 19.7 3.7

al and 2 in parentheses refer to the first and second rainy seasons of the respective years.
66 M.N. Mathuva et al. / FieM Crops Research 55 (1998) 57-72

N in stover. Treatment differences were not signifi- 3.6. Soil nutrient status
cant for P concentration, which averaged over sea-
sons 0.27% (SE = 0.02) P in grain and 0.07% (SE =
There were no significant changes in soil organic
0.02) P in stover.
carbon and exchangeable cations in the topsoil ( 0 - 1 5
Nutrient budgets o f the four cropping systems
cm) over 5 yrs in any of the cropping systems (Table
over three years (1992 second season through 1995
7). The only significant change was in available
first season) indicated the removal of most nutrients
phosphorus, which decreased by 38% in M - F and
through maize and L. leucocephala prunings in H i m
35 to 44% in HI systems. Available P increased in
(433 kg N and 46 kg P h a - l ; Table 6). Only about a
the M + F system significantly, however, from 7 mg
quarter of the N and half of the P removed were
k g - 1 at the beginning of the study to 17 mg k g - 1 at
recycled back to the plots through the return of ox
the end o f 5 yrs in 1994.
manure. Although the N and P r e m o v e d from M + F
in the three years totaled 316 kg N and 54 kg P
ha -~, this system ended with a loss of 136 kg N
3. 7. E c o n o m i c returns
while gaining 33 kg P because o f fertilizer input. The
quantities of nutrients removed through maize har-
vests in HIg and M - F were similar, but nutrient The HI systems required 22 to 31% more labour
depletion was greater in the latter as there was than M - F, primarily for managing hedgerows,
neither nutrient input nor recycling. The N E I indi- prunings a n d / o r manure. M + F required 22% more
cated a positive N balance for HIg, m a x i m u m N labour than M - F, mostly for transporting of fertil-
depletion for H i m and moderate N depletion even in izer to the field and its application, and for handling
M + F. The index further indicated more or less of increased produce. Profits from HIg were more
similar P depletion for HIg and Him, but a positive P variable than from any other system. The H i m gave
balance for M + F. significantly higher net returns than M + F in five of
12 crop seasons, M - F in seven of 12 and HIg in

Table 6
Nutrient budgets (kg ha -1 ) of four cropping systems estimated over six crop cycles from October 1992 to July 1995 at Machakos, Kenya
System Input a Export b Balancea Recycled
c NEId
Grain Stover L. leucocephala Total
Nitrogen
M- F 0 180 48 - 229 - 229 0 -
HIg 0 173 48 - 221 -221 314 0.70
Him 118 130 34 269 433 - 315 118 3.67
M+ F 240 228 88 - 316 - 136 - 1.57
SED 19.2 7.6 - 25.5

Phosphorus
M- F 0 32 4 - 36 - 36 0 -
HIg 0 34 5 - 39 - 39 19 2.05
Him 22 24 5 17 46 - 24 22 2.09
M+ F 87 43 1l - 54 33 0 0.62
SED 3.7 0.7 - 4.0

aNutrients added through fertilizer or manure. Biological nitrogen fixation by L. leucocephala was not considered in the input and balance
of HI systems.
bNutrients removed through maize harvests and L. leucocephala prunings.
CRecycling refers to the nutrients returned through green manure or ox manure.
dNutrient Export Index = (Nutrient exported)/(Nutrient recycled or input).
 M.N. Mathuva et al. / Field Crops Research 55 (1998) 57-72 67

Table 7
Changes in soil nutrients in 0 - 1 5 cm soil layer over a 5-yr period (6 yrs for organic C) under four cropping systems at Machakos, Kenya
Systems Organic Available Total exchangeable cations
C (%) P (ppm) (cmol c k g - r )
1989(2) a 1995(1)" 1989(2) 1994(1) 1989 (2) 1994 (1)
M - F 0.88 0.82 7.9 4.9 5.7 6.6
Hlg 0.86 0.88 6.9 3.9 5.1 4.5
Him 0.83 0.80 8.7 5.7 4.1 3.8
M + F 0.83 0.91 7.3 17.0 5.9 5.3

SED systems 0.06 2.17 1.30

SED seasons 0.03 1.17 0.35
SED systems in different seasons 0.07 2.73 1.39
SED systems in same season 0.07 2.34 0.70

al and 2 refer to the first and second rainy seasons of the respective years.

nine of 12 (Table 8). Returns from this system were
less than from M - F and M + F in the first two
seasons, when L. leucocephala fodder was not yet
harvested and it suppressed crop yields. Returns
from Him were similar to those of M + F in four of
12 seasons when maize response to fertilizer was
high due to good rainfall. Returns from HIg were
lowest in all seasons. Of 11 seasons in which maize
was grown, M + F gave significantly higher returns
than M - F in four seasons; it gave similar returns to
M - F in six seasons and made the maximum loss in
one season when crops failed due to poor rains. In
that particular season of crop failure, the Him system
showed the minimum loss.
The net present value of the four systems indi-
cated that M + F was 10% more profitable than
M - F (Table 8). The NPV of HIg was lowest with
only 42% of the returns of the control M - F. The
NPV of Him was about three times higher than that
of HIg, and 36% and 24% higher than that of M - F
and M + F, respectively. The NPV of HI systems
could have been higher by US$84 if no control
measures against the L. leucocephala psyllid were
required.
Although Him was very sensitive to fodder value,
it was the most profitable system over a wide range
of maize grain prices (Fig. 2). Returns from M + F
matched those of Him, if the market price of maize
and bean grain increased by 27%, or fertilizer price
dropped by 25% and grain prices increased simulta-
neously by 15%. The fodder system lost its eco-
nomic advantage if market value of L. leucocephala
fodder dropped by 25%. Fertilizing maize at the
recommended rate of 40 kg N and 18 kg P ha-1
would not be any more profitable if either grain
prices drop by 16% or fertilizer prices increase by
25%. However, if the fertilizer price increases by
50%, at least a 20% increase in the market value of

Table 8
Net benefits in each cropping season and total net present value (US$ ha -x ) over 12 seasons from four cropping systems
System 1989(2) a 1990(1) a 1990(2) 1991(1) 1991(2) 1992(1) 1992(2) 1993(1) 1993(2) 1994(1) 1994(2) 1995(1) Total NPV b
M- F 304 193 130 68 69 168 258 - 105 224 163 188 269 1241
HIg 83 103 134 - 25 - 1 20 251 - 110 - 21 - 10 235 206 523
Him 172 92 245 192 130 461 396 -76 296 272 270 400 1692
M + F 326 222 132 64 103 138 346 - 188 192 123 358 358 1362
SED 42 17 29 37 21 71 39 9 43 32 55 43 70

a I and 2 in parentheses refer to the first and second cropping seasons of the respective years.
bNet present value at 10% discount rate per crop season, US$1 = KSh54.
68 M.N. Mathuva et al. / Field Crops Research 55 (1998) 57-72
3500
3000
M+F
2500 Him (125"P -
~'~ 2000
Him (100)-
1500
' M-F
I000
,, "~'----'-- HIg
Z through HI does not seem to be a solution for
5O0
~ :: ~:'~"-----'---'r" t ~ , M + F ( 1 2 5 )
60" 80 100 120
-500
Grain price (% of present price)
Fig. 2. Net present values of unfertilized ( M - F ) and fertilized
(M + F) sole maize and hedgerow intercropping systems, managed
as green manure (HIg) or fodder system with recycling of ox
manure (Him), estimated at current (i.e,, 100%) costs of inputs but
at different grain prices of maize and beans. Sensitivity of Him
and M + F for 125% and 75% of current fodder value and
fertilizer cost respectively are shown at different grain prices.
maize is required for fertilizer use to remain prof-
itable. On the other hand, if fertilizers become
cheaper by 25%, fertilizer use is profitable over a
wide range of grain prices. Returns from HIg were
lowest over a wide range of maize price. Him and
M + F would have similar sensitivity to labour wage
because of similar labour requirements.
4. Discussion
4.1. Productivity of sole maize vs. HI systems
An average yield of 2 t ha -1 season - I from
unfertilized sole maize system in this trial was prob-
ably because of good crop management, and because
the site was not depleted of nutrients (Table 2). In
spite of this, response of maize to fertilizer in six out
of 11 seasons indicates that nutrients were a limiting
factor in seasons with good rainfall. The response
could be attributed mostly to N as soils having 5 to 7
ppm of available P, as in this study, only occasion-
ally displayed a response to P fertilizer in the region
(Nadar and Faught, 1984). Studies in Machakos and
other semiarid environments have demonstrated that
maize yields could be improved by inorganic N
through fertilizers or organic N through green ma-
nuring (Njiru, D.M., 1991, unpublished; Cooper et
al., 1996). Green manuring based on transferring
biomass produced on separate fields has not been
adopted by farmers because of the need for extra
land to produce green manure and the large amount
," of labour required for transporting the material (Co-
oper et al., 1996). In situ production of green manure
increasing maize yields in semiarid environments
such as Machakos, as intercropped maize yields in
most seasons were either significantly reduced or
140 160
unaffected compared with those of the sole maize
system. These results are similar to those from other
semiarid areas (Singh et al., 1989; Ong et al., 1991;
Rao et al., 1991).
The reduction of maize yield in HI could be
attributed to the competition between hedgerows and
crop for growth resources. There was no competition
for light as hedges were periodically pruned to 0.5 m
and maize rows close to hedges grew similar to or
even better than those in the middle of the alley.
Competition for water between hedges and crop was
the major cause for reduced yields in intercropping.
This was evident from lower soil water status under
HI than under sole cropping in both seasons when
soil water was measured during the crop cycle and
also the positive relationship between yield and rain-
fall. The hedgerow trees, because of their perennial
growth, extracted soil water even during the dry
season and left the profile much depleted of water
compared with the amount under the sole crop at the
beginning of each cropping season. This was con-
finned by Govindarajan et al. (1996) from monitor-
ing of soil water throughout the 1993 second season
of this experiment and by Mclntyre et al. (1997) in
another HI study with Senna spp. at the same site.
The soil profile in this study was never recharged
fully even during the 1994 second season when
rainfall was 43% more than normal, indicating that
soil water could be inadequate for crop growth under
HI in seasons with less rainfall than the 1994 second
season. This further points out that water deficits in
HI systems extend from one season to another.
Runoff was not measured in this study, but even
 M.N. Mathuva et al. / Field Crops Research 55 (1998) 57-72
if the hedges conserved some extra water by prevent-
ing overland flow and increased infiltration (Kiepe
and Rao, 1994), the negative effect of competition,
at least during the study period, was more than the
positive effect of conservation. The hedgerows with
their well-established and spread-out root system
outcompeted the crop, which has to develop its root
system every season. L. leucocephala hedges were
observed to produce greater fine root density than
Senna siamea or Gliricidia sepium hedges within the
crop root zone (Rao et al., 1993) and spread their
roots throughout the alley uniformly (Govindarajan
et al., 1996).
It appears that alley cropping with L. leuco-
cephala will have a beneficial effect on crop yield
only when a minimum rainfall is available to meet
the water needs of both hedge and crop and adequate
prunings are incorporated into the soil. This was
evident in the 1994 second crop season when sea-
sonal rainfall exceeded 500 mm. The lack of re-
sponse of alley-cropped maize in spite of higher
rainfall in the 1992 second rains indicates, however,
that the beneficial effect of alley cropping may not
be obtained within a few seasons of the establish-
ment of the system, if the amount of biomass har-
vested is small, as in this study.
Foliar biomass harvested from L. leucocephala
and other hedgerow species in subhumid and humid
environments, where HI was found to have positive
effects, was of the order of 5 to 6 t h a - 1 y r - 1 (Kang
et al., 1990). Furthermore, studies have shown that N
from organic residues is less available than from
inorganic fertilizers because factors such as adequate
soil water, time and method of application of prun-
ings affect the release of nutrients in relation to crop
demand (Cooper et al., 1996). Given these factors,
the plant-available nutrients from 1.41 t h a - l biomass
returned (47 kg N and 2.9 kg P h a - l recycled) each
season in this study could be very small. Nutrients
recycled through root turnover would be small as
biomass input through root turnover per season hardly
exceeded 0.5 t ha 1 (Govindarajan et al., 1996).
This may explain the lack of significant increase in
crop yield from HIg over sole maize in the 1992
second season, even with adequate rainfall while the
significant response in the 1994 second season, when
rainfall was again adequate, could be due to the
cumulative effect of biomass incorporated over the
69
previous eight seasons. Lower yield in Him was due
to recycling of a smaller quantity of nutrients through
ox manure (20 kg N and 4 kg P ha -1) than through
green manure in HIg. This was evident from N
deficiency symptoms observed on maize in Him in
the later years of the study when there was adequate
rainfall.
The hedgerows did not pose any difficulty for
land preparation and interculturing using oxen. They
did, however, prevent cross cultivation, which is
commonly practised for effective weed control on
flat to moderate sloping lands. And, weed growth
within the hedgerows was encouraged and could be
removed only manually. Weed observations indi-
cated three to six times greater weed biomass in the
hedgerows than in the alleys for equivalent areas.
Nevertheless, these effects might not be major deter-
rents to the adoption of HI if substantial improve-
ment were made in crop yields or fodder production.
In the absence of sole L. leucocephala in the
study, the advantage of Him for fodder production
over block planting of sole maize and sole L. leuco-
cephala (for fodder) could not be assessed precisely.
A sole L. leucocephala fodder bank in an experi-
ment adjacent to this study was found to yield 17.2 t
(dry fodder) ha -1 yr -1 during 1989 to 1991, when
the annual rainfall of 775 mm yr-J as well as its
distribution between the seasons were similar to the
long-term pattern (Jama et al., 1995). Using that as a
control, the land equivalent ratio (i.e., the land area
required as a sole crop system to produce the same
yield as from 1 ha of intercropping) for Him worked
out to be 0.87, which indicates that intercropping L.
leucocephala and maize is less productive than sole
cropping.
4.2. Nutrient cycling
Nutrient concentration of L. leucocephala prun-
ings harvested at the beginning of rains was low
because of more woody biomass and older foliage
than the prunings harvested midseason, whose nutri-
ent concentration was high because of the high pro-
portion of fresh growth of L. leucocephala after the
start of the rains and probably greater N 2 fixation
under adequate soil moisture conditions. Nutrients of
the preseason prunings might have been more effi-
ciently utilized by the crop than those harvested in
70 M.N. Mathuva et al, / Field Crops Research 55 (1998) 57-72
midseason. This is because preseason prnnings were
incorporated in the soil, which enhances their de-
composition, providing greater opportunity for the
released nutrients to meet crop demand. The midsea-
son prunings could not be properly incorporated into
the soil in the standing maize crop. Although the
amount of nutrients recycled through the green-
manure systems was small, the fact that crop growth
in HI was limited by water might have restricted the
maize response to recycled nutrients.
The quantity of manure applied differed across
seasons due to different quantities of maize stover
and L. leucocephala prnnings harvested. Similarly,
the quality of manure also differed over seasons due
to differences in the proportion of maize stover to L.
leucocephala biomass fed, the proportion of twigs to
foliage in L. leucocephala and the time available for
decomposition of organic residues in the manure
heap. Thus, the N and P concentrations of manure
applied in the 1992 and 1993 second seasons were
high as the quantity and proportion of L. leuco-
cephala biomass available to feed the oxen in the
previous seasons was high and time available for
decomposition of residues was longer. In spite of
taking good care in the collection and preservation of
manure, considerable quantity of nutrients must have
been lost, particularly of N through volatilization and
urine, which was not collected. Hence, the N recy-
cled to plots through manure in Him was very small
and represented only 27% of that exported through
maize and L. leucocephala harvests, which over
years resulted in N depletion in this system. The
effect of greater N depletion in Him was visible
through N deficiency symptoms in the later seasons
of the study whenever rainfall was adequate. In the
case of P, a large amount was recycled in Him than
in HIg because of the return of P contained in maize
stover, which was fed to oxen, whereas maize stover
was not incorporated in HIg.
Farmers who do not own livestock (about 25%)
rarely buy and apply manure to crop fields, and some
farmers may divert manure to high-value crops and
fields near their homestead. In such a situation there
would be greater nutrient depletion and lower maize
yields in Him than were observed in this study. The
high nutrient depletion in Him points out that maize
yields in this system cannot be sustained in the long
run unless external inputs are added.
In spite of large differences in nutrient balance
among treatments, there were no significant changes
in soil nutrient status even after 5 or 6 yrs of
cropping. Similar results were reported from other
parts of the tropics (Szott et al., 1991; Rosecrance et
al., 1992; Danso and Morgan, 1993). The lack of
change in soil properties in the present study could
be attributed to: (1) the inadequate amount of nutri-
ents added through the small quantity of
biomass/manure produced each season; and (2) the
inability of soil tests to pick up short-term changes in
the soil that may occur mostly in the labile pools of
nutrients.
4.3. Economic returns
The highest NPV occurred with Him due to high
value of L. leucocephala fodder, which more than
compensated for the loss in maize yield and the
slightly greater amount of labour required for manag-
ing the L. leucocephala hedgerows and for manure
application. If the cost of manure was not considered
(for the case of farmers who would not apply ma-
nure), the NPV of Him would have been higher by
US$89, or 31% higher than M + F and 44% higher
than M - F. Exclusion of manure would not have
affected maize yields within the timeframe of our
study and thus, altered the relative standing of Him
compared with other systems, as maize yields of this
system were affected in most seasons by water stress
rather than by nutrient stress. The poor returns from
HIg were due to low maize yields. These results
confirm previous studies that in the semiarid tropics
hedgerow prunings are more valuable as fodder than
for improving soil fertility (Darnhofer, I., 1992, un-
published; Rao et al., 1991; Walker, 1987), when
rainfall is limited and erratic.
With 28% greater value for L. leucocephala fod-
der than for maize grain, and its greater production, a
L. leucocephala fodder bank will obviously be more
profitable than Him. Returns from Him would not
exceed even those from a block planting system in
which the land is divided between sole crops of L.
leucocephala and maize in the same proportion as
grown in Him (i.e., 17% L. leucocephala:83%
maize). This is because the land equivalent ratio of
Him, which is a measure of intercropping yield
advantage over sole planting, did not exceed 1.0.
 M.N. Mathuva et al. / Field Crops Research 55 (1998) 57-72
Psyllid attack was unexpected in this trial, and if it
persists, farmers would not be interested in L. leuco-
cephala even for a fodder system. The psyllid infes-
tation has substantially reduced by the first rains of
1997, however, and it may soon disappear with the
buildup of natural enemies, as what happened within
a few years of its appearance in southeast Asia in the
early 1980s.
Fertilizing maize was profitable whenever rainfall
exceeded 300 mm rainfall. The additional benefit of
fertilizer ( y ) over the sole maize control in relation
to rainfall ( x ) was expressed as y = - 6 9 + 0.32x.
Based on long-term data, the probability of receiving
300 mm or more of rainfall in the first rainy season
of the year is 57% and for the second rainy season
68%, which means that fertilizer use would be prof-
itable in three of every five seasons. Based on the
accumulation of available P in the soil, it is doubtful
that P is required every season. Addition of P fertil-
izer, for example, only at a replenishment rate
matching with P removed by the crop (i.e., 9 kg
ha-1 per season), would reduce the expenditure on P
fertilizer and increase the NPV of M + F by US$134.
Cost of N fertilizer could be saved and the NPV
increased by US$56 by resorting to split application
of nitrogen (for example, 50% at sowing and 50%
top dressing 4 weeks later) and avoiding the topdress
in four seasons when rainfall was low and erratic.
These savings on N and P fertilizer costs would
increase the NPV from M + F by 25% more than
from the M - F and make fertilizer use profitable
over a wide range of market conditions.
5. Conclusions
The study leads to the following conclusions: (1)
in the semiarid tropics typical of Machakos, Kenya,
where water is often limited, maize yields cannot be
improved by hedgerow intercropping because of the
competition of hedges with crops for water; (2) a
moderate quantity of inorganic fertilizer at 40 kg N
and 18 kg P ha-1 each season seems to be the best
option for improving maize yields in such areas;
however, fertilizer can be economized and profits
increased by avoiding top dressing of N in low
rainfall seasons and applying P only at the replenish-
ment rate where P is not a limiting factor; (3) for
71
farmers maintaining improved dairy cattle and in-
vesting in dairy meal, sole planting of L. leuco-
cephala and maize is better than their intercropping;
and (4) the fodder system of hedgerow intercropping
may become worth considering, if nutrient depletion
resulting from the removal of fodder is corrected by
external inputs and hedgerows fulfill additional func-
tions such as soil conservation on sloping lands.
Acknowledgements
Financial support for the research reported here
has come from the Swedish International Develop-
ment Agency (SIDA). Roland Buresh, Cheryl Palm
and the Editor-in-Chief of the journal have made
many useful comments.
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