Vinamain.

com

2010 Edition

Electric Motors & Drives

Technical Manual

Through the initiative of: International Copper Association South East Asia

Institute of Integrated Electrical Engineers of the Philippines, Inc.

PREFACE
This publication deals primarily with small and medium-sized induction motors which are the most common type of alternating current motor. They are internationally standardized and are efficiently manufactured in long production runs. The combination of new materials and more sophisticated methods for calculation, design and production have made the modern three-phase induction motor a robust and reliable prime mover. This publication was made possible through the initiative and support of the International Copper Association South East Asia and administered, executed, and implemented by the Institute of Integrated Electrical Engineers of the Philippines All information and data contained in this publication is believed to be reliable, but all recommendations or suggestions are made without guarantee. Furthermore, suggestions for use of material supplied shall not be construed as a recommendation or inducement to violate any law or infringe any patent.

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Table of Contents
Section Title Motor Specifications 1.1 Nameplate 1.2 Insulation Class 1.3 Enclosure Type 1.4 Temperature Class 1.5 Mounting 1.6 Manufacturers Identification Number 1.7 Terminal Markings 1.8 Motor Design 1.9 Types of Duty General Characteristics 2.1 System Nominal Voltage 2.2 Voltage 2.3 Power Factor 2.4 Efficiency 2.5 Speed 2.6 Vibration Characteristics and Balancing 2.7 Bearings 2.8 Torque Asynchronous Motor Starting Systems 3.1 Starting Methods 3.2 Single-phase Motor Starting Motor Protection and Coordination 4.1 Motors Protection 4.2 Protection Against Short Circuits 4.3 Protection Against Overload 4.4 Multifunction Relays 4.5 Motor Circuit Breakers Motor Starter Co-ordination 5.1 Concepts 5.2 Solutions 5.3 Motor Overload Protection 5.4 Terminology Page 1 3 11 19 30 51 55 67 76 103 104 112 113 118 119 141 170 175 187 193 194 203 212 215 219 220 229 241

Motor Efficiency 6.1 Repair-Replace Decision Model 6.2 Premium Efficiency Motors Installation, Testing, and Maintenance 7.1 Installation and Maintenance 7.2 Description of Routine Tests 7.3 Recommended Winding Tests 7.4 Other Tests 7.5 Motor Starting Capabilities and Considerations 7.6 Maintenance and Reliability 7.7 Maintenance Programs 7.8 Machinery Condition Monitoring 7.9 Maintenance Planning

246 262 273 309 321 322 323 328 332 334 338

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Motor Specifications 1.1 Nameplate Motor standards are established on a country by country basis. Fortunately though, the standards can be grouped into two major categories: NEMA and IEC (and its derivatives). In North America, the National Electric Manufacturers Association (NEMA) sets motor standards, including what should go on the nameplate (NEMA Standard MG 1-10.40 "Nameplate Marking for Medium Single-Phase and Polyphase Induction Motors"). In most of the rest of the world, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) sets the standards. Or at least many countries base their standards very closely on the IEC standards (for example, Germany's VDE 0530 standard and Great Britain's BS 2613 Standard closely parallel the IEC 34-1 standard). The NEMA and IEC standards are quite similar, although they sometimes use different terminology. Thus, if one understands the IEC nameplate, it is fairly easy to understand a NEMA nameplate, and viceversa as shown in Fig 1.1A and B.

Fig 1.1A Typical IEC Motor Nameplate

Fig. 1.1B Typical NEMA Motor Nameplate

The nameplate of a motor provides important information necessary for proper application. For example, Fig. 1.1C AC Induction Motor nameplate shows a 30 horsepower (H.P.) three-phase (3 PH) AC Induction motor.

Fig. 1.1C AC Induction Motor Nameplate

The following paragraphs explain some of the other nameplate information for this motor. Voltage Source (VOLTS) and Full-load Current (AMPS) AC motors are designed to operate at standard voltages. This motor is designed to be powered by a three-phase 460 V supply. Its rated full-load current is 35.0 amps. Base Speed (R.P.M.) and Frequency (HERTZ) Base speed is the speed, given in RPM, at which the motor develops rated horsepower at rated voltage and frequency. Base speed is an indication of how fast the output shaft will turn the connected equipment when fully loaded. This motor has a base speed of 1765 RPM at a rated frequency of 60 Hz. Service Factor Service factor is a number that is multiplied by the rated horsepower of the motor to determine the horsepower at which the motor can be operated. Therefore, a motor designed to operate at or below its nameplate horsepower rating has a service factor of 1.0. A 1.15 service factor motor can be operated 15% higher than its nameplate horsepower. 1.2 Insulation Class NEMA NEMA defines motor insulation classes to describe the ability of motor insulation to handle heat. The four insulation classes are A, B, F, and H. All four classes identify the allowable temperature rise from an ambient temperature of 40 C (104 F). Classes B and F are the most commonly used. Ambient temperature is the temperature of the surrounding air. This is also the temperature of the motor windings before starting the motor,
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assuming the motor has been stopped long enough. Temperature rises in the motor windings as soon as the motor is started. The combination of ambient temperature and allowed temperature rise equals the maximum rated winding temperature. If the motor is operated at a higher winding temperature, service life will be reduced. A 10 C increase in the operating temperature above the allowed maximum can cut the motors insulation life expectancy in half. Fig.1.2A shows the allowable temperature rise for motors operated at a 1.0 service factor at altitudes no higher than 3300 ft. Each insulation class has a margin allowed to compensate for the motors hot spot, a point at the center of the motors windings where the temperature is higher. For motors with a service factor of 1.15, add 10 C to the allowed temperature rise for each motor insulation class.

Fig 1.2A Allowable Temperature Rise Permitted output at high ambient temperature or high altitude above sea level. Motors in their standard versions are intended to operate in an ambient temperature of 40 C maximum and at not more than 1000 meters above sea level. If the motors are to be used at higher ambient temperatures or higher altitudes the rated output must normally be reduced by the percentage shown in the Table 1.2A.

Table 1.2A Reduction of Rated Output at Higher Ambient Temperature of Altitudes

Ambient Temperature, OC Permitted output, % of rated output Altitude above sea level Permitted output, % of rated output 40 100 1000 100 45 96.5 1500 97 50 93 2000 94.5 55 90 2500 92 60 86.5 3000 89 70 79 3500 86.5 4000 83.5

Insulation classes According to EC 85, insulation is divided into insulation classes. Each class has a designation corresponding to the temperature that is the upper limit of the range of application of the insulating material under normal operating conditions and with satisfactory life. If this upper limit exceeded by 8 to 10 K (see below), the Life of the Insulation will be approximately halved. The correct insulation for the winding of a motor is therefore determined by both the temperature rise in the motor and the temperature of the ambient air. If a motor is subjected to an ambient temperature higher than 40 C, it must normally be derated or an insulating material of a higher class must be used. According to international standards, temperature is measured in degrees Celsius (C), whilst temperature difference is stated in the unit Kelvin (K). 1 Celsius degree is equivalent to 1 K.

Fig 1.2.B - Temperature Limits According to IEC 85

For class F, for instance, the temperature rise must not exceed 105 K, provided that the ambient temperature does not exceed +40C. This applies if the resistance measuring method is used. This involves first measuring the resistance of the winding at ambient temperature, then running a temperature-rise test of the motor to determine the temperature in the winding at rated power, then measuring the resistance of the winding at the end of the test. The temperature rise is calculated using this formula:

Where: t2 = temperature of winding at end of temperature-rise test t1 = temperature of winding before temperature-rise test ta = temperature of cooling medium at end of temperature-rise test R2 = resistance of winding at end of temperature-rise test R1 = resistance of winding at temperature t1 Constant = 235 for copper winding: 225 for aluminum winding

What this method determines is the mean temperature rise. This is why an extra thermal margin of 10 K, for example, is reserved between the mean temperature of the winding and the temperature at its hottest point. The graph in Fig.1.2.C illustrates the effect of exceeding the highest permitted winding temperature on the winding life.

Fig.1.2.C - Effect of Winding Temperature on Life of Insulation Frame Size Motor frame dimensions have been standardized with a uniform frame size numbering system. This system was developed by NEMA and specific frame sizes have been assigned to standard motor ratings based on enclosure, horsepower and speed. The current standardized frames for integral horsepower induction motors ranges from 143T to 445T. These standards cover most motors in the range of one through two hundred horsepower. Typical example of where you can locate the frame is shown in Fig 1.2.D Frame No.

Fig 1.2.D Frame No

The numbers used to designate frame sizes have specific meanings based on the physical size of the motor. Some digits are related to the motor shaft height and the remaining digit or digits relate to the length of the motor. The rerate, or frame size reduction programs were brought about by advancements in motor technology relating mainly to higher temperature ratings of insulating materials, improved magnetic steels and improved bearings. At the present time, NEMA frame assignments do no exist for motors larger than 445T and each manufacturer may have different frame designations for these motors. One additional suffix that may be used on standard motors in frames 286T and larger is an S inserted after the T. This S stands for short shaft. In addition to having a short shaft, the motor will have a small diameter shaft (U dimension) and the bearing in the drive shaft end of the motor will be somewhat smaller than the equivalent long shaft motor. Short shaft motors are intended for use only on direct coupled centrifugal pumps and other direct coupled loads where there will not be a side pull (overhung load) exerted on the shaft by V belts. Table 1.2B NEMA Frame Assignment Three-Phase Motors
OPEN MOTORS GENERAL PURPOSE
NEMA PROGRAM HP 1 1.5 2 3 5 7.5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 75 100 125 150 200 250 ORIG. 203 204 224 225 254 284 324 326 364S 364S 365S 404S 405S 444S 445S 504S 505S 3600 RPM 1952 RERATE 182 184 184 213 215 254U 256U 284U 286U 324S 326S 364US 365US 404US 405US 444US 445US 1964 RERATE 143T 145T 145T 182T 184T 213T 215T 254T 256T 284TS 286TS 324TS 326TS 364TS 365TS 404TS 405TS 444TS 445TS ORIG. 203 204 224 225 254 284 324 326 364 364 365 404 405S 444S 445S 504S 505S 1800 RPM 1952 RERATE 182 184 184 213 215 254U 256U 284U 286U 324U 326U 364U 365US 404US 405US 444US 445US 1964 RERATE 143T 145T 145T 182T 184T 213T 215T 254T 256T 284T 286T 324T 326T 364TS* 365TS* 404TS* 405TS* 444TS* 445TS* ORIG. 204 224 225 254 284 324 326 364 365 404 405 444 445 504U 505 1200 RPM 1952 RERATE 184 184 213 215 254U 256U 284U 324U 326U 364U 365U 404U 405U 444U 445U 1964 RERATE 145T 182T 184T 213T 215T 254T 256T 284T 286T 324T 326T 364T 365T 404T 405T 444T 445T ORIG. 225 254 254 284 324 326 364 365 404 405 444 445 504U 505 900 RPM 1952 RERATE 213 213 215 254U 256U 284U 286U 326U 364U 365U 404U 405U 444U 445U 1964 RERATE 182T 184T 213T 215T 254T 256T 284T 286T 324T 326T 364T 365T 404T 405T 444T 445T

* When motors are to be used with v-belt or chain drives, the correct frame size shown but with suffix letter S omitted.

Table 1.2C Suffixes to NEMA Frames

TEFC MOTORS GENERAL PURPOSE
NEMA PROGRAM HP 1 1.5 2 3 5 7.5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 75 100 125 150 ORIG. 203 204 224 225 254 284 324 326 365S 404S 405S 444S 445S 504S 505S 3600 RPM 1952 RERATE 182 184 184 213 215 254U 256U 284U 324U 326S 364US 365US 405US 444US 445US 1964 RERATE 143T 145T 182T 184T 213T 215T 254T 256T 284TS 286TS 324TS 326TS 364TS 365TS 405TS 444TS 445TS ORIG. 203 204 224 225 254 284 324 326 364 365 404 405 444S 445S 504S 505S 1800 RPM 1952 RERATE 182 184 184 213 215 254U 256U 284U 286U 324U 326U 364U 365US 405US 444US 445US 1964 RERATE 143T 145T 145T 182T 184T 213T 215T 254T 256T 284T 286T 324T 326T 364TS* 365TS* 405TS* 444TS* 445TS* ORIG. 204 224 225 254 284 324 326 364 365 404 405 444 445 504U 505 1200 RPM 1952 RERATE 184 184 213 215 254U 256U 284U 324U 326U 364U 365U 404U 405U 444U 445U 1964 RERATE 145T 182T 184T 213T 215T 254T 256T 284T 286T 324T 326T 364T 365T 404T 405T 444T 445T ORIG. 225 254 254 284 324 326 364 365 404 405 444 445 504U 505 900 RPM 1952 RERATE 213 213 215 254U 256U 284U 286U 326U 364U 365U 404U 405U 444U 445U 1964 RERATE 182T 184T 213T 215T 254T 256T 284T 286T 324T 326T 364T 365T 404T 405T 444T 445T

* When motors are to be used with v-belt or chain drives, the correct frame size shown but with suffix letter S omitted.

The following explanations of the various fame suffixes used on NEMA frame motors have been compiled for the benefit of EASA members. The suffixes for NEMA frame motors are the letters that immediately follow the frame numbers. Notice that more than one suffix may be used on any given motor.
Note: D dimension (shall height) of a motor or generator in these frame sizes equals 1 /4 the value of the first two digits in the frame number.

Example: 284 frame: 28/4 = 7, D = 7" A B C CM Industrial direct-current machine. Carbonator pump motors, (See NEMA MG 1-2006, 18.270 18.281) Type C face mounting on drive end. Face mounting dimensions are different from those for the frame designation having the suffix letter C (The letters CH are considered as one suffix and should not be separated.) Type D flange mounting on drive end. Shaft extension dimensions for elevator motors in frames larger than 326T frames. Face mounting on opposite drive end. Flange mounting on opposite drive end.
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D E FC FD

G H

Gasoline pump motors. (See NEMA MG 1-2006, 18.91.) Indicates a small machine having an F dimension larger than that of the same frame without the suffix letter H. (See NEMA MG 1-2006, 4.4.1 and 4.5.1.) HP or HPH Type P flange-mounted, vertical sotid-shaft motors having dimensions in accordance with NEMA MG 12006, 18.252. (The letters HP and HPH are considered as one suffix and should not be separated) J Jet pump motors. (See NEMA MG 1-2006, 18.132.) JM Face-mounted, close-coupled pump motor having antifriction bearings and dimensions in accordance with Table 1 of MG 1-2006, 18.250. (The letters JM are considered as one suffix and should not be separated.) JP Type C face-mounted, close-coupled pump motor having antifriction bearings and dimensions in accordance with Table 2 of MG 1 -2006, 18.250. (The letters MP are considered as one suffix and should not be separated.) K Sump pump motors. (See NEMA MG 1-2006, 18.78.) LP or LPH Type P flange-mounted, vertical solid-shaft motors having dimensions in accordance with MG 1-2008, 18251. (The letters LP and LPH are considered as one suffix and should not be separated.) M Oil burner motors. (See NEMA MG 1-2006, 18.106.) N Oil burner motors. (See NEMA MG 1-2006, 18.108.) P or PH Type P flange-mounted, vertical hollow-shaft motors having dimensions in accordance with NEMA MG 12006, 18.238. R Drive end tapered shaft extension having dimensions in accordance with NEMA MG 1-2008, 4.4.2. S Standard short shaft for direct connection. T Included as part of a frame designation for which standard dimensions have been established. U Previously used as part of a frame designation for which standard dimensions had been established. V Vertical mounting only. VP Type P flange-mounted, vertical solid-shaft motors having dimensions in accordance with NEMA MG 12008, 18.237. (The letters VP are considered as one suffix and should not be separated.)

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X Y Z

Wound-rotor crane motors with double shaft extension. (See NEMA MG 1-2006, 18229 and 18.230.) Special mounting dimensions, (Dimensional diagram must be obtained from manufacturer.) All mounting dimensions are standard except the shaft extension(s). Also used to designate machines with double shaft extension.

Note: Manufacturers may use any letter preceding the frame number, but such a letter will have no reference to standard mounting dimensions.

Suffix letters shall be added to the frame number in the following sequences: Suffix Letter Sequence A, H 1 G, J, M, N, T, U, HP, HPH, JM, JP, LP, LPH, & VP .......... 2 R, S ..................................................................................... 3 C, D, P, PH . 4 FC, FD 5 V . 6 E, X, Y, Z ............................................................................ 7

Example: T frame motor with a C face mounted vertically with a nonstandard shaft extension; (Sequences 2.4.8 and 7) 184TCVZ.
Note: This material is reproduced by permission of the National Electrical Manufacturers Association from NEMA Standards, MG 1-2006, 4.2.2. It was originally published as EASA Tech Note No. 7 (September 1985) and reviewed and updated as necessary in November 2007.

1.3

Enclosure Type

The enclosure of the motor must protect the windings, bearings, and other mechanical parts from moisture, chemicals, mechanical damage and abrasion from grit. NEMA standards MG1-1.25 through 1.27 define more than 20 types of enclosures under the categories of open machines, totally enclosed machines, and machines with encapsulated or sealed

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windings. The most commonly used motor enclosures are open dripproof, totally enclosed fan cooled and explosionproof.

Fig. 1.3A Shows location of Enclosure Tag

The Standards for IP Codes apply to the classification of degrees of protection provided by enclosure for all rotating machines. The designation used for the degree of protection consists of the letter IP (International Protection) followed by two characteristic numerals.

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When the degree of protection is specified by only one numeral, the omitted numeral is replaced by the letter X. For example, IPX5 or IP2X. The first Characteristic Numeral indicates the degree of protection provided by the enclosure with respect to persons and also to the parts of the machine inside the enclosure. The Second Characteristic Numeral indicates the degree of protection provided by the enclosure with respect to harmful effect due to ingress of water. The two characteristic numerals signify conformity with the conditions indicated in Table 1.3.A. Degrees of Protection Indicated by the Two Characteristic Numerals.

Table 1.3.A - Degrees of Protection indicated by the Two Characteristic Numerals

FIRST CHARACTERISTIC NUMERAL SECOND CHARACTERISTIC NUMERAL

DEGREE OF PROTECTION

DEGREE OF PROTECTION

0 1 2 3 4 5 6*

Non-protected machine Machine protected against solid objects greater than 2 inches (50 mm) Machine protected against solid objects greater than 0. 5 inches (12 mm) Machine protected against solid objects greater than 0.1 inches (2.5 mm) Machine protected against solid objects greater than 0.04 inches (1 mm) Dust-protected machine Dust-tight machine

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Non-protected machine Machine protected against dripping water Machine protected against dripping water when tilted up to 15o Machine protected against spraying water Machine protected against splashing water Machine protected against water jets Machine protected against heavy seas Machine protected against the effects of immersion Machine protected against continuous submersion

* Not include in IEC 60034-5, 1991 Standards Reference: NEMA Standards MG-1 2006, 5.8, Tables 5-1, and 5-2. IEC International Standard IEC 60034-5, 1991.

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Classification According to Environmental Protection*

IP CODE
IP 00 IP 10 IP 12 IP 13

CLASSIFICATION
Open Machine Semi-guarded machine Dripproof machine Splash-proof machine

IP CODE
IP 22 IP 44 IP 54 IP 55

CLASSIFICATION
Dripproof guarded machine Totally enclosed pipe-ventilated machine Totally enclosed non-ventilated machine Water-proof machine

* Reference: NEMA Standards MG-1 2006, 1.25, 1.26, and 1.27.

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Open Dripproof. The open dripproof motor (ODP) has a free exchange of air with the ambient. Drops of liquid or solid particles do not interfere with the operation at any angle from 0 to 15degrees downward from the vertical. The openings are intake and exhaust ports to accommodate interchange of air. The open dripproof motor is designed for indoor use where the air is fairly clean and where there is little danger of splashing liquid. Refer to Fig. 1.3A Open Dripproof (ODP)

Fig. 1.3A Open Dripproof (ODP) Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled (TEFC). This type of enclosure prevents the free exchange of air between the inside and outside of the frame, but does not make the frame completely airtight. A fan is attached to the shaft and pushes air over the frame during its operation to help in the cooling process. The ribbed frame is designed to increase the surface area for cooling purposes. There is also a totally enclosed non-ventilated (TENV) design which does not use a fan,
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but is used in situations where air is being blown over the motor shell for cooling, such as in a propeller fan application. Refer to Fig. 1.3B Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled (TEFC) Motor.

Fig. 1.3B Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled (TEFC) Motor

Explosionproof The explosionproof motor is a totally enclosed machine and is designed to withstand an explosion of specified gas or vapor inside the motor casing and prevent the ignition outside the motor by sparks, flashing or explosion. These motors are designed for specific hazardous purposes, such as atmospheres containing gases or hazardous dusts. For safe operation, the maximum motor operating temperature must be below the ignition temperature of surrounding gases or vapors. Explosionproof motors are designed, manufactured and tested under the rigid requirements of the Underwriters Laboratories. Hazardous location motor applications are classified by the type of hazardous environment present, the characteristics of the specific material creating the hazard, the probability of exposure to the environment, and the maximum temperature level that is considered safe

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for the substance creating the hazard. The format used to define this information is a class, group, division and temperature code structure.

Class I (Gas or Vapor) Group: A - Acetylene B - Hydrogen and Manufactured Gases C - Ethyl-Ether, Ethylene and Cyclopropane D - Gasoline, Hexane, Naphtha, Benzine, Butane, Propane, Alcohol Lacquer Solvent Vapors and Natural Gas Division II: Hazard of fire or explosion is present only as a result of an accident. Motors may be dripproof or TEFC. Class II (Dusts) Group: E - Metal Dust (Special Seals) F - Carbon Black, Coal or Coke Dust G - Flour, Starch or Grain Dust Division I: Hazard is always present due to normal conditions. (Dust suspended in the atmosphere.) Motors must be explosionproof construction with Underwriters label. Division II: Motors may be TEFC or externally ventilated: (A) Where dust deposits on electrical equipment prevent safe heat dissipation. (B) Where deposit or dust might be ignited by arcs or burning material. Class III (Fibers) Fibers those are easily ignitable but not apt to be suspended in the air to produce mixtures. Examples include rayon, nylon, cotton, saw dust, and wood chips. Division II: Location in which easily ignitable fibers are stored or handled TEFC enclosure can be used if there is a minimal amount of fibers or flying in the air.

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Converting from NEMA enclosure classifications to IEC enclosure classifications NEMA enclosure classifications are developed by NEMA and used in the U.S./American market. Ingress Protection - IP - ratings are developed by the European Committee for Electro Technical Standardization (CENELEC) (described IEC/EN 60529), and specifies the environmental protection and enclosure provided. The table below can be used to convert from NEMA Enclosure Types to IEC Enclosure Types:

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Continuation of

Note: NEMA standards meet or exceed IEC standards. The conversion does not work in the opposite direction.

1.4

Temperature class

Combustible gas or vapor and explosion-protected electrical equipment is divided into temperature classes T1 to T6 with regard to the ignition temperature of the gas or vapor and the maximum surface temperature of the equipment. Refer to Table1.4A - Temperature Class. Ignition temperature, thermal flashpoint, is the lowest temperature of a surface at which a substance ignites on contact with the surface.

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Table1.4A - Temperature Class

Hazardous area and zones Hazardous areas are rooms, spaces or areas in which an explosive gas mixture may occur under conditions such that electrical equipment, among other things, may have to meet certain requirements. Hazardous areas are categorized as zones as follows: Zone 0 - An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is present continuously or is present for long periods. Zone 1 - An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is likely to occur in normal operation. Zone 2 - An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is not likely to occur in normal operation and if it does occur it will exist for a short period only.

It is important that the mechanical design of installations should be such that hazardous areas should be few and of small extent. It should also be an aim to make hazardous areas chiefly Zone 2 areas.

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Motors for Potentially Explosive Atmosphere The principle of design of explosion-safe motors. There are two main principles for explosion protection for electric motors. One is to design the motor so that no dangerous heat or spark occurs. This includes the increased safety version, EEx e. The other method is based on isolating any dangerous heat or spark inside the motor so as to prevent the ignition of any explosive mixture of gases outside the motor. This includes the version with flameproof enclosure, EEx d, and the version with pressurized enclosure, EEx p. These are the three internationally standardized versions that are suitable for motors to be installed in Zone 1. The "non-sparking" version, Exn, according to IEC 79-15 (1987) is intended for use in Zone 2. IEC 79-15 has not yet been transferred to a national standard, but this is expected to happen after it has been converted into a European standard in CENELEC. British Standard BS 5000, Part 16 has a similar version. Increased safety design, EEx e The motor must not have any parts that, in normal service, produce arcs or sparks, or reach a dangerous temperature. Special steps must be taken in the design to prevent the risk of ignition by arcs or sparks or by excessively high temperature as a consequence of poor contact, overloading or the like. The temperature limitation applies to internal and external surfaces. The degree of protection of the terminal box must not be lower than IP 54 and any enclosure that contains only insulated parts must have at least IP 44. However, in the case of motors installed in clean areas and supervised by trained personnel, IP 23 is permitted for motors complying with explosion group I, i.e. for use in coal mines, and IP 20 for explosion group II, i.e. other areas. The requirements to be met by the terminal box are unchanged, however. The limitation of the field of application must be stated on the motor.

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The air gap between rotor and stator is subject to certain minimum dimensions. There are also minimum dimensions for creepage distance and the air gap between winding leads and earth. All connections between live parts must be secured so that they cannot work loose. Cable bushings and the cable branch in the terminal box are also subject to certain temperature limits. The motors must have both an internal and an external earthing screw. Flameproof enclosure, EEx d The housing of the motor must be so designed that ignition and combustion of any explosive mixture inside the housing cannot be propagated to a similar mixture outside the housing and that the housing can withstand without damage the explosion pressure thus caused. The motor need not be hermetically sealed; gas may therefore penetrate the motor. The permitted temperature inside the motor is limited only by the insulation class of the motor. The rated output depends on how hot the outer surface of the motor is permitted to be with regard to the relevant temperature class. Slip-ring motors, commutator motors and brake motors can all be made in flameproof versions. No external parts may cause sparks. The motors must have both an internal and an external earthing screw. Pressurized enclosure, EEx p In this version the motor must be under a given minimum positive pressure relative to the surroundings, so that the ambient atmosphere cannot penetrate the motor in service. The pressurization can take the form of positive pressure with compensation for leakage or positive pressure with continuous flushing.

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Monitoring of the winding temperature is recommended in cases where the pressurization system is also responsible for cooling the motor. Before the motor is started, it and its associated ducting for supply and exhaust air must be flushed through with fresh air or a protective gas for long enough to ensure that any explosive gas mixture has been reliably removed. The amount of fresh air or protective gas flushed through must in any case be equivalent to at least five times the total free volume. A positive pressure of at least 0.5 mbar relative to the ambient pressure must be maintained in service. If the positive pressure is lost when the motor is in service, the motor must be automatically disconnected. The temperature of the outer surface of the motor must not exceed the stated figures for the temperature class in question. The motors must have both an internal and an external earthing screw.

Fig. 1.4A Pressurized Enclosure EEx p

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Special requirements to be met by motors in increased safety version. EEx e. Non-sparking design, Exn This version to IEC 79-15 is a simpler version than EEx e. in general terms, a normal squirrel-cage motor may be approved, but, as for EEx e, there are certain minimum requirements for distances between moving and stationary parts, air gaps and creepage distances between winding leads and earth. The motor must be designed so that sparking cannot occur - "nonsparking" design. The outside temperature of the motor is determined in normal duty. The temperature rise on starting is not included if duty is continuous. The degree of protection must be IP 54 for the terminal box and IP 44 for those parts of the housing that contain only insulated parts. The motors must have an internal earthing screw and, if requested, an external earthing screw as well. There is no mandatory requirement for a certificate from a testing station. There are national rules for the installation of version Exn motors in zone 2. Version Ex N to British Standard BS 5000 Part 16 differs in certain respects from Exn to IEC 79-15. Following several years of international engagement by CENELEC, Comite European de Normalization Electrotechnique, common standards now apply regarding the design and testing of electrical equipment that is to be used in explosive atmospheres. These standards are based on the previously issued IEC Publication 79.

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Only intrinsically-safe circuits of category EEx ia may be used in Zone 0. Motors are thus excluded. Motors of category EEx d, EEx e and EEx p may be used in Zone 1. In Zone 2, equipment permitted in zones 0 and 1 may of course be used. Under certain conditions the equipment, motors for instance, need not be of explosion-protected design. An example is shown in Fig. 1.4B. These conditions are as follows; they must all be met: The degree of protection of the motors must not be below IP 54. In service they must not produce a temperature of more than 200 C. This requirement applies to both internal and external parts. In duties S1 (continuous) and S6 (continuous with intermittent load), the temperature may briefly exceed 200 C in conjunction with starting. The motors must not produce sparks or arcs in service. They must be placed in a hazard area that has been assigned temperature class T1 to T3.

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Fig. 1.4B - Example of classification and the extent of the hazardous areas in a ventilated tank Temperature limits, IA/IN and time tE for version EEx e The increased safety design, EEx e, Is the most common type of explosion-protected motor. They are subject to certain limits on temperature and on the relationship between the starting ratio lA/lN (which is the same as lst/l) and the time tE. Temperature limits To prevent the ignition of an explosive atmosphere, no part of the motor may, during starting, during operation at rated output or at a given overload, for example at the end of the time tE, have a higher temperature than that stated in the Table 1.4B - Temperature class and temperature limit in 0C. The temperature depends on the temperature class of the motor.

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Table 1.4B. Temperature Class and Temperature Limit in 0C

The temperature limits also apply to uninsulated conductors such as rotor bars. However, during starting, it is permissible for the temperature of the rotor to reach 300C maximum. To maintain the thermal stability of the insulation of the windings, the temperature limits in the Table 1.4C must be observed. Table 1.4C - The Temperature Limits

Limit temperature and maximum temperature rise for insulated winding to temperature Class B and F, measured by the resistance method. IA/lN and time tE If a squirrel-cage motor is to remain secure, the motor protection must be correctly chosen. Current standards lay down that the rating plate of a motor and the type testing report must state the ratio IA/lN. IA is the starting current of the motor and IN its full-load current. The time tE is, also stated. This is the time taken for the stator or rotor winding to heat up from normal operating temperature at the highest permitted ambient temperature to the highest permitted limit

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temperature, with the rotor locked and the stator winding loaded with the starting current IA. In other words, the highest permitted surface temperature for the temperature class or the insulation class of the winding, the lower of the two being the limit.

Fig. 1.4C Surface temperature for the temperature class or the insulation class Where: 0 A B C

temperature 0 C. maximum ambient temperature, normally 40 C. temperature at rated output. maximum permitted temperature at rated output for the insulation class. D = limit temperature at rated output for the insulation class or the temperature class. E = temperature rise at rated output. F = temperature rise in locked-rotor test. G = heating time during F. Relationship between IA/lN. and tE

= = = =

The time tE and the ratio IA/lN must be determined and stated so that suitable current dependent protection can be chosen to protect the motor from overheating. The value of tE must be such that, when the rotor is locked, the motor is disconnected by a current-dependent protection device before the time tE has expired. Generally this is possible if the time tE for the motor is longer than the value indicated by the curve for
28

the corresponding IA/lN. Values below the curve are only permitted if specially adapted current-dependent overload protection that has been proved effective in tests is used. This protection must be identified on the rating plate of the motor.

Fig. 1.4D - Minimum values of tE as a function of IA/IN Fig. 1.4D Minimum values of tE as a function of IA/IN where normal overload relays are used.

Temperature conditions in the stator and rotor of a squirrel-cage motor with rated output 1.3 kW at maximum permitted ambient temperature 40 C. The time tE is limited by the temperature rise of the stator winding.

29

In no case must the time tE be shorter than 5 seconds, nor must the ratio IA/IN be greater than 10. If some form of protection other than currentdependent protection is used (temperature sensors built into the motor for example), IA/IN and tE are not stated. The rating plate of the motor states how it is protected against overheating.

Temperature conditions in the stator and rotor of a squirrel-cage motor with rated output 10 kW at maximum permitted ambient temperature 40 C. The time tE is limited by the temperature rise of the rotor winding. 1.5 Mounting

NEMA Dimensions NEMA has standardized motor dimensions for a range of frame sizes. Standardized dimensions include bolt-hole size, mounting base dimensions, shaft height, shaft diameter, and shaft length. Use of standardized dimensions allows existing motors to be replaced without reworking the mounting arrangement. In addition, new installations are easier to design because the dimensions are known. NEMA divides standard frame sizes into two categories, fractional horsepower and integral horsepower. The most common frame sizes for

30

fractional horsepower motors are 42, 48, and 56. Integral horsepower motors are designated by frame sizes 143 and above. A T in the motor frame size designation for an integral horsepower motor indicates that the motor is built to current NEMA frame standards. Motors that have a U in their motor frame size designation are built to NEMA standards that were in place between 1952 and 1964. The frame size designation is a code to help identify key frame dimensions. The first two digits are used to determine the shaft height. The shaft height is the distance from the center of the shaft to the mounting surface. To calculate the shaft height, divide the first two digits of the frame size by 4. For example, In Fig. 1.5A - a 143T frame size motor has a shaft height of 3 inches (14 4).

Fig. 1.5A Importance of Frame Size

The third digit in the integral T frame size number is the NEMA code for the distance between the center lines of the motor feet mounting bolt holes. The distance is determined by matching this digit with a table in NEMA publication MG-1. For example in Fig. 1.5B, the distance between the center lines of the mounting bolt holes in the feet of a 143T frame is 4.00 inches.

31

FRAME SIZE SERIES 140 160 180 200 210 220 250 280 320

Third/Fourth Digit In Frame Number D 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.25 5.50 6.25 7.00 8.00 1 3.50 4.00 4.50 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.25 7.00 2 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.00 5.50 6.25 7.00 8.00 3 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 5.50 6.25 7.00 8.00 9.00 4 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.50 6.25 6.75 8.25 9.50 10.50 5 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.50 6.25 6.75 8.25 9.50 10.50

Fig. 1.5B Importance of Frame Size IEC Dimensions IEC also has standardized dimensions, but these dimensions differ from NEMA standards. An example of the IEC dimensions are shown in the following drawing.

32

IEC Mounting Dimensions Foot-Mounted AC & DC Machines

33

IEC Flange-Mounted AC & DC Machines Dimensions for Flanges

34

IEC Shaft Extension, Key and Keyseat Dimensions for Continuous Duty AC Motors.

35

Dimensions for AC Machines Millimeters NEMA Frame

36

37

38

39

Mounting Positions The typical floor mounting positions are illustrated in the following drawing, and are referred to as F-1 and F-2 mountings. The conduit box can be located on either side of the frame to match the mounting arrangement and position. The standard location of the conduit box is on the left-hand side of the motor when viewed from the shaft end. This is
40

referred to as the F-1 mounting. The conduit opening can be placed on any of the four sides of the box by rotating the box in 90 steps.

With modification, a foot-mounted motor can be mounted on a wall and ceiling. Typical wall and ceiling mounts are shown in the following illustration. Wall mounting positions have the prefix W and ceiling mounted positions have the prefix C.

41

Mounting Faces It is sometimes necessary to connect the motor directly to the equipment it drives. In the following example a motor is connected directly to a gear box.

C-face The face, or the end, of a C-face motor has threaded bolt holes. Bolts to mount the motor pass through mating holes in the equipment and into the face of the motor.

42

43

44

D-flange The bolts go through the holes in the flange of a D-flange motor and into threaded mating holes of the equipment.

45

46

47

JM Face Mounted
NEMA FRAME DIMENSIONS* TYPE JM FACE-MOUNTING, CLOSED-COUPLED, AC PUMP MOTORS
* DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETERS

BF NUMBER 4 4 4 4 4 4 TAP SIZE 3/8-16 3/8-16 1/2-13 1/2-13 5/8-11 5/8-11 BOLT PENETRATION ALLOWANCE 14 14 19 19 24 24

FRAME DESIGNATIONS 143JM and 145JM 182JM and 184JM 213JM and 215JM 254JM and 256JM 284JM and 286JM 324JM and 326JM

U 22.21 22.21 22.21 31.73 31.73 31.73

AH* 108 108 108 134 134 134

AJ 149.25 149.25 184.15 184.15 279.40 279.40

AK 114.30 114.30 215.90 215.90 317.5 317.5

BB 3.5 3.5 7 7 7 7

BD MAX 168 168 228 254 355 355

FRAME DESIGNATIONS 143JM and 145JM 182JM and 184JM 213JM and 215JM 254JM and 256JM 284JM and 286JM 324JM and 326JM

EL 29.35 31.75 31.75 44.45 44.45 44.45

EM 25.40 25.40 25.40 34.92 34.92 34.92

TAP SIZE 3/8-16 3/8-16 3/8-16 1/2-13 1/2-13 1/2-13

EN TAP DRILL DEPTH MAX 28 28 28 38 38 38

KEYSEAT BOLT PENETRATION ALLOWANCE 19 19 19 25 25 25

EP MIN 30 32 45 45 54 54

EQ* 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0

ER MIN 108 108 108 134 134 134

R 19.5 19.5 19.5 28.2 28.2 28.2

ES MIN 42 42 42 65 65 65

S 4.80 4.80 4.80 6.40 6.40 6.40

ET* 73.0 73.0 73.0 76.5 76.5 76.5

Reference: NEMA Standards MG 1-2006, 16.250. Dimensions, except for tap sizes, are shown in millimeters (rounded off). Tap sizes are in inches.

48

JP Face Mounted
NEMA FRAME DIMENSIONS* TYPE JM FACE-MOUNTING, CLOSED-COUPLED, AC PUMP MOTORS
* DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETERS

BF NUMBER 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 TAP SIZE 3/8-16 3/8-16 1/2-13 1/2-13 5/8-11 5/8-11 5/8-11 BOLT PENETRATION ALLOWANCE 14 14 19 19 24 24 24

FRAME DESIGNATIONS 143JP and 145JP 182JP and 184JP 213JP and 215JP 254JP and 256JP 284JP and 286JP 324JP and 326JP 364JP and 366JP

U 22.21 22.21 31.73 31.73 31.73 31.73 41.26

AH* 186 186 207 207 207 207 207

AJ 149.25 149.25 184.15 184.15 279.40 279.40 279.40

AK 114.30 114.30 215.90 215.90 317.5 317.5 317.5

BB 3.5 3.5 7 7 7 7 7

BD MAX 168 168 228 254 355 355 355

FRAME DESIGNATIONS 143JM and 145JM 182JM and 184JM 213JM and 215JM 254JM and 256JM 284JM and 286JM 324JM and 326JM 324JM and 326JM

EL 29.35 31.75 44.45 44.45 44.45 44.45 53.95

EM 25.40 25.40 34.92 34.92 34.92 34.92 44.45

TAP SIZE 3/8-16 3/8-16 3/8-16 1/2-13 1/2-13 1/2-13 1/2-13

EN TAP DRILL DEPTH MAX 28 28 38 38 38 38 38

KEYSEAT BOLT PENETRATION ALLOWANCE 19 19 25 25 25 25 25

EP MIN 30 32 45 45 54 54 54

EQ* 40.0 40.0 60.5 60.5 60.5 60.5 60.5

ER MIN 186 186 207 207 207 207 207

R 19.5 19.5 28.2 28.2 28.2 28.2 35.9

ES MIN 42 42 65 65 65 65 65

S 4.80 4.80 6.40 6.40 6.40 6.40 9.55

ET* 151.0 151.0 149.5 149.5 149.5 149.5 149.5

49

Mounting arrangements IEC Publication 347 lays down two ways of stating how a motor is mounted. Code I covers only motors with bearing end shields and one shaft extension. Code II is a general code.

The table below includes the designations for the most commonly occurring mounting arrangements according to the two codes.

50

The electric motors execution and assembly type can be seen here

IM..2. = IM.. 0. + IM..1. IM..4. = IM..0. + IM ..1. IM..3. IM..8. = The motor must be able to work in all mounting positions as per IM..0. to IM..7. IM..9. = The position of the shat cannot be specified with the third digit 0 8: instead it must be specified in each individual case.

1.6

Manufacturers Identification Number

This model and/or catalog number is used to establish motor identity and age for replacement parts and warranty.

51

Bearing Part Numbers.

The bearing part numbers on U.S. Motors machines are made conveniently available on the nameplate so that, when required, procurement of replacement bearings can be carried out prior to motor disassembly. Ball and roller bearings (anti-friction bearings) are manufactured to very rigid tolerance specifications and must be treated as precision parts to insure that they don not fail prematurely. American Bearing Manufacturers Association (ABMA) Standard 20 specifies boundary dimensions, tolerance classes, and internal clearance for ball and roller bearings. Boundary Dimensions The ID (d), OD (D) and width (B) of bearings are standardized metric dimensions with the last two digits in the bearing nomenclature representing the bore size. Beginning with a 20 mm bore, the last two digits equal the bore in mm divided by 5. The smallest internal diameter interval is, therefore, 5 mm. This permits the two-digit value to span a bore range from 20 (04) to 480 mm (96). This system is used on all types of rolling element bearings.

52

Tolerance Classes The tolerance classes specified in the ABMA Standards have been established by the Annular Bearing Engineers Committee (ABEC). These tolerance classes have been accepted by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and conform essentially with standards of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). ABEC Parameters ABEC Standards, which define tolerances for several major bearing dimensions and characteristics, are divided into mounting dimensions and bearing geometry. The geometric tolerances apply to both inner and outer rings and include: Bore roundness Bore runout with side Bore taper Race runout with side Width variation Radial runout ABEC standards do not address many other factors that affect bearing performance and life, including: Materials Ball complement number, size and precision Raceway curvature, roundness and finish Cage design Lubricant ABEC Precision Classes General purpose ball bearing are manufactured to tolerances in accordance with precision classes ABEC1, ABEC3, BEC5, ABEC7 and ABEC9. The ascending numbers indicate stricter tolerances and additional requirement as found in ABMA Standard 20.

53

Bearing Manufacturer Numbering Systems The metric system of measurement has been widely adopted by all bearing manufacturers, which ensures ready interchangeability of most bearings types and sizes. Bearings can be identified by using ABMA numbers or by using each manufacturers discreet numbering system. In either case, it is imperative that repair firms record the name as well as all of the numbers on each bearing that is to be replaced. They should also check the nomenclature designations in catalogs from the makers of the bearings because there are some variations among manufacturers.

54

Example: 50BC03JPP3 50 mm bore diameter whose bearing last two digit is 50/5 = 10, standard Deep Groove Ball Bearing (BC), medium series (03), standard steel cage (J), double shield (PP), and loose internal fitup ABMA 3 or C3. The equivalent SKF bearing no. is 6310 ZZ/C3.

55

Example: 50RU03K30 50 mm bore diameter whose last two digit is 50/5 = 10. RU cylindrical roller bearing with prefix of NU, medium series (03), brass of bronze cage (K), internal clearance greater than normal C3 with standard tolerance. This is equivalent to NU 310 ECJ/C3 for SKF brand. EC - Optimized internal design incorporating more and/or larger rollers and with modified roller/end flange contact, J - Pressed steel cage, roller centred, unhardened and C3 - Radial internal clearance greater than Normal.

56

Bearing Designation based on ISO

1.7

Terminal Markings

IEC Publication 34-8 lays down that the stator winding, parts of it and the terminals of A.C motors must be designated with the letters U, V and

57

W. External neutral terminals are designated N. The letters used for the rotor winding are K, L, M and Q. 1. End points and intermediate points of a winding are indicated by a digit after the letter, e.g. U1, U2 etc. 2. Parts of the same winding are designated by a digit before the letter, e.g. 1U1, 2U1 etc. If there is no possibility of confusion, the digit before the letter, or both, may be omitted.

Terminal Markings and Connections Single-Phase Motors Capacitor-start, NEMA Nomenclature

58

The switch in the auxiliary winding circuit has been omitted from this diagram. The connections to the switch must be made so that both auxiliary windings become de-energized when the switch is open ROTATION: CC Counter- clockwise CW - Clockwise

The direction of shaft rotation can be determined by facing the end of the motor opposite the drive.

(NEMA Standards MG 1-2006, 2.41. Note: May not apply for some definite-purpose motors.)

59

Three-Phase Motors Part-Winding Start

60

61

Three-Phase Motors Reduced-Current Starting

62

Three Phase Motors Single Speed

63

64

Three-Phase Motors Two Speed, Single Winding

65

Dahlander Motors Two speed motor with a re-connectible winding (Dahlander Connection)

Two-speed motor with two separate windings

Note the two-speed motors with re-connectible windings (Dahlander connection) have a higher rated output than the corresponding size with separate windings.

66

1.8

Motor Design

NEMA Design Letter

Changes in motor windings and rotor design will alter the performance characteristics of induction motors. Motors are designed with certain speed torque characteristics to match the speed torque requirements of the various loads. To obtain some uniformity in application, NEMA has designated specific designs of general purpose motors having specified locked rotor torque, breakdown torque, slip, starting current, or other values. The following graph shows the relationship between speed and torque that the motor produces from the moment of start until the motor reaches full load torque at rated speed.

67

Locked rotor torque, or starting torque, is developed when the rotor is held at rest with the rated voltage and frequency applied. This condition occurs each time a motor is started. When rated voltage and frequency are applied to the stator, there is a brief amount of time before the rotor turns. At this instant, a NEMA B motor develops approximately 150% of its full load torque. The magnetic attraction of the rotating magnetic field will cause the rotor to accelerate. As the motor picks up speed, torque decreases slightly until it reaches pull up torque. As the speed increases the torque increases until it reaches its maximum at about 200%. This is called breakdown, pullout or stall torque. Torque decreases rapidly as speed increases beyond breakdown torque until it reaches full-load torque at a speed slightly less than 100% of synchronous speed. Full load torque is the torque developed when the motor is operating with rated voltage, frequency and load. The speed at which full-load torque is produced is the slip speed or rated speed of the motor. Minimum acceptable values for different motor designs have been established and are identified by the letters A, B, C and D. The general shapes of the four typical torque-speed characteristics are shown here.

68

NEMA Design A, B, C, D NEMA has established four different designs - A, B, C and D - for electrical induction motors. Different motors of the same nominal horsepower can have varying starting current, torque curves, speeds, and other variables. Selection of a particular motor for an intended task must take all engineering parameters into account. The four NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) designs have unique speed-torque-slip relationships making them suitable to different type of applications: NEMA design A Has maximum 5% slip, high to medium starting current, normal locked rotor torque, normal breakdown torque, and suited for a broad variety of applications - as fans and pumps.

69

NEMA design B Has maximum 5% slip, low starting current, high locked rotor torque, normal breakdown torque, suited for a broad variety of applications, normal starting torque - common in HVAC application with fans, blowers and pumps. NEMA design C Has maximum 5% slip, low starting current, high locked rotor torque, normal breakdown torque, and suited for equipment with high inertia starts - as positive displacement pumps. NEMA design D Has maximum 5% slip, low starting current, very high locked rotor torque, and suited for equipment with very high inertia starts - as cranes, hoists etc. IEC Design Motors covered by this IEC standard are classified by the following designs: Design N Normal torque three-phase cage induction motors intended for direct-online starting, having 2, 4, 6, or 8 poles and rated from 0.4 kW to 630 kW at frequencies of 50 Hz or 60 Hz. Design NY Motors similar to design N, but intended for star-delta starting. For these motors in star-connection, minimum values for Tl and TU of 25% of the values of design N as shown in Table 1.8A may be expected.

70

Table 1.8A Minimum Values of Torque for Design N Starting Performance

Design H High torque three-phase cage induction motors with 4, 6 or 8 poles, intended for Direct-online starting, and rated from 0.4 kW to 160 kW at a frequency of 60 Hz. Torques of IEC Design H are nearly identical to NEMA Design C. Design HY Motors similar to design H but intended for star-delta starting. For these motors in star-connection, minimum values for T1 and TU of 25% of the values of Design H as shown in Table 1.8B may be expected.

71

Table 1.8B Minimum Values of Torques for Design H

Notes: 1. 2. 3. The values of Tl are 1.5 times the corresponding values for design N starting performance, but arc not less than 2.0. The values of Tu are 1.5 times the corresponding values for design N starting performance, but are not less than 1.4. The values of Tb are equal to the corresponding values for design N starting performance, but are not less than 1.9 and the values of Tu.

Design N starting torque The starting torque is represented by the locked rotor torque Tl, pull-up torque Tu and breakdown torque Tb, each expressed as a per unit value of the rated torque TN, and shall be in accordance with the appropriate values given in Table 1.8A. These values are minimum values at rated voltage, with no tolerance. Higher values are allowed. The starting torque at any speed between zero and that at which breakdown torque occurs shall be not less than 1.3 times the torque obtained from a curve varying as the square of the speed and being equal to rated torque at rated speed.
Note. The factor 1.3 has been chosen with regard to an undervoltage of 10% in relation to the rated voltage at the motor terminals during the acceleration period.

72

Design N locked rotor apparent power The locked rotor apparent power S1, is the apparent power input expressed as a per unit value of the rated output PN. This value shall be not greater than the appropriate value given in Table 1.8C. The values given in Table 1.8C are independent of the number of poles and are maximum values at rated voltage, with no tolerance. Table 1.8C.

Design N starting requirements Motors of design N shall satisfy the following starting requirements: 1. They shall allow two starts in succession (coasting to rest between starts) from cold conditions or one start from hot after running at rated conditions. The retarding torque due to the driven load is in each case proportional to the square of the speed and equal to the rated torque at rated speed with the external inertia given in Table 1.8D. 2. In each case a further start is permissible only if the motor temperature before starting does not exceed the steady temperature at rated load.
Note. It should be recognized that the number of starts should be minimized since these affect the life of the motor.

The values given are in terms of mr2 (m = mass; r = mean radius of gyration).
Note. Moment of inertia is defined in ISO Publication 31/111 1978, No. 39.1.

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Table 1.8D

For intermediate output values, external inertia shall be calculated according to the following formula, from which the values in the table have been calculated: I = 0.04 P0.9 p2.5 kg m2 where: P is the power in kW and p is the number of pairs of poles.

Design NY starting requirements The starting requirements are as for design N. In addition, however, a reduced retarding torque is necessary as the starting torque in 'star' may be insufficient to accelerate some loads to an acceptable speed.

74

Design H starting torque The starting torque is represented by the locked rotor torque Tl, pull-up torque TU and breakdown torque Tb, each expressed as a per unit value of the rated torque TN, and shall be in accordance with the appropriate values given in Table 1.8B - Minimum values of torques for Design H starting performance. These values given are per unit TN. These values are minimum values at rated voltage, with no tolerance. Higher values are allowed. Design H locked rotor apparent power The locked rotor apparent power S, is the apparent power input expressed as a per unit value of the rated output PN. This value shall be not greater than the appropriate value given in Table 1.8C. The values in Table 1.8C are independent of the number of poles and are maximum values at rated voltage, with no positive tolerance. Design H starting requirements Motors of design H shall satisfy the following starting requirements: 1. They shall allow two starts in succession (coasting to rest between starts) from cold conditions, or one start from hot after running at rated conditions. The retarding torque due to the driven load is assumed to be constant and equal to rated torque, independent of speed, with an external inertia of 50% of the values given in Table1.8D. 2. In each case a further start is permissible only if the motor temperature before starting does not exceed the steady temperature at rated load. Design HY starting requirements The starting requirements are as for design H. In addition, however, a reduced retarding torque is necessary as the starting torque in 'star' may be insufficient to accelerate some loads to an acceptable speed.

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1.9

Types of duty

Definitions Various types of duty have been defined in terms of how the load, and thus the output of the motor, varies with time. The rated output for each type of duty is determined in a load test which the motor must undergo without the temperature limits laid down in IEC Publication 34-1 being exceeded. Actual operating conditions are often of a more irregular nature than those corresponding to any of the standardized types of duty. It is therefore essential, both when choosing a motor and when rating and testing it, to decide on the type of duty that corresponds best to the thermal stresses that are expected to occur in practice. IEC (the International Electrotechnical Commission) uses nine duty cycle designations to describe electrical motor operating conditions:

76

S1 Continuous duty Operation at constant load long enough for thermal equilibrium to be reached.

S2 Short-time duty Operation at constant load for a given time that is shorter than the time needed to reach thermal equilibrium, followed by a rest and de-energized period long enough to allow the motor to reach a temperature that does not deviate from the temperature of the cooling medium by more than 2 K.

77

S3 Intermittent duty A sequence of identical duty cycles, where each cycle is in two parts, one at constant load and the other at rest and de-energized, in this type of duty the starting current has no significant effect on the temperature rise. The duty cycle is too short for thermal equilibrium to be reached.

S4 Intermittent duty with starting A sequence of identical duty cycles, where each cycle consists of a start that is long enough to have a significant effect on the temperature of the motor, a period at constant load and a period at rest and de-energized, in this type of duty the starting current has no significant effect on the temperature

78

S5 Intermittent duty with electrical braking A sequence of identical duty cycles, where each cycle consists of a start, a period at constant load followed by rapid electrical braking and a rest and de-energized period. The duty cycles are too short for thermal equilibrium conditions to be reached.

S6 Continuous-operation periodic duty A sequence of identical duty cycles, where each cycle is in two parts, one at constant load and the other at no-load. No rest and de-energized period. The duty cycles are too short for thermal equilibrium conditions to be reached.

79

S7 Continuous-operation periodic duty with electrical braking A sequence of identical duty cycles, where each cycle consists of a start and a period at constant load, followed by electrical braking. No rest and de-energized period. The duty cycles are too short for thermal equilibrium conditions to be reached.

S8 Continuous-operation periodic with related load/speed changes A sequence of Identical duty cycles, each cycle consisting of a period of operation at constant load corresponding to a predetermined speed, followed by one or more periods of operation at other constant loads corresponding to different speeds. There is no rest and de-energized period.

80

Duty with non-periodic load speed variations A duty in which generally load and speed are varying non-periodically within the permissible operating range. This duty includes frequently applied overloads that may greatly exceed the full loads. For this duty type suitable full load values should be taken as the basis of the overload concept.

Direction of rotation If the mains supply is connected to the stator terminals marked U, V and W of a three-phase motor, and the phase sequence of the mains is L1, L2, L3, the motor will rotate clockwise as viewed from the drive end. For the opposite direction of rotation, interchange two of the three wires connected to the starter switch or the motor.

Fig. 1.9 - Normal direction of rotation is clockwise as viewed from the D-end.

81

Braking Mechanical braking Mechanical braking with magnetic lifting is the technique most widely used for the braking of electric motors. At standstill brakes of this type provide a holding torque, and are therefore used where loss of braking in the event of power failure could be dangerous. However, in certain cases it may be necessary to lift the brake without starting the motor. This can be done by supplying the brake coil from a separate power source, or with a manual release device. The mechanical brakes used for electric motors are shoe, multiple-plate or disc brakes. ABB Motors brakes are disc brakes with asbestos-free brake pads or linings.

Fig. 2.0 Mechanical Braking

During braking, the braking torque is constant with mechanical braking. At standstill the brake has a holding torque. On some brakes the braking torque can be reduced for softer deceleration. When the motor is started again, the holding torque ceases automatically.

82

Electrical Braking Countercurrent braking With countercurrent braking, an ordinary standard motor is switched at full speed for the opposite direction of rotation. This can be done with a reversing switch. After braking to a standstill, the motor starts in the opposite direction of rotation, unless the current is switched off at the right moment. A low speed detector is therefore used to cut off the supply to the motor when the speed approaches zero. Countercurrent braking gives a very high braking torque. The current during braking is about the same as during starting, so that there is a considerable temperature rise in the motor. Consequently the permitted frequency of braking with the countercurrent technique is only about one-quarter of the number of permitted brakings for a brake motor. Since the permitted frequency of braking can easily be exceeded with countercurrent braking, temperature sensors should always be used to protect the motor windings from overheating. For squirrel-cage motors the braking time can be calculated approximately with the formula:

Where: tb K1 Jm Jb

= = = =

Mmax = Mstart =

braking time, s constant depending on number of poles. See table below. moment of inertia of motor, kgm2 moment of inertia of load, referred to speed of motor, kgm2 maximum torque of motor, Nm starting torque of motor, Nm

83

For slip-ring motors the starting and braking times are both determined by the dimensioning of the rheostatic starter. With countercurrent braking there is no braking action in the event of power failure. The technique is therefore unsuitable for use in plant where loss of braking could cause danger. Direct-current braking When braking with this technique, the A.C. supply to the motor is disconnected and the stator is excited with direct current instead; this causes the motor to produce a braking torque. An ordinary standard motor and suitable equipment for D.C. excitation may be used. The A.C. voltage follows a decay curve, and the D.C. voltage must not be connected until the A.C. voltage has fallen to a value at which it will not harm the D.C. equipment. Direct-current braking gives a far longer braking time than countercurrent braking, however high the excitation current is, but thermal losses are lower, so more frequent braking is permissible. Derating Factors Several factors can affect the performance of an AC motor. These must be considered when applying a motor. Voltage Variation As previously discussed, AC motors have a rated voltage and frequency. Some motors have connections for more that one rated voltage. The following table shows the most common voltage ratings for NEMA motors.

84

A small variation in supply voltage can have a dramatic affect on motor performance. In the following chart, for example, when voltage is 10% below the rated voltage of the motor, the motor has 20% less starting torque. This reduced voltage may prevent the motor from getting its load started or keeping it running at rated speed. A 10% increase in supply voltage, on the other hand, increases the starting torque by 20%. This increased torque may cause damage during startup. A conveyor, for example, may lurch forward at startup. A voltage variation also causes similar changes in the motors starting and full-load currents and temperature rise.

85

Frequency A variation in the frequency at which the motor operates causes changes primarily in speed and torque characteristics. A 5% increase in frequency, for example, causes a 5% increase in full-load speed and a 10% decrease in torque.

Altitude Standard motors are designed to operate below 3300 feet. Air is thinner, and heat is not dissipated as quickly above 3300 feet. Most motors must be derated for altitudes above 3300 feet. The following chart shows typical horsepower derating factors, but the derating factor should be checked for each motor. A 50 HP motor operated at 6000 feet, for example, would be derated to 47 HP, providing the 40C ambient rating is still required.

Example: 50 HP x 0.94 = 47 HP Ambient Temperature The ambient temperature may also have to be considered. The ambient temperature requirement may be reduced from 40C to 30C at 6600 feet on many motors. However, a motor with a higher insulation class may not require derating in these conditions.

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Earthing of machines Machines shall be provided with means for connecting a protective conductor or an earth conductor, such means being identified by the appropriate symbol or legend. This requirement does not apply to machines with supplementary insulation, to machines with rated voltages up to and including 50 VAC or 120 VDC (see IEC 60364-4-41, clause 411 and IEC 60449), or to machines for assembling in apparatus with supplementary insulation. In the case of machines having rated voltages greater than 50 VAC or 120 VDC, but not exceeding 1 000 VAC, or 1 500 VDC, the terminal for the earth conductor shall be situated in the vicinity of the terminals for the line conductors, being placed in the terminal box, if one is provided. Machines having rated outputs in excess of 100 kW (or kVA) shall have in addition an earth terminal fitted on the frame. Machines for rated voltages greater than 1 000 VAC or 1 500 VDC shall have an earth terminal on the frame, for example an iron strap, and in addition, a means inside the terminal box for connecting a conducting cable sheath, if any. For other cross-sectional areas of live conductors, the earth or protective conductor shall have a cross-sectional area at least equivalent to: 1. That of the live conductor for cross-sectional areas less than 25 mm2; 2. 25 mm2 for cross-sectional areas between 25 mm2 and 50 mm2; 3. 50 % of that of the live conductor for cross-sectional areas exceeding 50 mm2 The earth terminal shall be identified in accordance with IEC 60445.

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Speed Control General The relationship between rotational speed, supply frequency, number of poles and slip for induction motors is usually written:

In principle the speed can be controlled by changing the number of poles, the slip or the frequency. All three possibilities are used. Changing the number of poles There are three ways to change the number of poles in an induction motor. The stator can be given: 1. Two or more separate windings 2. A pole changing winding 3. Combinations of the above Two-speed motors with separate windings Having separate windings makes it possible to combine different numbers of poles with considerable freedom, but the method does not utilize the motor well, since only half the stator winding is in use at each speed, in principle the possible rated power at each speed will thus only be half that of a single-speed motor of the same size. In addition, the stator and rotor cores are normally dimensioned for a given number of poles. This may also impose certain limitations on ways in which different numbers of poles can be combined in a given core design.

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Two-speed motors with pole changing winding There are several ways of achieving a pole changing winding in order to utilize a motor better than with two separate windings, but some limits are set by the need for the switchgear to be kept simple. The most widely used systems are the Lindstrom-Dahlander connection, often simply called the Dahlander connection, and PAM, Pole Amplitude Modulation. The Dahlander connection gives a pole number ratio of 1:2. The winding of each phase is in two parts connected in series. These are two common applications that use Dahlander pole-changing: "Constant torque", where the rated torque of the motor is approximately the same at both speeds. The ratio between the rated outputs is about 3:2. This is achieved by connecting the windings in double star for the higher speed and in delta for the lower speed. This is usually represented in catalogues by the symbols YY/. "Fan torque", where the torque varies as the square of the speed. "Falling torque" and "square-law torque" are other terms used for this. The ratio between the rated outputs at the two speeds is about 1:5. This is achieved by connecting the windings in double star for the higher speed and in star for the lower speed. This is usually represented in catalogues by the symbols YY/Y.

PAM PAM (pole amplitude modulation) makes it possible to design a twospeed motor with a stator winding for pole number ratios other than 2:1. Pole number changing is achieved by changing the direction of the current in part of the winding, thus varying the excitation in the same way as with the Dahlander arrangement. Among the advantages of PAM is that a given motor size can be better utilized and a higher rated power can be extracted from it. Just as with the Dahlander connection, constanttorque or fan-torque versions are possible.

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Multi-speed motors A pole changing winding can also be combined with another winding. This winding can be for a single speed or it too can be a pole-changing winding. In this way, three or even four-speed motors can be made. Even so, such motors are uncommon. Examples of stator windings and connection arrangements with different types of multi-speed motor There may be other variants.

1) Dahlander or PAM connected 2) For 8/6/4 poles, for example. One of the windings is Dahlanderor PAM- connected. 3) The winding can also be delta-connected. Slip-ring motor with control rheostat A simple way of controlling the speed of a slip-ring motor is to connect an external rheostat (variable resistor) to the rotor winding. If the load torque, and with it the rotor current, is kept constant, an increase in the rotor resistance will lead to increased slip. However, the motor speed will be highly load dependent. This type of speed control, often called slip control, is therefore only used where there are small load variations, for example with pumps, or where the speed can be continuously monitored and the rheostat setting adjusted to suit the torque, with cranes for example.

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Thus the power supplied to the motor is always constant, regardless of the speed, whilst the output of the motor decreases in proportion to the speed. This means that the difference between the power output with the rheostat fully in circuit and fully out of circuit is consumed in the rheostat itself. Assuming for simplicity that the load torque is constant and the speed is reduced by 25%, for example, the power output will be 75% and the remaining 25% is dissipated in the rheostat. This type of speed control is therefore highly inefficient. 2.3 Converter control

Primary voltage control For small changes the slip (s) can be approximately defined as:

Reduction of the primary voltage by means of thyristor-type voltage regulators is a speed control technique that is suitable for certain applications. The motor to be controlled should have an adapted torque characteristic, which is achieved by means of increased rotor resistance. A slip-ring motor with external rheostat is therefore suitable. This control method is often used for cranes and similar applications, where the high losses in the rotor circuit are acceptable because the total running time is limited. Rotor power feedback If the speed of a large induction motor is to be reduced for a long time, the methods described above would be uneconomical because of rotor losses. Modern thyristor frequency converters provide quick, stepless control and, because they feed any losses back to the supply, high efficiency.

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The basic principle of this form of speed control is that the rotor power is taken out via the slip-rings and rectified in a conventional uncontrolled rectifier. The voltage is then converted into alternating voltage in a controlled inverter and fed back to the supply via a transformer. The amount of power fed back to the supply can be varied by varying the firing angle in the inverter.

Fig. 2.3A Typical torque/speed diagram for pump and fan duty with speed control using a slip recovery system.

This method of operation is comparable to dual supply of slip-ring induction motors. If the rotor is supplied with an external voltage, synchronous speeds will be obtained, which are dependent on the frequency of the external voltage. With converter control the character of the torque/speed curve is different from that of the normal slip-ring motor, and the speed will be less dependent on the load. For accurate speed regulation, the motor is usually fitted with a tachogenerator or pulse generator connected to the controller.

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Converter control gives deviations from the normal sinusoidal shape of the current in the rotor circuit. These results in additional thermal losses, and these must be compensated for by choosing a slightly larger motor. Reduced cooling due to constant load torque at reduced speed may also need to be compensated for by choosing a slightly larger motor or using forced cooling. There is no need to do this where the load torque follows a square law. Current harmonics in the rotor circuit give small torque pulsations at a frequency of six times the secondary frequency, i.e. the slip frequency. The shaft system must therefore be checked to ensure that it does not suffer harmful resonance stresses. Voltage and frequency control The most attractive way of controlling motor speed is to control the voltage and frequency simultaneously. Fig. 2.3B shows how the torque/speed curve varies when the frequency is reduced and the primary voltage is changed in proportion to the frequency. The maximum torque remains the same, and the motor can be loaded at constant torque within the control range.

Fig. 2.3B - Examples of torque curves at different frequencies and with voltage proportional to frequency.

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If the rated voltage of the motor corresponds to the supply voltage, the motor cannot be controlled to a speed higher than the rated speed if the load torque is to be maintained, since the inverter cannot provide a voltage higher than the supply voltage. Another limit to higher speeds has to do with rotor design. Particularly in large motors for high speeds, control to higher speeds is determined by the critical speed of the motor and the highest permitted runaway speed. One possible result of a wide speed range is that cooling of the motor might be insufficient at low speed and high torque, making it necessary to provide extra cooling. Alternatively, an over dimensioned motor must be chosen. Standard motors are generally used with frequency control, in any case for the lower power ranges. Standard motors are dimensioned for a fairly high starting torque. The shape of the rotor bars is often such that large amounts of heat are produced at the top of the bars during starting, when the rotor frequency is high. Because of the high harmonic losses, this type of rotor bar design is a disadvantage in frequency converter operation, in view of the high harmonic content of the supply voltage. After all, there is no need for a high starting torque when starting with a frequency converter and it may be preferable to use a different rotor bar shape.

Fig. 2.3C - Schematic diagram of a frequency converter

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CTU On-load switch and contactor LCU Rectifier CBU Intermediate filter INU Inverter CP1 Control unit

Fig. 2.3D - Complete frequency converter Commutator Motor A motor that has come to be widely used for uninterrupted speed control is the commutator motor, also known as the Schrage motor, after its inventor, in principle it is an induction motor with built-in control gear. Unlike ordinary induction motors the commutator motor has its primary winding in the rotor; the winding is fed from the supply via slip rings. The rotor slots that contain the primary winding also contain a commutator winding, essentially in the form of a D.C. winding. The secondary winding is in the stator. The normal control range is 1 to 10, but it can be extended to 1 to 100 in special cases. So that full torque can be drawn from the motor over the entire control range, these motors are often fitted with a built-on separately driven fan.

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Common fields of application include printing presses, packaging machines and ski-lifts. Speed control is achieved by supplying the secondary winding in the stator with a control voltage at the slip frequency from the commutator winding, via brushes running on the commutator. By moving the brushes the control voltage to the secondary winding can be varied continuously and stepless, so varying the speed. The speed is stable; the effect of load variations is insignificant.

Fig. 2.3D - Three-phase commutator motor.

Fig. 2.3E - Examples of brush positions on a commutator motor. Ust = control voltage sUs = secondary voltage s = slip at no load

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Fig. 2.3F - Torque curves for three different brush positions

As the figure shows, the characteristics of the torque curves are such that the change in speed for varying load is insignificant over the normal speed range. 2.4 Motor Efficiency

Efficiency is reflected in the nameplate as shown in Fig. 2.4.A. Motor efficiency is the percentage of the energy supplied to the motor that is converted into mechanical energy at the motors shaft when the motor is continuously operating at full load with the rated voltage applied. Because motor efficiencies can vary among motors of the same design, the NEMA nominal efficiency percentage on the nameplate is representative of the average efficiency for a large number of motors of the same type. Both NEMA and the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct) specify the same process for testing motor efficiency. EPAct also specifies the efficiency requirements for a large class of AC motors manufactured after 1997. In 2001, NEMA established the NEMA Premium designation for three-phase AC motors that meet even higher efficiency standards than required by EPAct. Siemens High Efficient motors meet or exceed EPAct efficiency standards and our NEMA Premium Efficient motors with our new copper rotor technology exceed NEMA Premium efficiency standards.

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Fig. 2.4.A Efficiency

98

99

100

101

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General Characteristics 2.1 System Nominal Voltages

There continues to be some confusion between the system or services voltage and utilization or equipment voltage. Table below provides these relationships for the normal range A and for range B when the voltage moves outside of the normal voltage range.
NOMINAL SYSTEM VOLTAGE VOLTAGE RANGE A Minimum Maximum
Utilization Voltage
110 110/120 191Y/110 220/120 220 440Y/254 440 550 2160 3740Y/2160 3740 4320 6210

VOLTAGE RANGE B Minimum Maximum

Utilization Voltage
106 106/212 184Y/106 (Note d) 212/106 212 424/245 424 530 2080 3600Y/2080 3600 4160 5940

Three -wire

Four-wire

Service Voltage
114 114/228 197Y/114 228/114

Utilization and Service Voltage Single-Phase Systems Three-Phase Systems

218Y/126 252/126 252 504Y/291 504 630 2520 4370Y/2520 4370 5040 7240 8730Y/5040 12600Y/7270 126 126/252

Service Voltage
110 110/220 191y/110 (Note d) 220/110 220 440Y/254 440 550 2280 3950Y/2280 3950 4560 6560 7900Y/4560 11400/6580

Utilization and Service Voltage

127 127/254 220Y/127 220/127 254 508Y/293 508 635 2540 4400Y/2540 4400 5080 7260 8800Y/5080 12700Y/7330

120/240

208Y/120 240/120

240 480 600 2400 4160 4800 6900

480Y/277

4160Y/2400

8320Y/4800 12000Y/6930

228 456Y/263 456 570 2340 4050Y/2340 4050 4680 6730 8110Y/4680 11700Y/6760

Standard Nominal System Voltages and Voltage Ranges (ANSI C84.1-1995).

Application of Voltage Ranges According to ANSI C84.1.2.4.1, applications of voltage ranges are as follows. C84.1.2.4.1 Range A Service Voltage. Electric supply systems shall be so designed and operated that most service voltages will be within the limits specified for Range A. The occurrence of service voltages outside of these limits should be infrequent. C84.1.2.4.2 Range A Utilization Voltage. User systems shall be so designed and operated that with service voltages within Range A limits, most utilization voltages will be within the limits specified for this range. Utilization equipment shall be designed and rated to give fully satisfactory performance throughout this range.

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C84.1.2.4.3 Range B Service and Utilization Voltages. Range B includes voltages above and below Range A limits that necessarily result from practical design and operating conditions on supply or user systems, or both. Although such conditions are a part of practical operations, they shall be limited in extend, frequency, and duration. When they occur, corrective measures shall be undertaken within a reasonable time to improve voltages to meet Range A requirements. Insofar as practicable, utilization equipment shall be designed to give acceptable performance in the extremes of this range of utilization voltages, although not necessarily as good performance as in Range A. It must be recognized that because of conditions beyond the control of the supplier or user, or both, there will be infrequent and limited periods when sustained voltages outside of Range B limits will occur. Utilization equipment may not operate satisfactorily under these conditions, and protective devices may operate to protect the equipment. When voltage occurs outside the limits of Range B, prompt corrective action is recommended. The urgency for such as location and nature of load or circuits involved and magnitude and nature of the deviation beyond Range B limits. 2.2 Voltage

Single-speed three-phase motors (i.e. motors without pole changing) can usually be reconnected for two voltages. The usual way is to connect the three stator phase windings in star (Y) or delta (). Another way is to connect the windings in series or parallel, Y or YY for instance. So if the rating plate of a three-phase motor shows voltages for both Yand connection, this means that the motor can be used for both 440 V and 220 V, for example. At 220 V the winding is connected in by placing the connecting links as shown in the left-hand part of Fig 2.1A. If the supply voltage is 440 V, Y- connection is used, and the strips are connected as shown in the right-hand diagram.

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Fig. 2.1A - Arrangement of windings and terminal blocks for - Y- Connection Voltage Deviation If the supply voltage at constant output power deviates from the rated voltage of the motor, the starting and maximum torques of the motor vary approximately as the square of the voltage. The change in torque will also result in a change in the speed. The efficiency and the power factor are also affected.

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Voltage deviations also affect the temperature rise in the winding of the motor. If the voltage is low, the temperature rises in both small and large motors; if the voltage is high the temperature may drop slightly in large motors, but rises sharply in motors with small output powers. It is therefore essential to dimension the windings generously enough to ensure that there is no significant voltage drop in them on starting or in service.

Another effect is shown below, for every 100C increase in winding temperature, the expected thermal life of the winding is reduced by half. There may also be notable decrease in bearing lubricant life as the operating temperature of the motor increases.

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Unbalance Voltage Far too many assumptions are made when dealing with the symmetry of a voltage supply. In order to accurately assess the quality of the voltage supply, it is necessary to verify it at a number of places within the service and over a reasonable period of time and seasons. NEMA MG 1, 14.36 offers the following explanation of the effects of unbalance voltage, along with a load derating curve. Effects of Unbalance Voltages on the Performance of Polyphase Induction Motors. When the line voltages applied to a polyphase induction motor are not equal, unbalanced currents in the stator windings will result. A small

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percentage voltage unbalance will result in a much larger percentage current unbalance. Consequently, the temperature rise of the motor operating at a particular load and percentage voltage unbalance will be greater than for the motor operating under the same conditions with balanced voltages. Voltages should be evenly balance as closely as can be read on a voltmeter. Should voltages be unbalance, the rated horsepower of the motor should be multiplied by the factor shown in Fig 2.2A to reduce the possibility of damage to the motor. Operation of the motor above a 5 percent voltage unbalance condition is not recommended.

When the derating curve as shown in the left figure, it is applied for operation on unbalanced voltages, the selection and setting of the overload device should take into account the combination of the derating factor applied to the motor and increase in current resulting from the unbalance voltages. This is a complex problem involving the variation in

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motor current as a function of load and voltage unbalance in addition to the characteristics for the overload device relative to Imaximum or Iaverage. In the absence of specific information, it is recommended that overload devices be selected or adjusted, or both, at the minimum value that does not result in tripping for the derating factor and voltage unbalance that apply. When unbalance voltages are anticipated, it is recommended that the overload devices be selected so as to be responsive to Imaximum in preference to overload devices responsive to Iaverage. Effect on Performance General. The effect of unbalance voltages on polyphase induction motors is equivalent to the introduction of a negative sequence voltage having a rotation opposite to that occurring with balanced voltages. This negative sequence voltage produces in the air gap a flux rotating against the rotation of the rotor, tending to product high currents. A small negativesequence voltage may product in the windings currents considerably in excess of those present under balanced voltage conditions. Unbalance Defined. The voltage unbalance in percent may be defined as follows:

Example: With voltages of 460, 467, and 450, the average is 459, the maximum deviation from average is 9, and the percent unbalance equals:

Torques. The locked-rotor torque and breakdown torque are decreased when the voltage is unbalanced. If the voltage unbalance should be extremely severe, the torques might not be adequate for the application.

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Full-Load Speed. The full-load speed is reduced slightly when the motor operates with unbalanced voltages. Currents. The locked-rotor current will be unbalanced to the same degree that the voltages are unbalanced, but the locked-rotor kVA will increase only slightly. The currents at normal operating speed with unbalanced voltages will be greatly unbalanced in the order of approximately 6 to 10 times the voltage unbalance. Performance Comparison between Standard Efficient Motor vs. Premium Efficient Motor. Emerson Motor Technology Center in St., Louis, Missouri had conducted a study to compare standard efficient motor to premium efficient motor under unbalanced voltage conditions.
MOTORS DESIGN DATA
DESCRIPTION Model No. Type HP Rating Voltage/Freq. No. of Poles Syn. Speed Connections Full Load Performance Amps RPM Slip P.U. Losses (Watts) Efficiency % Power Factor % Flux Density: Kl/in2 Stator Core Stator Teeth Air Gap Rotor Core Rotor Teeth PREM. EFF. 7965 TCE 5 230/60 4 1800 Wye STD. EFF. E398 CT 5 230/60 4 1800 Wye

12.56 1750 0.0280 445 89.3 83.4 107 114 0.0325 43 116

13.47 1738 0.0344 611 85.9 80.9 110 120 0.0359 51 116

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The increase in winding temperature causes additional I2R losses. The rotor losses also increase because of the impact the Negative Sequence Component has on the rotor. Therefore as shown in figure below, there is a significant drop in motor efficiency.

Vibration and Noise Note that in both cases there is a significant impact on motor performance as it relates to acceptable vibration levels and sound power levels.

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2.3

Power factor

A motor consumes not only active power, which it converts into mechanical work, but also reactive power, which is needed for magnetization but does not perform any work. The active and reactive power, represented in the diagram on the right by P and Q together give the apparent power S. The ratio between the active power, measured in kW, and the apparent power, measured in kVA, is known as the power factor. The angle between P and S is usually designated cos . The power factor is equal to cos . The power factor is usually between 0.7 and 0.9. It is lower for small motors and higher for large ones. If there are many motors in an installation it will consume a lot of reactive power and will therefore have a lower power factor. Power supply utilities sometimes require the power factor of an installation to be raised. This is done by connecting capacitors to the supply; these generate reactive power and thus raise the power factor. Phase compensation With phase compensation the capacitors are usually connected in parallel with the motor or group of motors. However, in some cases an Induction

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motor can run as a generator, and this can lead to self-excitation. To avoid complications, therefore, it is normal practice not to compensate for more than the no-load current of the motor. The capacitors must not be connected in parallel with single phases of the winding; such an arrangement may make the motor difficult or impossible to start with star-delta (Y-) starting. If a two-speed motor with separate windings has phase compensation on both windings, the capacitors should not remain in circuit on the unused winding. Under certain circumstances such capacitors can cause increased heating of the winding and possibly vibration as well. 2.4 Efficiency

Electric motors are simply devices that convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. Like all electromechanical equipment, motors consume some "extra" energy in order to make the conversion. Efficiency is a measure of how much total energy a motor uses in relation to the rated power delivered to the shaft. A motor's nameplate rating is based on output horsepower, which is fixed for continuous operation at full load. The amount of input power needed to produce rated horsepower will vary from motor to motor, with moreefficient motors requiring less input wattage than less-efficient models to produce the same output. Electrical energy input is measured in watts, while output is given in horsepower. (This convention applies in the USA; output power for motors manufactured in other countries may be stated in watts or kilowatts.) One horsepower is equivalent to 746 watts. There are several ways to express motor efficiency, but the basic concept and the numerical results are the same. For example: Efficiency, % = 746 x Horsepower (output) Watts (input) x 100

or its equivalent;

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Efficiency, % =

Watts (output) Watts (input)

x 100

The ratio describes efficiency in terms of what can be observed from outside the motor, but it doesn't say anything about what is going on inside the motor, and it is what's happening inside that makes one motor more or less efficient than another. For example, we can rewrite the equation as: Efficiency, % = Watts (output) Watts (output) + Watts (losses) x 100

or its equivalent; Efficiency, % = Watts (input) Watts (losses) Watts (input) x 100

"Losses" stands for all the energy "fees" the motor charges in order to make its electrical-to-mechanical energy conversion. Their magnitude varies from motor to motor and can even vary among motors of the same make, type and size. In general, however, standard-efficiency motors (pre-EPAct) have higher losses than motors that meet EPAct standards, while NEMA Premium motors, or better, have lower losses still. Types of Losses Energy losses in electric motors fall into four categories: Power losses (Stator and Rotor Losses) Magnetic core losses Friction and windage losses, and Stray load losses.

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Fig 2.4A. A typical NEMA Design B motor showing components that can be modified to increase the motor's efficiency: (a) Stator windings; (b) Rotor length; (c) conductor bars and end rings; (d) air gap; (e) laminations; (f) bearings; (g) fan.

Power losses and stray load losses appear only when the motor is operating under load. They are therefore more important in terms of energy efficiency than magnetic core losses and friction and windage losses, which are present, even under no-load conditions (when the motor is running, of course). Power losses, also called IR losses, are the most important of the four categories and can account for more than one-half of a motor's total losses. Power losses appear as heat generated by resistance to current flowing in the stator windings and rotor conductor bars and end rings. Stator losses make up about 66% of power losses, and it is here that motor manufacturers have achieved significant gains in efficiency. Since increasing the mass of stator windings lowers their electrical resistance (and therefore reduces IR losses), highly efficient motors typically contain about 20% more copper than standard efficiency models of equivalent size and rating. Rotor losses are reduced by decreasing the degree of slip. This is accomplished by increasing the mass of the rotor conductors (conductor bars and end-plates) and/or increasing their conductivity (see below), and to a lesser extent by increasing the total flux across the air gap between rotor and stator.

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Fig 2.4B. Conductor bars, end plates and fan in a typical squirrel cage motor. The steel rotor laminations have been removed by etching.

Conductivity is an important characteristic of the rotor. Conductor bars in large motors are normally made from high-conductivity copper. Conductor bars in small-to-intermediate size motors, up to about 200 hp, depending on manufacturer, are in the form of a die-cast aluminum "squirrel cage" that gives these motors their common name. Increasing the mass of the die-cast bars requires changes in the slots in the rotor laminations, through which the bars are cast, and that changes the rotor's magnetic structure. Lowering rotor IR losses in what are typically aluminum alloy squirrel cage motors is therefore not a simple task. Copper has higher electrical conductivity than aluminum, and it would be an ideal conductor bar material except for the fact that it is difficult to die cast. A process to produce die-cast copper rotors has recently been developed and, when fully commercialized, it will enable the production of motors with even higher efficiencies than the best models currently available.

Fig 2.4C. Cross-section of a die-cast copper motor rotor. The blue area represents the surface of one of the rotor laminations, through which the copper has been cast.
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The fact that high-efficiency motors tend to have less slip (run faster) than standard-efficiency motors must be taken into account in certain applications. For example, energy consumption by centrifugal loads such as fans and rotary compressors is proportional to the cube of rotational speed. If such loads are driven at the higher speed of a low-slip, highefficiency motor directly replacing a standard motor, energy consumption can actually increase. This situation can sometimes be resolved by lowering rotational speed with a variable-speed drive, gears or pulleys. There are other parameters, such as torque or starting current, that can vary among motors of the same nominal horsepower. It is important to properly engineer the application of any motor to the intended task. Magnetic core losses arise from hysteresis effects, eddy currents and magnetic saturation, all of which take effect in the steel laminations. Magnetic losses can account for up to 20% of total losses. With proper design, use of better materials and stringent quality control, these losses can be reduced considerably.

Fig 2.4D. Three different efficiencies for the same horsepower rating. Top: standard-efficiency pre-EPAct motor; lower right: NEMA Premium efficiency motor. Notice that the rotor and stator lengthen (and the amount of copper in the motor rises) as efficiency increases.

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The most effective means to reduce hysteresis and saturation losses is to utilize steels containing up to 4% silicon for the laminations in place of lower-cost plain carbon steels. The better magnetic properties offered by silicon steels can reduce core losses by 10 to 25%. Reducing the laminations' thickness also helps: substituting 26-ga or 29-ga steel for the 24-ga steel found in standard-efficiency motors lowers core losses by between 15 and 25%. Lengthening the lamination stack, which reduces the flux density within the stack, also reduces core losses. Eddy current losses can be reduced by ensuring adequate insulation between laminations, thus minimizing the flow of current (and IR losses) through the stack. 2.5 Speed

The speed of an A.C. motor depends on the mains frequency and the number of poles of the stator winding.

Where n = speed, f = frequency, p = number of poles The rule of thumb for 50 Hz mains frequency is that the speed in revolutions per minute (r/min) is 6000 divided by the number of poles. This is the synchronous speed; it can never be reached by an Induction motor, squirrel-cage or slip-ring. At no load, however, the speed is practically equal to the synchronous speed; at rated output it is slightly lower. The following equation is used to calculate the slip:

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The rules above apply to moderate changes in output and voltage. The speeds of the motors when warm and at rated output are subject to a tolerance of 20% of the slip. The normal testing speed for overspeed is 120% of the rated speed for two minutes.

2.6

Vibration characteristics and balancing

Vibration is defined as a mechanical fluctuation from an equilibrium point. Vibration can also be considered as period vibration. Period vibration is a random vibration or pendulum motion of an object. An example of this is the movement of tires when moving on a gravel road. There are different types of vibrations that we experience everyday. These are both desirable and undesirable. It is important that we have a basic understanding on vibration analysis and some of its principles.

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The most commonly used method for rotating machines is called vibration analysis. Measurements can be taken on machine bearing casings with seismic or piezo-electric transducers to measure the casing vibrations, and on the vast majority of critical machines, with eddycurrent transducers that directly observe the rotating shafts to measure the radial (and axial) vibration of the shaft. The level of vibration can be compared with historical baseline values such as former start-ups and shutdowns, and in some cases established standards such as load changes, to assess the severity. What is vibration? Vibration is a "back and forth" movement of a structure. It can also be referred to as a "cyclical" movement. Benefits 1. Safety - failure of electrical components could be catastrophic, injuring or even killing employees, maintenance personnel or the public. 2. Greater System Security - locate the problems prior to failure greatly reduces unscheduled outages, associated equipment damage and downtime. 3. Increased Revenue - with more uptime, revenue is maximized. With less maintenance on good components and faster repairs of
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faulty components, maintenance costs care are reduced leading to a better bottom line. 4. Reduced Outage Costs - the cost of an emergency outage is ten times greater than planned maintenance. 5. Reduce Spare Parts Inventory - with improved inspection techniques giving advanced warning of failure, fewer spare parts are required in inventory. What would it mean to the bottom line if your spare parts inventory could be reduced by 10%? 6. Reduced Operational Costs - with the system up and running for longer periods of time, the reduction and improvement of inspections, maintenance, spare parts inventory and outages will reduce the overall cost of operations. What Vibration "Characteristics" Do We Measure? Vibration is one of the best technologies that will help you determine the root cause and health condition of your motor. Each rotating component has its own defect frequency. There are machines whose vibrations had reached the breakdown threshold (critical level) but still operational because the bearing is still operational. However, long term-wise, it will be damaged if such vibration is not addressed in a timely manner. There are machines also who have an excellent vibration level but stop to operate because its bearing failed. We need to measure the amplitude of vibration and compare to ISO 10816-3 Vibration Severity Chart. We look for the defect frequencies (imbalance, misalignment, looseness, bearings, etc) in the spectrum or time-waveform.

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Each manufacturer of vibration instruments has its own patented technology in determining bearing defects. Such as: envelope acceleration from SKF, spike energy from CSI or Entek IRD, shockpulse-method from SPM, Defect Factor from 01dB Metravibs of AREVA, etc. In addition to vibration spectrum or time-waveform, it is suggested to utilize the bearing parameters of the instrument in analyzing the health condition of bearings. The Standard Evolutions The international standard ISO 10816 (1995) replaces the former standard ISO 2372 (1974). The text modifications are related to the following points: Evaluation of the vibration severity according 2 criterions : o Vibration magnitude o Change in the vibration magnitude The use of other unit and parameters is now possible : o Broad bands in acceleration or displacements o Narrow bands in acceleration, velocity or displacements These evolutions aim to allow: o A better standard adequacy to the machines at slow or fast speed ( 600 r/min or 12000 r/min) o Taking into account of the measurement tools evolution and in particular the generalization of the use of the frequency analyzers. o Taking into account of specificities of the various categories of machine according to their type, their installation status, and their operation parameters.

Monitoring principle The evaluation of the vibrations is based on the following principles: Measurement of the velocity using a broad band Comparison to acceptance criteria depending on the machines class, type and power : Criteria 1
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Comparison of the change in the vibration magnitude to acceptance criteria : Criteria 2

VRMS : VA : G :

k et m :

allowable RMS velocity, in mm/s constant RMS velocity, in mm/s, which applies between fx and fy for Zone A factor which define the zone boundaries example: G=1 for zone A G=2.56 for zone B G=6.4 for zone C constants for a given machine type

Evaluation zone limits Zone A : The vibration of newly commissioned machine would normally fall within his one Zone B : Machine with vibration within this zone are normally considered acceptable for unrestricted long term operation Zone C : Machines with vibration within this zone are normally considered unsatisfactory for long-term continuous operation. Generally, the machine may be operated for a

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limited period in this condition until a suitable opportunity arises for remedial action Zone D : Vibration values within this zone are normally considered to be of sufficient severity to cause damage to the machine ISO 10816-3: 1998 (E) VIBRATION SEVERITY for ROTATING MACHINES 120 TO 15,000 RPM

ISO 10816-3: Industrial machines with nominal power above 15KW and nominal speeds between 120 r/min and 15000 r/min when measured in situ. RMS velocity value VRMS and RMS displacement DRMS during nominal and steady running conditions. Broad band measurements [10-1000] Hz if speed > 600 RPM. Broad band measurements [2-1000] Hz if 120 < speed < 600 RPM. The zone limits are given according the machine group and mounting type.

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ISO 10816-3: Industrial machines with nominal power above 15KW and nominal speeds between 120 r/min and 15000 r/min when measured in situ. Group 1: Large machine with rated power above 300kW and not more than 50 MW ; electrical machine with shaft height H > 315 mm

Group 2 : Medium-size machine with rated power above 15 kW up to including 300 kW; electrical machine with shaft height 160mm < H < 315 mm

Group 3: Pumps with multi-vane impeller and separate driver (centrifugal, mixed flow or axial flow) with rated power above 15 kW

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Group 4: Pumps with multi-vane impeller integrated driver (centrifugal, mixed flow or axial flow) with rated power above 15 kW

ELECTRICAL HEALTH BANDS FOR MOTOR DRIVES (AC, DC, VFD, LOW FREQUENCY FAULTS RANGE Band # Band Level Band Level Band Level Band Level Frequency Range AC DRIVE AC VFD DC FWR DC HWR 0.020 ips 0.020 ips 0.020 ips 0.9-1.1x LF DRIVE 1x LF Band 1 2x LF Band 2 0.080 ips 0.080 ips 0.020 ips 0.020 ips 1.8-2.2x LF 0.020 ips 0.020 ips 0.080 ips 2.9-3.1x LF 3x LF Band 3 4x LF Band 4 0.040 ips 0.040 ips 0.020 ips 0.020 ips 3.8-4.2x LF 0.020 ips 0.020 ips 0.020 ips 4.9-5.1x LF 0.020 ips 0.080 ips 0.020 ips 5.9-6.1x LF 5x LF Band 5 6x LF Band 6

FMAX = 24,000 CPM #FFT Lines = 6400 #Average = 2 Overlapping = 0% Window = Hanning If Drive is Variable Speed Type: Lock Drive to Repeatable Frequency for each Survey, or Expand Frequency Range(s) to include range of possible operating conditions. If Drive is DC Type: Set SCR Bands to appropriate Control Type (Half Wave Rectified or Full Wave Rectified).

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Vibration Principles

Vibration Definition according to standard ISO2041 Vibration is a variation with the time of a characteristic value of the movement or position of a mechanical system when the value is alternatively higher and lower than a average value or a reference value. The vibrations are periodic or non periodic phenomena more or less complex.

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Sinusoidal Vibration. The simplest vibration is the sinusoidal movement. For example: the movement generated by a mass unbalance Amplitude (A) of the signal can be represented in many manners but only three of them are used in vibratory analysis. The frequency (F) of a phenomenon is the number of repetitions (periods) of this phenomenon in one second.

The period (T) of a phenomenon is the duration between two successive passages at the same position and in the same direction. The period is expressed in second (s).

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In the case of the rotating machines, the period often corresponds to the duration for one shaft rotation Like any movement, a vibration can be studied according to three magnitudes: Displacement Velocity Acceleration There are mathematical relationships between theses values. These relations are simple in the case of pure sinusoidal signals. The choice of the magnitude is important for the quality of diagnosis. FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) The decomposition of a periodic and complex vibratory signal in its various sinusoidal components, represented each one by their amplitude (Ai) their frequency (Fi) is carried out by a time - frequency transformation called Fourier transform. This mathematical function carries out a transposition of the signal from the time domain towards the frequency domain. The resulting signal is called a frequency spectrum. The algorithm used in the modern analyzer to calculate the Fourier Transform is called: FFT (Fast Fourier Transform). Vibration from Unbalance Many vibration and balancing specialists suggest that machinery unbalance is the most common cause of vibration in rotating equipment. The vibration caused by unbalance occurs at a frequency equal to 1 x RPM on the unbalanced part.
Note: Unbalance is not the only problem that can cause vibration frequencies of 1 x RPM. Misalignment also causes high levels of vibration at 1 x RPM.

The largest amplitude of vibration will be measured in the radical direction (vertical and horizontal), although unbalance of an overhung rotor may be indicated by high amplitude readings in the axial direction as well, possibly as high as the radial readings.

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The units used for measuring unbalance are varied. It may be stated that a machine is out-of-balance 6.5 mm/s RMS. This usually means that the vibration amplitude is 6.5 mm/s and it has been determined that unbalance is causing the vibration. Unbalance units can also be measured in ounce-inches or gram-centimeters. To calculate these unbalance units multiply the amount of unbalance by the radius at which it is acting. For example, one ounce of unbalance at one-inch radius will result in one ounce-inch of unbalance. Causes of Unbalance There are many reasons that unbalance is present in a rotor. Several reasons are: Deposit and Build-Up: Rotors used in material handling may become unbalanced due to the unequal build-up of deposits on the rotor and its parts. The gradual increase of build-up can lead to a serious problem when the build-up becomes uneven, as when deposits begin to break away. As the deposits break away the vibration increases and even more deposits break off. A serious unbalance within the rotating equipment results. During scheduled inspection it may be necessary to clean the parts where the deposits are greater. Corrosion and Wear: Rotors, such as fans, blowers and impellers are involved in material handling processes where they become subjected to abrasion, corrosion, and wear. The materials used in the rotor parts can deteriorate unevenly, therefore unbalance and vibration increases. To avoid corrosion and wear the rotor parts must be from materials, which offer long-term resistance to the corrosive or abrasive effects of the products being handled. Eccentricity: Eccentricity exists when the true or geometric centerline of a part does not coincide with its rotating centerline. Either the part has been made off-center, or the center of rotation has been located off-center. Eccentricity may be caused by a mechanical defect (out of roundness), variations in electrical properties or uneven heating (thermal bow).

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C1 (30 Hz, [0.14157 g, 7.36 mm/s, 39.09 m]) [RMS]: PMP-VACO5 MOH S-2 Hz-200 Hz g 05/04/2010 23:21:00

1x rpm motor fan

Unbalance motor fan. Delivers insufficient ventilation to motor body thereby increases temperature. Once temperature increases, winding temperature also increase resulting to reduce in operating efficiency and premature failure. Increase vibration causing damaged to bearing and its structures.

Vibration From Misalignment Shaft and coupling misalignment continue to be one of the main causes of vibration, probably second to unbalance. It is fortunate that this source of vibration can be easily corrected by applying some basic alignment practices. Most companies do not have definite standards as to what is considered proper alignment. Alignment tolerances should depend on such factors as equipment classification, size, operating speeds, operating temperature, coupling type, bearing and seal type and how essential the machine is to the operation.
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2x rpm 1x rpm Measured radial or axial

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Misalignment changed the air gap between the stator and rotor resulting to burnt motor winding due to stress on bearings. Diagnosing Bearings Defects Damage to the bearing can be detected early by measuring the vibration of the machine. The degree of damage is inferred from quantitative analysis of the amplitude and frequency of the vibration. However, values measured differ depending on the measuring point and the operating condition of the bearing. It is desirable to accumulate measurement data and establish evaluation criteria for each machine. In this example, we have a pump driven by a motor. There was a strong axial movement from the pump that damaged motor bearings. The two bearings 7324 BEJ were mounted in pump outboard bearing instead of 7324 BECBJ. The later is suitable for back-to-back bearing arrangement that can handle axial load in any direction. While, the former is suitable for single mounting and handles one direction of axial load only.

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Bearing Defects on motor

Rotor Balancing Rotor balancing is a relatively simple operation and the balance is easy to check. However, the final vibration resistance is also influenced by other factors, mainly the nature of the base on which the motor is mounted, although the method of clamping, the alignment and the electromagnetic forces also play a part.

Why Balance to tight limits? There are many reasons why a machine should be balanced to tight limits, some of which include: Usually the largest component in the vibration spectra is due to unbalance. Balancing to tight limits is probably the easiest way to lower the vibration level. Balancing to tight limits is necessary in the machine tool industry to obtain desired product quality. Balancing is critical on large rotating machinery where the unit operates above the first critical speed. Extra time is required to balance to high precision but it may increase the time before maintenance is required. It will lower the overall vibration level, which may unmask other problems.

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Balancing When balancing a rotor, other than a 2-pole, the procedure is straightforward. By adding or removing weight in the appropriate places on each end of the rotor, we compensate for variations in the centrifugal forces acting on the rotor. A heavy spot exerts more force, causing movement that is measured as unbalance. Adding a compensating weight directly opposite the heavy spot counterbalances it, reducing the net unbalance. With most rotors, the shaft is stiff enough to resist the centrifugal forces acting to deflect it. Special cases require additional care in balancing. In general, the longer and/or more flexible the shaft, the more critical balancing becomes as shown below.

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ISO 1940/1 1986 (E) Balance Quality Curve

Rotor Balancing

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Vibration From Belt Drive Problems Belt drives for power transmission are classed as friction drives. The belt transmits power by friction contact between the belt and the driving and driven sheaves. Power transmission belts are available in several types and each has specific characteristics from optimum load, speed and friction performance. To obtain the best service from any particular belt application, such as flat belt, V-belts, synchronous belts and multi-ribbed belts, key considerations are: a. Select the correct belt for the job b. Ensure that the belt is installed correctly and use properly. Belts drives are popular for power transmission because they have a high capacity for absorbing shock and vibration. V-belts are the most commonly used power transmission belt. They offer relatively quiet operation compared to chain or gear dives. However, V-belts can be source of unwanted vibration, especially on machines where low levels of vibration must be maintained. For example machines such as grinders, drills, lathes, fans, and agitators. Vibration problems associated with V-belts are generally classified as: a. Belt reaction to other disturbing forces in the equipment. b. Vibration due to actual belt problems. V-belts are often taken as the source of vibration because belts whipping and bouncing between the sheaves are more visible than vibration of the other parts of a machine and are usually easy to change. Belt replacement is one of the first activities for trying to correct vibration problems.

Proper Belt Tension

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V-belts often are reacting to other disturbing forces in the machine. Several of these forces include: unbalanced eccentric sheaves/pulleys, misalignment, build-up on sheaves and mechanical looseness. All of these examples can produce highly visible belt vibration. Is often just too easy to blame the belt. In these cases, the belt is the indicator of a vibration, but is not the actual problem. A complete vibration analysis of the machine should be done before replacing the drive belts. Belt Over-Tension

1x Fan RPM 1x Motor RPM Measured at Motor NDE

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Impact of over belt tension: Increase power consumption Shorten bearing service life Reduce reliability of equipment

With multi-belt drives, it is important that all belts have the same tension. If one or more belts are slack while other are under proper tension, the slack belt can undergo excessive vibration even from very minor disturbing forces. This condition, if continued, causes belts slippage and brings on excessive belt and pulley wear. Belt Slippage Improper tension, pulley misalignment, worn pulleys, belt mismatch, excessive loads and dirty or wet operating areas commonly cause belt slippage. Belt slippage produces high frequency vibration and noise, identified as a chirp or squeal. Vibration due to slippage often results in unsteady amplitude readings. On multiple V-belt installations belts may slip by varying amounts, which is continued may either contribute to vibration effect, or in some cases reduce the vibration effect. However the net result is vibration amplitude that increases in a cyclic or periodic manner. The extent of slippage can be determined on multiple V-belt drives by using a strobe light. Safely shut down the machine and after he belts are stopped draw a straight line across all the belts with chalk or other visible market. Run the machine back up to normal operating speed, set the vibration analyzer to 1x belt RPM and closely observe the
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lined marks on the belts under the strobe light. If the belts are slipping in relation to one another, the marks will also appear to move relative to one another (freeze one and watch the other).

Pulley laser alignment tool. 2.7 Bearings

Rolling bearings, i.e. ball and roller bearings, are reliable, inexpensive and easy to maintain. They are the only type of bearing used in small and medium-sized three-phase motors. However, they have an upper size limit that is a function of rotational speed. This limit depends on bearing type, size, load, method of lubrication etc. Sometimes sleeve bearings are preferred for larger motor sizes, even where rolling bearings could be used. Bearing Life The nominal life of rolling bearing in motors is normally 25 000 to 100 000 hours L10 to ISO R 281. Nominal life is the number of running hours at a given speed for which the bearing can rotate before signs of fatigue scaling appear on the rings or rolling elements. ISO definition L10 means the length of life that 90% of a large number of identical bearings are expected to reach or exceed. Half of the bearings achieve as much as five times the L10 life.

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Internal Clearance There are applications that we have to consider operating temperature of the equipment, like motors, equipment operating at 3600 rpm, and loading that requires higher interference fits. Bearing clearance is then required to accommodate any thermal expansion caused by the temperature, speed, etc. Below the brief application: Normal clearance bearing such as 6310 without a suffix indicates a normal clearance. C3 clearance Applicable for high speed, high operating temperature, and high interference fits.

The internal clearance of bearings is the space provided between the elements for a grease film and thermal expansion to prevent preloading of the bearing that could cause premature failure. The internal clearance is specified as C2, normal (0), C3 and C4. This is a basic boundary dimension, with C2 being a tight clearance while C3 and C4 are loose clearances. The correct space between the elements can be critical to the application.

Interference Fits - Shaft and Housing Fit In order for a ball or roller bearing to perform satisfactorily, the fit between the inner ring and the shaft, and the fit between the outer ring and the housing must be suitable for the application. For example, too loose a fit could result in a corroded or scored bearing bore and shaft, while too tight a fit could result in unnecessarily large mounting and dismounting forces and too great a reduction in internal bearing clearance.
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Illustration of Location of Shaft and Housing Tolerance Grades with respect to Bearing Bore and O.D. Toerances (exaggerated).

Shaft and housing fits for metric radial ball and roller bearings conforming to basic boundary plans have been established by ABMA as Standard7.Shaft and housing fits (j5, k5 and H6) are listed in the Bearing Fit Tolerance charts as shown below. A careful study of the ABMA Standards 7 and 20 should be made by anyone responsible for replacing bearings in electric motors. Example: Motor bearing no. 6310 ZZ/C3. The basic number 10. The last two digit is 10 x 5 = 50 mm bore diameter. The maximum shaft interference fit is 1.9690 or 50.012 mm. The minimum shaft diameter is 1.9686 of 50.002 mm. The inner ring of the bearing will rotate against the shaft if diameter is < than the minimum requirement. Or bearing will hardly rotate if > than the maximum. Hence, its best to be within the range for safe operation.

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Sleeve bearings At high speeds and/or for heavy loads sleeve bearings are used. Their life is practically unlimited provided that the lubrication is uninterrupted and that the lubricant is changed at suitable intervals. Another advantage is that their noise level is lower than that of rolling bearings. It is also important not to exceed the temperature limits of sleeve bearings. A normal bearing temperature is 65 to 80C. Sleeve bearings are usually self-lubricated and self-cooled. Internal oil transport is ensured by an oil ring. Forced cooling can be provided by fitting a separate circulation unit.

Permissible radial forces The loads acting on the bearing can be calculated according to the laws of mechanics, if the external forces are known. The values are calculated according to ISO R 281-1 and they are quoted in product information files for different types of machines. Axial forces are given separately for horizontal and vertical machines.

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Lubrication 43% of bearing failures is caused by lubrication. Proper lubrication will also reduce your energy consumption. If rolling bearings are to operate reliably they must be adequately lubricated to prevent direct metal-to-metal contact between the rolling elements, raceways and cages. The lubricant also inhibits wear and protects the bearing surfaces against corrosion. The choice of a suitable lubricant and method of lubrication for each individual bearing application is therefore important, as is correct maintenance. Preventing such lubrication-related failures, as well as ensuring optimal bearing performance, means delivering the right lubricant, in the right amount, at the right time, to the right lubrication point. Excessive amounts of grease will cause the operating temperature within the bearing to rise rapidly, particularly when running at high speeds. Base oil viscosity - The base oil viscosity of the greases normally used for rolling bearings lies between 15 and 500 mm2/s at 40 C. Consistency - Greases are divided into various consistency classes according to the National Lubricating Grease Institute (NLGI) scale. Metallic soap thickened greases, with a consistency of 1, 2 or 3 are used for rolling bearings. The most common greases have a consistency of 2. Protection against corrosion, behavior in the presence of water. Grease should protect the bearing against corrosion and should not be washed out of the bearing arrangement in cases of water penetration. The thickener type solely determines the resistance to water: lithium complex, calcium complex and polyurea greases offer usually very good resistance. The type of rust inhibitor additive mainly determines the rust inhibiting properties of greases.

The purpose of lubrication the bearing is to cover the rolling contact surfaces and sliding contact surfaces with a thin oil film to avoid direct metal-to-metal contact. Effective lubrication of the rolling-element bearing has the following effects.
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a. b. c. d. e.

Reduces friction and abrasion Transports heat generated by friction Prolongation of service life Prevents rust (corrosion) Keeps foreign objects (or contamination) away from rolling elements and raceways

For these purposes, a lubricant should be selected by referring to the following criteria: Grease Lubrication Grease is generally used for lubricating rolling-element bearings because it is easy to handle and simplifies the sealing system.

Carefully examine the type and properties of the base oil, thickener and additives of the grease, and select grease appropriate for the operating condition of the bearing. The general relation between consistency of grease and the application of the bearing is given in above Table. The types and properties of greases can be provided by local lubricant suppliers.

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Grease Additives Various additives are incorporated into lubricating greases to furnish additional properties. Some of the most common are: Anti-rust agents improve the protection offered by the grease. These additives are useful for bearings operating in a wet environment. They also protect bearings during transport and storage. Anti-oxidants delay the breakdown of the base oil at high temperatures. This in turn increases relubrication intervals and reduces costs. EP, or extreme pressure, additives include sulphur, chlorine and phosphorus compounds. (Some EP additives are harmful to bearings, so that care should be taken in their selection. Solid lubricants like molybdenum disulphide and graphite. Relubrication Interval For motor with a speed of 1800 rpm and DE bearing # 6312 D = 130 mm B = 31mm GP = 0.005 x 130 x 31= 20 grams Interval is 9000 hours or 2 grams per month

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The cost of lubrication maintenance Productivity at reduced cost is of paramount importance. This is placing great pressures on maintenance department personnel. You are constantly looking for new opportunities to improve the way you operate. One cost that can be addressed is routine lubrication maintenance. Equipment relies on adequate lubrication as the life blood that enables it to keep on producing, but lubrication application costs are high.

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The alternative method There is now an alternative method to manual lubrication or expensive integrated automatic lubrication systems. When compared with the high cost of lubrication application labor, or the hazards that can be associated with lubricating modern machinery, automatic lubrication single point lubricators offer a cost effective alternative to manual grease and oil application.

Oil lubrication Oil lubrication is generally suitable for high speed or high temperature operations. It is also suitable for carrying heat away from the bearing. Oil viscosities required for the operating temperatures of bearings are given in Table below. Carefully study the viscosity, viscosity index, oxidation resistance, corrosion resistance, foaming resistance, etc. to select oil. Table for Selection Guide for Lubrication Oil Viscosity gives a guide for selecting viscosity.

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Use Table below to select oil with an adequate viscosity for the operating temperature of the bearing.

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Figure below shows the variation of viscosity with temperature for several lubrication oils.

Oil Bath Monitor conditions of oil seal for geared-motor.

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Bearing Failures and Solutions Flaking

Condition Raceway surface is flaked Surface after flaking is very rough. Cause Rolling fatigue. Flaking may be caused early by over-load, excessive load due to improper handling, poor shaft or housing accuracy, installation error, ingress of foreign objects, rusting, etc. Solution (1) Find the cause of the heavy load. (2) Examine operating conditions and adopt bearings with larger capacity as necessary. (3) Increase viscosity of oil and improve lubrication system to form an adequate lubricating oil film. (4) Eliminate installation errors.

Photo A 1 Deep groove ball bearing. Inner ring, outer ring, and balls are flaked. The cause is excessive load.

Photo A 2 Outer ring of angular contact ball bearing. Flaking of raceway surface spacing equal to distances between balls. The cause is improper handling.

Photo A 3 Inner ring raceway of a deep groove ball bearing.

Photo A 4 Outer ring raceway of an angular contact ball bearing.

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Photo A 5 Inner ring of deep groove ball bearing. Flaking on one side of the raceway. The cause is an excessive axial load.

Photo A 6 Inner ring of spherical roller bearing. Flaking only on one side of the raceway surface. The cause is an excessive axial load.

Photo A 7 Tapered roller bearing. Flaking on 1/4 circumference of inner ring raceway with outer ring and rollers discoloured light brown. The cause is excessive pre-load.

Photo A 8 Outer ring of double row angular contact ball bearing. Flaking on 1/4 circumference of outer ring raceway. The cause is poor installation.

Peeling
Condition Peeling is a cluster of very small spalls (size about 10 m). Peeling can also include very small cracks which develop into spalls. Cause Likely to occur in roller bearings. Tends to occur if surface of opposite part is rough or lubrication characteristics are poor. Peeling may develop into flaking. Solution (1) Control of surface roughness and dust. (2) Selection of appropriate lubricant. (3) Proper break-in.

Photo B 1 Rollers of spherical roller bearing. Peeling on rolling contact surfaces. The cause is poor lubrication.

Photo B 2 Tapered roller bearing. Development of peeling to flaking on inner ring and rollers. The cause is poor lubrication.

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Spalling
Condition Score accompanying seizing. Mounting score in axial direction. Scores on roller end face and guide rib-cycloidal scores. Scratches in spinning direction on raceway surface and rolling contact surfaces. Cause Poor mounting and removing practice. Oil film discontinuation on the contact surface due to excessive radial load, foreign object trapping, or excessive pre-load. Slippage or poor lubrication of rolling elements. Solution (1) Improvement in mounting and removing procedures. (2) Improvement in operation conditions. (3) Correction of pre-load (4) Selection of adequate lubricant and lubrication system. (5) Improvement of sealing efficiency.

Photo C 1 Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing. Spalling on rib. The cause is excessive load.

Photo C 2 Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing. Spalling on raceway surface and come back face rib. The cause is poor lubrication.

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Smearing
Condition Surface is roughened and tiny particles adhere. Cause Rolling elements slip in rolling motion and characteristics of lubricant are too poor to prevent slippage. Solution (1) Select optimum lubricant and lubrication system capable of forming sound oil film. (2) Use a lubricant including extreme pressure additive. (3) Take precautions such as a small radial clearance and pre-load to prevent slippage.

Photo D 1 Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing. Smearing on raceway surface. The cause is slippage of rollers due to foreign objects trapped within.

Photo D 2 Roller of same bearing as that of the inner ring shown in Photo D-1. Smearing on rolling contact surface. The cause is slippage of rollers due to foreign objects trapped within.

Photo D 3 Rollers of spherical thrust roller bearings. Smearing at middle of rolling contact surfaces. The cause is slippage of rollers due to foreign objects trapped within.

Photo D 4 Inner ring of double row tapered roller bearing (RCT bearing). Smearing on raceway surface.

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Stepped Wear
Condition Surface is worn and dimensions are reduced compared with other portions. Surface mostly roughened and scored. Cause Ingress of solid foreign objects. Dirt and other foreign objects in lubricant. Poor lubrication. Skewing of rollers. Solution (1) Selection of optimum lubricant and lubrication system. (2) Improvement in sealing efficiency. (3) Filtration of lubricating oil. (4) Elimination of misalignment.

Photo E 1 Outer ring of cylindrical roller bearing. Stepped wear on raceway surface. The cause is oor lubrication.

Photo E 2 Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing (inner ring of which is shown in Photo E-1). Stepped wear on full circumference of raceway. The cause is poor lubrication.

Photo E 3 Outer ring of double row angular contact ball bearing (hub unit bearing). Wear on one side of the raceway. The cause is poor lubrication.

Photo E 4 Retainer of cylindrical roller bearing. Wear of pockets of machined high tensile brass casting retainer (G1).

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Speckles and Discoloration

Condition Speckles Raceway surface is matted and speckled. Speckles are clusters of tiny elements. Discoloration. The surface color has changed Cause Ingress of foreign objects. Poor lubrication. Temper color by overheating (2). Deposition of deteriorated oil on surface. Solution Speckles (1) Improvement in sealing efficiency Filtration of oil (3) Improvement in lubrication system. Discoloration (1) Oil deposition is removable by wiping with an organic solvent (oxalic acid). (2) If roughness is not removable by polishing with sandpaper, it is rust or corrosion. If completely removable, it is temper color due to overheating.

Photo F 1 Inner ring of double row tapered roller bearing (RCT bearing). Raceway surface is speckled. The cause is electric pitting.

Photo F 2 Ball of deep groove ball bearing. Speckled all over. The cause is foreign objects and poor lubrication.

Photo F 3 Outer ring of spherical roller bearing. Partial oil deposition on raceway surface.

Photo F 4 Spherical roller bearing. Discoloration of inner and outer ring raceway surfaces. The cause is deterioration of lubricant.

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Indentations
Condition Hollows in raceway surface produced by solid foreign objects trapped or impacts. (False brinelling) Cause Ingress of solid foreign objects. Trapping of flaked particles. Impacts due to careless handling. Solution (1) Keeping out foreign objects. (2) Check involved bearing and other bearings for flaking if dents are produced by metal particles. (3) Filtration of oil. (4) Improvement in handling and mounting practices.

Photo G 1 Inner ring (cut off piece) of self-aligning roller bearing. Dents on one side of the raceway. The cause is trapping of solid foreign objects.

Photo G 2 Rollers of spherical roller bearing. Dents on rolling contact surfaces. The cause is trapping of solid foreign objects.

Photo G 3 Rollers of tapered roller bearings. Dents all over rolling contact surfaces. (temper color at two ends.) The cause is foreign objects carried by lubricating oil.

Photo G 4 Inner ring of tapered roller bearing. Dents on raceway surface. The cause is trapping of foreign objects.

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Chipping
Condition Partial chipping of inner ring, outer ring, or rolling elements. Cause Trapping of large solid foreign objects. Impact or excessive load. Poor handling. Solution (1) Trouble shooting and improvements of impacts and excessive load. (2) Improvement in handling. (3) Improvement in sealing characteristics.

Photo H 1 Cylindrical roller bearing. Chipping of guide ribs of inner and outer rings. The cause is excessive impact load.

Photo H 2 Inner ring of spherical roller bearing. Rib chipped. The cause is excessive impact load.

Photo H 3 Inner ring of tapered roller bearing. Chipping of cone back face rib. The cause is impact due to poor mounting.

Photo H 4 Inner ring of double row tapered roller bearing. Chipping of side face. The cause is impact due to improper handling.

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Cracking
Condition Splits, and cracks in bearing rings and rolling elements. Cause Excessive load. Excessive impacts. Overheating by creeping and rapid cooling. Very loose fit. Large flaking. Solution (1) Examination and improvement of cause of very large load. (2) Prevention of creep. (3) Correction of fit.

Photo I 1 Inner ring of spherical roller bearing. Split of raceway surface in the axial direction. The cause is excessive interference fit.

Photo I 2 Fracture of inner ring shown in Photo I-1. Originating point is observed at the middle of the left raceway surface.

Photo I 3 Outer ring of four-row cylindrical roller bearing. Split of raceway surface in the circumferential direction, originated from large flaking. The cause is large flaking.

Photo I 4 Outer ring of angular contact ball bearing. Split of raceway surface in the circumferential direction. The cause is slipping of balls due to poor lubrication.

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Rust and Corrosion

Condition Rusting or corrosion of bearing ring and rolling element surfaces. Sometimes rusted at spacing equal to the distances between the rolling elements. Cause Ingress of water or corrosive material (such as acid) Condensation of moisture contained in the air. Poor packaging and storing conditions, and handling with bare hands. Solution (1) Improvement in sealing effect. (2) Periodic inspection of lubricating oil. (3) Careful handling of bearing. (4) Measures for preventing rusting when not operating for a long period of time.

Photo J 1 Inner ring of tapered roller bearing. Rusting on raceway surface spacing equivalent to the distance between rollers. The cause is water in lubricant.

Photo J 2 Outer ring of tapered roller bearing. Rusting on raceway surface spacing equivalent distances between rollers. The cause is water in lubricant. Some points are corroded.

Photo J 3 Roller of spherical roller bearing. Rust as well as corrosion on rolling contact surface. Ingress of water.

Photo J 4 Inner ring (split type) of self-aligning roller bearing. Rust and corrosion of the raceway surface. The cause is ingress of water.

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Seizing
Condition Bearing generates heat and is seized up by heat disabling spinning. Discoloration, softening, and welding of raceway surface, rolling contact surfaces, and rib surface. Cause Dissipation of heat generated by bearings is not enough. Poor lubrication or lubricant improper. Clearance excessively small. Excessive load (or preload). Roller skewing and installation error. Solution (1) Improve dissipation of heat from bearing. (2) Selection of suitable lubricant and determination of optimum lubricant feeding rate. (3) Prevention of misalignment. (4) Improvement in clearance and pre-load. (5) Improvement in operating conditions.

Photo K 1 Inner ring of double row tapered roller bearing. Seizing-up discolours and softens inner ring producing stepped wear at spacing equal to distances between the rollers. The cause is poor lubrication.

Photo K 2 Rollers of double row tapered roller bearing. Rollers of same bearing as that of the inner ring shown in Photo K-1. Discoloration, spalling, and adhesion due to seizing up on rolling contact surfaces and end faces of rollers.

Photo K 3 Outer ring of spherical roller bearing. Stepped wear due to seizing up of raceway surface. The cause is poor lubrication.

Photo K 4 Inner ring of tapered roller bearing. Large end of the raceway surface and cone back face rib surface are seized up. The cause is poor lubrication.

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Fretting and Fretting Corrosion

Condition Fretting surfaces wear producing red rust colored particles that form hollows. On the raceway surface, dents called false brinelling are formed at spacing equal to distances corresponding to the rolling elements. Cause If a vibrating load works on contacting elements resulting in small amplitude oscillation, lubricant is driven out from contact, and parts are worn remarkably. Oscillation angle of the bearing is small. Poor lubrication (no lubrication) Fluctuating load. Vibration during transportation. Vibration, shaft deflection, installation error, loose fit. Solution (1) Inner ring and outer ring should be packaged separately for transportation. If not separable, bearings should be preloaded. (2) Use oil of high consistency grease when bearings are used for oscillation motion. (3) Change lubricant. (4) Fix shaft and housing. (5) Improve fit.

Photo L 1 Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing. Corrugated fretting along full circumference of raceway. The cause is vibration.

Photo L 2 Inner ring of deep groove ball bearing. Fretting along full circumference of raceway. The cause is vibration.

Photo L 3 Outer ring of cylindrical roller bearing. Fretting rust on outside diameter surface.

Photo L 4 Outer ring of tapered roller bearing. Fretting rust on the outside diameter surface.

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Electrical Pitting
Condition Surface is speckled visually and the speckles are clusters of tiny pits when viewed through a microscope. Further development leads to a corrugated surface. Cause Electric current passes through bearing, and sparks are generated to fuse the raceway surface. Solution Avoid flow of electric current by averting current with a slip ring or insulation bearing.

Photo M 1 Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing. Raceway surface is corrugated by electric pitting.

Photo M 2 Rollers of tapered roller bearings. Electric pitting at middle of rolling contact surfaces.

Photo M 3 Magnified (x400) pitting of roller shown in Photo M-2. Nital etchant develops a white layer on the cross section.

Explanation of magnified photo M-3

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Rolling Path Skewing

Condition Rolling element contact path on raceway surface strays or skews. Cause Deformation or tilt of bearing ring due to oor accuracy of shaft or housing. Poor rigidity of shaft or housing. Deflection of shaft due to excessive clearance. Solution (1) Improvement in machining accuracy of shaft and housing. (2) Improvement of rigidity of shaft and housing. (3) Employment of adequate clearance.

Photo N 1 Spherical roller bearing. Contacts on inner ring, outer ring, and rollers are not even. The cause is poor mounting.

Photo N 2 Outer ring of tapered roller bearings. Contact path on raceway surface strays. The cause is poor mounting.

Photo N 3 Rollers of tapered roller bearing of which outer ring is shown in photo N-2. Contact marks on rolling contact surfaces are not even.

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Damage to Retainers
Condition Breaking of retainer Wear of pockets or guide Loosening or breaking of rivet Cause Excessive moment load. High speed spinning or large fluctuation of speed. Poor lubrication. Trapping of foreign objects. Heavy vibration. Poor mounting (cocked bearing) Excessive heat (plastic retainer in particular) Solution (1) Improvement in load conditions. (2) Improvement in lubrication system and lubricant. (3) Selection of optimum retainer. (4) Improvement in handling. (5) Study in rigidity of shaft and housing.

Photo O 1 Retainer of angular contact ball bearing. Breakage of machined high tension brass retainer L1. The cause is poor lubrication.

Photo O 2 Retainer of spherical roller bearing. Breakage of partitions between pockets of pressed steel retainer.

Photo O 3 Retainer of tapered roller bearing. Breakage of pockets of pressed steel retainer.

Photo O 4 Retainer of cylindrical roller bearing. Breakage of partitions between pockets of machined high tension brass casting retainer L1.

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Creeping
Condition Fitting surfaces are glazed or matted, and sometimes spalled as well. Cause Fitting of inner ring is loose on inner ring drive bearing, and that of the outer ring is loose on outer ring drive bearing. If the housing is made of a light alloy such as aluminum, fit may become loose due to the difference of thermal expansion. Solution (1) Improvement in fit. (2) Improvement in machining accuracy of shaft and housing.

Photo P 1 Inner ring of deep groove ball bearing. Bore wall glazed by creep.

Photo P 2 Inner ring of tapered roller bearing. Spalling due to creep at the middle of bore wall.

Photo P 3 Iner ring ring thrust ball bearing. Spalling and friction cracking due to creep on bore wall.

Photo P 4 Inner ring of tapered roller bearing. Spalling and friction cracking on width surface due to creep. Crack developed into a split reaching bore wall.

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2.8

Torque

Torque is the turning force through a radius and the units is rated in - Nm - in the SI-system and in - lb ft - in the imperial system. The torque developed by asynchronous induction motors varies with the speed of the motor when it accelerates from full stop or zero speed, to maximum operating speed.

Locked Rotor or Starting Torque The Locked Rotor Torque or Starting Torque is the torque the electrical motor develop when its starts at rest or zero speed. A high Starting Torque is more important for application or machines hard to start - as positive displacement pumps, cranes etc. A lower Starting Torque can be accepted in applications as centrifugal fans or pumps where the start load is low or close to zero.

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Pull-up Torque The Pull-up Torque is the minimum torque developed by the electrical motor when it runs from zero to full-load speed (before it reaches the break-down torque point) When the motor starts and begins to accelerate the torque in general decrease until it reach a low point at a certain speed - the pull-up torque before the torque increases until it reach the highest torque at a higher speed - the break-down torque - point. The pull-up torque may be critical for applications that need power to go through some temporary barriers achieving the working conditions. Break-down Torque The Break-down Torque is the highest torque available before the torque decreases when the machine continues to accelerate to the working conditions. Full-load (Rated) Torque or Braking Torque The Full-load Torque is the torque required to produce the rated power of the electrical motor at full-load speed. In imperial units the Full-load Torque can be expressed as: T = 5252 Php / nr (1)

where: T = full-load torque (lb ft) Php = rated horsepower nr = rated rotational speed (rev/min, rpm) In metric units the rated torque can be expressed as: T = 9550 PkW / nr (2)

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where: T = rated torque (Nm) PkW = rated power (kW) nr = rated rotational speed (rpm) Example - Electrical Motor and Braking Torque The torque of a 60 hp motor rotating at 1725 rpm can be expressed as: Tfl = 60 (hp) 5,252 / 1725 (rpm) = 182.7 lb ft NEMA Design NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) have classified electrical motors in four different NEMA designs where torques and starting-load inertia are important criterions.

Accelerating Torque Accelerating Torque = Available Motor Torque - Load Torque Reduced Voltage Soft Starters Reduced Voltage Soft Starters are used to limit the starting current and reducing the Locked Rotor Torque or Starting Torque and are common in applications which is hard to start or must be handled with care - as positive displacement pumps, cranes, elevators and similar.
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Power versus torque and motor velocity in electric motors are indicated below:
3450 Power p W
.75

Motor Velocity (rpm) 2000 1000 Torque Nm .1 .1 .1 in lbf 2 7 3 5 58 36 15 73 30 88 45 260 576 891 206 521 836 151 939 727 515 302 090 090 878 ft lbf .6 .9 .3 .9 3.1 0 6 9 3 6 9 05 31 58 84 10 36 63 28 94 60 25 91 91 57 Nm .6 .3 .1 0.7 8 7 6 3 1 9 07 42 78 14 49 85 21 56 45 34 23 12 01 01 91 in lbf 3 5 26 89 15 73 30 45 260 576 891 521 151 781 412 042 672 302 878 454 1029 2605 4180 4180 5756 ft lbf .3 .9 0.5 5.8 6.3 9 3 9 05 31 58 10 63 15 68 20 73 25 57 88 19 050 182 182 313 Nm .1 0.7 4.2 1.4 6 3 1 07 42 78 14 85 56 27 99 70 41 12 91 069 247 425 603 603 781 in lbf 26 89 52 78 30 45 260 891 521 151 781 042 302 563 823 0084 1344 2605 5756 8907 2058 5210 8361 8361 1512

500 ft lbf 0.5 5.8 1 1.5 2.5 9 05 58 10 63 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 050 313 576 838 101 363 363 626 Nm 4.2 1.4 8.5 2.7 1 07 42 14 85 56 27 70 12 55 97 140 282 425 781 137 494 850 206 206 562

in lbf 8 7 7 5 1 37 83 74 65 57 48 31 13 096 279 461 644 827 283 740 197 654 110 110 567

ft lbf .5 .3

.5

.1 .5 .2 .7

.6 .6 1 5 3 0 8 6 1 6 1 07 22 37 52 90 28 66 04 43 43 81

.2 0 5 1 1 1 2 2 3 03 24 45 65 86 07 58 10 61 13 65 65 16

.5 0 5 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 25 50 75 00 25 25 50

.6 .5 1 5 9 2 0 7 5 2 0 7 5 3 12 31 49 68 68 87

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Power versus torque (Continued):

3450 Power p 75 00 50 00 50 50 00 W 05 24 61 98 36 10 48 in lbf 024 480 394 307 221 0047 0961 ft lbf 19 57 33 09 85 37 13 Nm 68 20 23 26 29 136 239 in lbf 666 454 1029 2605 4180 7332 8907 Motor Velocity (rpm) 2000 1000 Torque ft lbf 22 88 19 050 182 444 576 Nm 80 069 247 425 603 959 137 in lbf 7332 8907 2058 5210 8361 4663 7814 ft lbf 444 576 838 101 363 889 151 Nm 959 137 494 850 206 918 275 in lbf 4663 7814 4117 0419 6722 9326 5629 500 ft lbf 889 151 676 202 727 777 302 Nm 918 275 987 699 412 837 549

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Asynchronous Motor Starting Systems Introduction The locked-rotor current of typical induction motors, started across-theline, is approximately six times full-load current. A current of that magnitude causes increased heating of the winding, undesirable voltage dips on the power line and undue mechanical stresses on gears, couplings and other parts of the equipment. Through methods described in this section, the inrush current for an induction motor may be reduced to an acceptable level, thereby assuring satisfactory operation of the motor. Before choosing a starting method, however, consider these factors: Compatibility of motor windings with starting method: 1. Torque requirements of the driven equipment; 2. Overload protection of motor and control 3. Initial cost (which varies considerably). There are three methods for limiting the current and torque when starting induction motors: 1. Reduction of terminal voltage by use of an auto-transformer, resistors, reactors; or electronic soft starter. 2. Reconnection of the stator winding using the series-parallel, why-delta or part-winding method. 3. Reduction in voltage and frequency by variable-frequency drive. 3.1 Starting Methods Direct on-line starting This is the simplest mode, where the stator is directly connected to the mains supply. The motor starts with its own characteristics.

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When it is switched on, the motor behaves like a transformer with its secondary, formed by the very low resistance rotor cage, in short circuit. There is a high induced current in the rotor which results in a current peak in the mains supply: Current on starting = 5 to 8 rated Current. The average starting torque is: T on starting = 0.5 to 1.5 rated T. Star-Delta Starting

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This starting system can only be used with a motor where both ends of its three stator windings are fitted to a terminal board. Furthermore, the winding must be done so that the delta connection matches the mains voltage: e.g. a 380V 3-phase supply will need a motor with 380V delta and 660V star coiling. The principle is to start the motor by connecting the star windings at mains voltage, which divides the motors rated star voltage by 3 (in the example above, the mains voltage at 380V = 660V / 3). Star-delta starting is suitable for machines with a low resistive torque or which start with no load (e.g. wood-cutting machines). Variants may be required to limit the transient phenomena above a certain power level. One of these is a 1-2 second delay in the shift from star to delta. Such a delay weakens the counter-electromotive force and hence the transient current peak. This can only be used if the machine has enough inertia to prevent too much speed reduction during the time delay. Another system is 3-step starting: star-delta + resistance-delta.

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There is still a break, but the resistor in series with the delta-connected windings for about three seconds lowers the transient current. This stops the current from breaking and so prevents the occurrence of transient phenomena. Use of these variants implies additional equipment, which may result in a significant rise in the cost of the installation. Part Winding Motor Starting This system, not widely used in Europe, is quite common in the North American market (voltage of 230/460, a ratio of 1:2). This type of motor has a stator winding divided into two parallel windings with six or twelve output terminals. It is equivalent to two half motors of equal power.

The part winding starter reduces inrush current by using two different sets of windings in the motor. Therefore, part winding starters can be used only with motors having stator windings divided into two equal parts with the terminals of each part available for external connection.

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The part winding starter consists of two across the line starters and a timer. The first starter is used to connect one winding of the motor across the line. The starting current from one winding will be about 50% of the starting current if both windings were connected. The starting torque is correspondingly 50%. Because the starting torque is so low and will not increase until the second winding is connected, the motor may not begin to accelerate. Therefore, the time delay for the second winding to be energized should not be more than 4 seconds. When the second winding is energized, the inrush current will increase depending upon the speed of the motor when the second winding is energized. Primary Resistance Starter A Primary Resistance Starter closes the contacts connecting a motor to a power supply by way of resistors. The resistors provide a voltage drop to reduce the starting voltage of the motor. The value of the resistors is chosen to provide adequate starting torque while minimizing starting current.

Motor inrush current declines during motor acceleration reducing the voltage drop across the resistors and providing more motor torque. This results in smooth acceleration. After a period of time, the primary

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contacts open, and the resistors are shorted out by an additional set of contacts. At this point, full voltage is supplied to the motor.

Primary resistance starting provides the smoothest, shock free starts of all methods. Approximately seventy percent of full starting torque is available, and applications, such as conveyors moving fragile items, are well suited to this technique.

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Autotransformer starting An autotransformer starter reduces inrush current by using a transformer in the line just ahead of the motor to step down the voltage applied to the motor terminals. By reducing the voltage, the current drawn from the line is reduced during start-up.

Figure 3.1 Single Line Diagram

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When the setting time on the timer has expired, the autotransformer is bypassed. The 1S contactor drops out, the run contactor closes, and the 2S contactor opens, proving full voltage to the motor. The ABB autotransformer starter is a closed transition type, meaning that the motor remains connected to the line during the entire acceleration period. The transformer has three taps which provide 50%, 65% and 80% of full line voltage. At delivery, the transformer is connected to the 65% tap; the inrush current will be reduced to 42% of normal; and the starting torque will be reduced to 42%.

The autotransformer starter can be used for any LV squirrel-cage motor at over 150kW. It does however make equipment rather expensive because of the high cost of the autotransformer. Solid State Starters Solid state starters use no bulky or moving parts. These devices consist of self-contained electronic circuitry. The amount of current flow to the motor is controlled by using solid state devices, known in general as thyristor.

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The function of these devices is to allow a smooth increase in starting voltage into the motor once a predetermined starting current has been reached. The values for different levels of the gating current can be set in the device.

Overall starting current and torque can be adjusted by choosing devices which have different current ratings. Solid state starters usually include other functions such as overload protection.

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Soft Starter Starting/Slackening This is an effective starting system for starting and stopping a motor smoothly. It can be used for: Current limitation. Torque adjustment. Control by current limitation sets a maximum current (3 to 4 x RC) during the starting stage and lowers torque performance. This control is especially suitable for turbo-machines (centrifugal pumps, fans). Control by torque adjustment optimizes torque performance in the starting process and lowers mains inrush current. This is suited to constant torque machines. This type of starter can have many different diagrams: 1. 2. 3. 4. One-way operation, Two-way operation, Device shunting at the end of the starting process, Starting and slackening several motors in cascade, - etc.

Soft-Starter

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Frequency Converter Starting Variable or adjustable speed drives have been used for more than 20 years in a wide range of applications. Ranging from single motor driven pumps, fans and compressors, to highly sophisticated multi-drive machines, variable speed drives have the ability to change motor speed to meet the needs of a driven load. Controlled speed allows more efficient processing and reduces energy consumption. Variable Speed Drives use solid state devices to vary supply voltage frequency. They allow for a constant ratio of voltage to frequency. Variable Speed Drives are relatively expensive. However, these devices provide an exceptional degree of control over motor operations. Furthermore, the energy savings resulting from variable speed drives more than offsets the higher first cost This is an effective starting system to use whenever speed must be controlled and adjusted. Its purposes include: 1. Starting with high-inertia loads. 2. Starting with high loads on supplies with low short-circuit capacity. 3. Optimization of electricity consumption adapted to the speed of "turbo-machines". This starting system can be used on all types of machines. It is a solution primarily used to adjust motor speed, starting being a secondary purpose.

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Table 3.1 - Starting Characteristics of Induction Motors in Percent of Full-Voltage Value

Summary Table of 3-phase Motor Starting Systems

Direct on-line Motor Cost Motor starting current Voltage dip Voltage and current harmonics Power factor Number of starts available Available torque Thermal stress Mechanical shocks Recommended type of load High inertia loads Standard + 5 to 10 RC High Star-delta Standard ++ 2 to 3 RC High on connection change Moderate Low 2-3 times more than DOL 0.2 to 0.5 RT High Moderate No-load No Part windings 6 windings ++ 2 RC Low Resistors Standard +++ Approx. 4.5 RC Low Autotransformers Standard +++ 1.7 to 4 RC Low; precautions to take in DOL connection Moderate Low 3-4 times more than DOL Approx. 0.5 RT Moderate Moderate Pumps and fans No Slip ring motors Specific +++ Approx. 2 RC Low Soft starter Standard +++ 4 to 5 RC Low Frequency converter Standard ++++ RC Low

High Low Restricted Approx. 2.5 RT Very high Tres eleve Any Yes*

Moderate Moderate 3-4 times more than DOL 2 RT Moderate Moderate Ascending torque No

Moderate Moderate 3-4 times more than DOL RT High Moderate Pumps and fans No

Low Moderate 2-3 times more than DOL Approx. 2 RT Moderate Low Any Yes

High Low Limited Approx. 0.5 RT Moderate Moderate Pumps and fans No

High High High 1.5 to 2 RT Low Low Any Yes

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3.2 Single-phase motor starting A single-phase motor cannot start on its own, so there are different ways to run it. Auxiliary phase starting In this type of motor, the stator has two windings geometrically offset by 90. When it is switched on, because the coils are made differently, a current C1 crosses the main phase and a weaker current C2, noticeably shifted by p/2, circulates in the auxiliary phase. The fields which are generated are produced by two currents that are phase-shifted in relation to each other, so the resulting rotating field is strong enough to trigger no-load starting of the motor.

When the motor has reached about 80% of its speed, the auxiliary phase can be cut off (centrifugal coupling) or kept running. The motor stator thus becomes a two-phase stator, either on starting or all the time.

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The connections of a phase can be inverted to reverse the direction of rotation. As the starting torque is low, it should be raised by increasing the offset between the two fields the coils produce. Auxiliary phase and resistance starting A resistor in series with the auxiliary phase increases its impedance and the offset between C1 and C2. Operation at the end of the starting process is the same as with the auxiliary phase on its own. Auxiliary phase and inductance starting This works in the same way as above, but the resistor is replaced by an inductance in series with the auxiliary phase to increase the offset between the two currents. Auxiliary phase and capacitor starting This is the most widespread device, where a capacitor is set in the auxiliary phase. For a permanent capacitor, the working value is about 8F for a 200W motor.

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Starting purposes may require an extra capacitor of 16F which is eliminated when the starting process is over. As a capacitor produces a phase shift that is the opposite of an inductance one, during starting and operation, the motor works much like a two-phase one with a rotating field. The torque and power factor are high. The starting torque ST is more or less three times more than the rated torque RT and the maximum torque Tmax reaches 2 RT. When starting is complete, it is best to maintain the phase-shift between the currents, though the value of the capacity can be reduced because the stator impedance has increased. The diagram represents a single-phase motor with a permanentlyconnected capacitor. Other arrangements exist, such as opening the phase-shift circuit by a centrifugal switch when a given speed is reached. Only low-powered 4-pole motors of no more than 4kW are suitable for this system. Manufacturers provide tables for selecting capacitors with the right values. Shaded pole winding starting This device is used in very low-powered motors (around a hundred watts). The poles have notches with short-circuited conducting rings inserted in them. The induced current this produces distorts the rotating field and triggers the starting process. Efficiency is low but adequate in this power range.

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Conclusion When selecting the starting method for a specific motor consideration must be given to compatibility of motor and starting method, torque requirements, cost of equipment, and so forth. The various starting methods described in this section and summarized the best starting and Table 4.1 are meant to be a guided for determining the best starting method for your motor. Autotransformer starting enables the motor to produce a comparatively high starting torque for a given value of line current. Resistor and starting are more economical than the use of an autotransformer, but the starting torque is less for a given value of line current. Wye-delta staring, which requires a special winding design, is the prevalent starting method in Europe. Part-winding starting widely used to reduce lighting flicker and shaft stress in pumps. The electronic soft start reduces starting voltage and torque. A variable-frequency drives permits starting torque and acceleration to be controlled.

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Motor Protection and Coordination Introduction Motors may be subjected to overloads. These kinds of overloads arise for several reasons, for example, Because the friction conditions of the driven machines change, Because pumps have to work against different pressure heads When the tool engages more powerfully and the transport carriage has a greater load, Because start-ups or braking operations are too long, Due to blocked rotors.

Motors that are designed for a specific relationship between the load, start-up time and switch-off time can also be overload if the start-up time is lengthened or the switch-off time is reduced while the current consumption is kept constant. These kinds of time changes can also change torque characteristics. If the torque increases, the current consumption increases as well, leading to an increase in motor temperature with every increase in current. A long period of increased current consumption may damage or destroy the insulation of the motor windings. The lifespan of motors depends very much on the observance of temperature limits. Examinations have shown that the lifespan of motors is considerably reduced with even the slightest continuous over191

temperature above the permissible continuous temperature limit. As a rough guide it can be assumed that the lifespan of a winding insulation is reduced by 50% with every over-temperature of 100C. Code Requirements There are several basic requirement are typically specified for a motor circuit. In the Philippines, Philippine Electrical Code has the requirements that must be met. Most often the National Electrical Code (NEC) is followed as the basis for most electrical installations. Article 430 of the NEC describes the requirements for installations involving motors, motor circuits, and controllers. In Article 430, the requirements for motor branch circuit short-circuit, and ground fault protection and motor overload protection are specified. Figure below identifies the control and protection components required for a motor branch circuit. Motor Branch Circuit Requirements Based

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4.1 Motors protection Every electric motor has operating limits. Overshooting these limits will eventually destroy it and the systems it drives, the immediate effect being operating shutdown and losses. This type of receiver, which transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy, can be the seat of electrical or mechanical incidents. Electrical a. Power surges, voltage drops, unbalance and phase losses causing variations in the absorbed current. b. Short circuits where the current can reach levels that can destroy the receiver. Mechanical a. Rotor stalling, momentary or prolonged overloads increasing the current absorbed by the motor and dangerously heating its windings. The cost of these incidents can be high. a. It includes production loss b. Loss of raw materials, c. Repair of the production equipment, d. Non-quality production and delivery delays. The economic necessity for businesses to be more competitive implies reducing the costs of discontinuous output and non-quality. These incidents can also have a serious impact on the safety of people in direct or indirect contact with the motor. Protection is necessary to overcome these incidents, or at least mitigate their impact and prevent them from causing damage to equipment and disturbing the power supply. It isolates the equipment from the mains power by means of a breaking device which detects and measures electrical variations (voltage, current, etc.).

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Every starter motor unit should include 1. Protection against short circuits, to detect and break abnormal currents usually 10 times greater than the rated current (RC) as fast as possible. 2. Protection against overloads to detect current increase up to about 10 RC and open the power circuit before the motor heats up, damaging the insulation. These protections are ensured by special devices such as fuses, circuit breakers and overload relays or by integral devices with a range of protections. Ground fault protection, which covers personal protection and fire safety, is not dealt with here because it is normally part of the electrical distribution in equipment, workshops or entire buildings. 4.2 Protection against short circuits Overview A short circuit is a direct contact between two points of different electric potential: 1. Alternating current: phase-to-phase contact, phase-to-neutral contact, phase-to-ground contact or contact between windings in a phase. 2. Direct current: contact between two poles or between the ground and the pole insulated from it. This can have a number of causes: damage to the varnish insulating the conductors, loose, broken or stripped wires or cables, metal foreign bodies, conducting deposits (dust, moisture, etc.), seepage of water or other conducting fluids, wrong wiring in assembly or maintenance. A short circuit results in a sudden surge of current which can reach several hundred times the working current within milliseconds. A short circuit can have devastating effects and severely damage equipment. It is typified by two phenomena.
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A thermal phenomenon A thermal phenomenon corresponding to the energy released into the electrical circuit crossed by the short circuit current I for at time t based on the formula I2t and expressed as A2s. This thermal effect can cause: 1. Melting of the conductor contacts. 2. Destruction of the thermal elements in a bimetal relay if coordination is type 1. 3. Generation of electrical arcs. 4. Calcinations of insulating material. 5. Fire in the equipment. An electrodynamics phenomenon An electrodynamics phenomenon between conductors producing intensive mechanical stress as the current crosses and causing: 1. Distortion of conductors forming the motor windings. 2. Breakage of the conductors insulating supports. 3. Repulsion of the contacts (inside the contactors) likely to melt and weld them. These results are dangerous to property and people. It is therefore imperative to guard against short circuits with protection devices that can detect faults and interrupt the short circuit rapidly, before the current reaches its maximum value. Two protection devices are commonly used for this: 1. Fuses, which break the circuit by melting and must be replaced afterwards. 2. Magnetic circuit breakers which automatically break the circuit and only require to be reset. Short-circuit protection can also be built into multifunction devices such as motor starter protection and contactor breakers.

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Definitions and characteristics The main characteristics of short-circuit protection devices are: 1. Breaking capacity: the highest value in the estimated shortcircuit current that a protection device can break at a given voltage. 2. Closing capacity: the highest value a protection device can reach at its rated voltage in specified conditions. The closing value is k times the break capacity as shown in the table below.

Break and closing capacities for circuit breakers by the IEC 60947-2 standard. Fuses Fuses are over-current protective devices that are placed in an electrical circuit to protect the control components, wiring, insulation, and motor from damage caused by excessive current and associated heat. Overcurrents are considered any increase in continuous current above the normal operating current level. In motor circuits, overcurrents are classified in two different categories. Motor overloads are any overcurrents up to or slightly above locked rotor current (6-8 times FLA). This range of overcurrent is protected by overload relay protection devices which will be discussed in more detail later. Short-circuit overcurrents are those produced by short-circuit or ground fault conditions with fault current levels in excess of 8 times

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FLA. In todays industrial facilities, short-circuit overcurrents can easily reach 50,000A. If the short-circuit overcurrents are not interrupted within fractions of a second, severe damage to the electrical installation can occur including motor damage, conductor and controller damage or even fires. In motor circuits, fuses best provide protection from damage caused by shortcircuit currents. Throughout the world, many different types of fuses are used for shortcircuit protection in motor circuits. In North America, UL and CSA fuses are most commonly used. In other parts of the world, DIN (German) and BS88 (British) fuses are dominant. Even though the construction and fastening means are quite different (See different types of fuses below), all these fuses still perform the same essential function of short-circuit protection. Different Types of Fuses BS88 Fuses IEC fuse type: Fuse-link for bolted connection Voltage rating: 660V AC Interrupting rating: 80,000A Standard cartridge sizes: A1, A2, A3, A4, B1, B2, B3, and B4 Typical ampere ratings: 2400A Construction: Blade type for bolted connection Where commonly used: United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Asia, and Middle East

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DIN Fuses IEC fuse type: Fuse-link with blade contacts Voltage rating: 660V AC Interrupting rating: 100,000A Standard cartridge sizes: 00, 0, 1, and 2 Typical ampere ratings: 2400A Construction: Blade type Where commonly used: Europe, South America, Middle East, and India

UL/CSA Fuses Operation: Time-delay; Current-limiting UL fuse type: Class CC CSA fuse type: HRCI-MISC Voltage rating: 600V AC Interrupting rating: 200,000A Standard cartridge sizes: 30A Typical ampere ratings: 130A Construction: Ferrule type Where commonly used: North America

UL/CSA Fuses Operation: Time-delay; Current-limiting UL fuse type: Class J CSA fuse type: HRCI-J Voltage rating: 600V AC Interrupting rating: 200,000A Standard cartridge sizes: 30A, 60A, 100A, 200A, 400A and 600A Typical ampere ratings: 1600A Construction: 160A; Ferrule type 61 600A; Blade type for bolted connection Where commonly used: North America

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Operation: Dual-element, Time-delay, Current-limiting UL fuse type: Class RK1, RK5 CSA fuse type: HCR-R Voltage rating: 250 and 600V AC Interrupting rating: 200,000A Standard cartridge sizes: 30A, 60A, 100A, 200A, 400A and 600A Typical ampere ratings: 1/10600A Construction: 160A Ferrule Rejection type; 61600A; Blade type for wedge clamp connection Where commonly used: North America

Operation: Fast-acting; Current-limiting UL fuse type: Class T CSA fuse type: HCR-T Voltage rating: 300 and 600V AC Interrupting rating: 200,000A Standard cartridge sizes: 30A, 60A, 100A, 200A, 400A, 600A, 800A, 1200A Typical ampere ratings: 11200A Construction: 160A; Ferrule type; 61 1200A; Blade type for bolted connection Where commonly used: North America CSA fuse type: HRCII-C Voltage rating: 600V AC Interrupting rating: 200,000A Standard cartridge sizes: 30A, 60A, 100A, 200A, and 400A Typical ampere ratings: 1400A Construction: Blade type for bolted connection Where commonly used: Canada

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Fuse Performance Requirements Fuses are designed to meet specific standard performance requirements. In the case of UL and CSA fuses, specific characteristics such as current ratings, voltage rating, fuse dimensions, rejection features, withstand ratings, maximum I2T and Ip current let-through limits, trip time parameters (time-delay) and more are specified in the standards. Table below compares the performance requirements of various UL and CSA fuse classes. As you can see, different class fuses with similar current ratings can have significantly different results on I2T and Ip letthrough values.

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Fuses perform phase-by-phase (single pole) protection with a high break capacity at low volume. They limit I2t and electrodynamics stress (Icrte). They are mounted: 1. On special supports called fuse holders. 2. Or on isolators in the place of sockets and links.

Fuse holder switch Note that trip indicator fuse cartridges can be wired to an all-pole switching device (usually the motor control contactor) to prevent singlephase operation when they melt. The fuses used for motor protection are specific in that they let through the overcurrents due to the magnetizing current when motors are switched on. They are not suitable for protection against overload (unlike gG fuses) so an overload relay must be added to the motor power supply circuit. In general, their size should be just above the full load current of the motor. Magnetic circuit breakers An increasingly popular method of providing short-circuit protection in motor circuits is with the use of circuit breakers. Circuit breakers have become very popular due to the fact that following a fault condition, circuit breakers can be easily reset once proper troubleshooting and maintenance procedures are completed. The ability to reset a circuit breaker following a fault condition, allows the manufacturing process to begin operation with minimal downtime.

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International Circuit Breakers Motor circuit protectors that meet IEC 947 requirements are most common outside North America. The IEC type circuit protector incorporates several functions within a single device including On-Off push buttons for local control and motor circuit isolation, adjustable bimetallic elements for overload protection, and magnetic trip elements for short-circuit protection. These circuit breakers protect plant from short circuits within the limits of their breaking capacity and by means of magnetic triggers (one per phase).

Magnetic Circuit-Breaker and its graphic symbol

Magnetic circuit breaking is all-pole from the outset: one magnetic trigger will simultaneously open all the poles. For low short-circuit currents, circuit breakers work faster than fuses. This protection complies with the IEC 60947-2 standard. To break a short-circuit current properly, there are three imperatives: 1. Early detection of the faulty current. 2. Rapid separation of the contacts. 3. Breakage of the short-circuit current.

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Most magnetic circuit breakers for motor protection are current-limiting devices and so contribute to coordination. Their very short cut-off time breaks the short-circuit current before it reaches its maximum amplitude. This limits the thermal and electrodynamics effects and improves the protection of wiring and equipment.

Curves of magnetic circuit breaker tripping 4.3 Protection against overload Overview Overload is the commonest fault in motors. It is revealed by an increase in the current absorbed by the motor and by thermal effects. The insulation category sets normal motor heating at an ambient temperature of 40C. Any overshoot of this operating limit leads to a reduction in lifetime by premature ageing of the insulating material. It should however be noted that overloads leading to overheating will not have any immediately detrimental effects if they are short and infrequent. They do not necessarily involve stopping the motor but it is important to restore normal conditions very quickly.

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The importance of proper protection against overload is easy to understand: 1. It preserves the lifetime of motors by preventing them from working in overheating conditions. 2. It ensures operating continuity by: a. Preventing motors from stopping abruptly. b. After tripping, enabling restart in the best conditions of safety for people and equipment. Actual operating conditions (temperature, altitude and standard duty) are requisite for determining a motors operating values (power, current) and choosing adequate protection against overload. Operating values are given by the motor manufacturer.

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Depending on the level of protection required, overload protection can be provided by relays: 1. Overload, thermal (bimetal) or electronic relays, which provide minimum protection against: a. Overload, by controlling the current absorbed on each phase. b. Unbalanced or missing phase, by a differential device. c. Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor probe relays. d. Over torque relays. e. Multifunction relays. Reminder: A protection relay does not break a circuit. It is designed to open a breaking device with the requisite breaking capacity for the faulty current, usually a contactor. For this purpose, protection relays have a fault contact (NC) fitted in series with the contactor coil. Overload relays (thermal or electronic) Overview These relays protect motors against overload but must sustain the temporary overload of starting and only trip when starting lasts too long. Depending on its use, motor starting can range from a few seconds (noload starting, low resistant torque, etc.) to a few dozen seconds (high resistant torque, high inertia of the driven load, etc.). Hence the necessity for relays adapted to the starting time. To meet this need, the IEC 60947-4-1 standard has several categories of overload relay each defined by its tripping time.

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The relay size should be chosen on the basis of the motors rated current and the estimated starting time. Limits of use are characterized by curves based on the time and value of the current setting (in multiples of Ir). These relays have a thermal memory (apart from some electronic ones, indicated by their manufacturers) and can be connected: i. ii. In series with the load. Or, for high powers, to current transformers fitted in series with the load.

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Bimetal thermal overload relays These are linked to a contactor to protect the motor, the power supply and the equipment against low prolonged overload. They are thus designed to enable the motor to start normally without tripping. However, they must be protected from strong over currents by a circuit breaker or fuses. The operating principle of a thermal overload relay is based on the distortion of its bimetal strips heated by the current that crosses them. As the current crosses them, the strips distort and, depending on the setting, cause the relay contact to open suddenly. The relay can only be reset when the bimetal strips have adequately cooled down. Thermal overload relays work with alternating and direct current and are usually: 1. 3-pole. 2. Compensated, i.e. insensitive to ambient temperature variations (same tripping curve from 0C to 40C on a standard gauge. 3. Graduated in motor amperes: current indicated on the motor plate displayed on the relay.

Operating limit of a differential thermal overload relay (responding to loss of a phase)

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They can also respond to a loss of a phase: this is the differential. This feature prevents the motor from working in single-phase and complies with standards IEC 60947-4-1 and 60947-6-2.

Operating limit of a differential thermal overload relay (responding to loss of a phase)

Widely used, this relay is very reliable and cost-effective. It is especially recommended if there is a risk of rotor locking. It does however have the disadvantages of imprecision with regard to the thermal status of the motor and sensitivity to the thermal conditions where it is installed (housing ventilation, etc.). Electronic overload relays These relays have the advantages of electronic systems and build a more detailed thermal image of the motor. Using a template with the motors thermal time constants, the system continuously calculates the motor temperature based on the current crossing it and operating time. Protection is hence closer to the reality and can prevent inadvertent tripping. Electronic overload relays are less sensitive to the thermal conditions where they are installed.

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Apart from the usual functions of overload relays (protection against motor overload, unbalance and lack of phase) electronic overload relays can include options such as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. PTC probe temperature control. Protection against locking and overtorques. Protection against phase inversion. Protection against insulation faults. Protection against no-load operation, etc.

PTC thermistor probe relays These protection relays control the actual temperature of the motor to be protected. Probes are imbedded into the motor and because they are small, their thermal inertia is very low, ensuring a very short response time and hence a very accurate temperature reading. They directly control the temperature of the stator windings so can be used to protect motors against: overload, increase in ambient temperature, ventilation circuit faults, too frequent starting processes, inching, etc. They consist of: One or more Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) thermistor probes in the windings themselves or at any other point likely to heat (bearings, etc.).

These are static components with resistance that increases suddenly when the temperature reaches a threshold called the Nominal Operating Temperature (NOT) as shown by the curve.

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An electronic device An electronic device powered by alternating and direct current for continuous control of the resistance of the probes linked to it. If the NOT is reached, the strong increase in resistance is detected by a threshold circuit which then orders a change in the status of the output contacts. Depending on the probes chosen, this protection mode can be used to: 1. Set off an alarm without stopping the machine (NOT of the probes lower than the maximum temperature set for the element to be protected). 2. Or order the machine to stop (the NOT has reached the maximum level).

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Electronic device for three thermistor probes

This protection system should be organized upfront because the probes have to be set in the windings when the motor is manufactured, though they can be included when new windings are fitted after an incident. The choice of PTC probes depends on the insulation category and motor structure. It is usually made by the motor manufacturer or winding fitter who are the only ones with the requisite skills. These two conditions mean that PTC probe protection really only applies to high-end equipment with expensive motors or processes. Overtorque relays: extra protection

The Overtorque relay

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In addition to thermal protection by relays or PTC probe, these ensure protection of the drive chain in the event of rotor locking, mechanical seizing or inching. These, unlike most overload relays, have no thermal memory. They have a set operating time (adjustable current threshold and timing). An overtorque relay can be used to protect motors against overload when their starting process is long or very frequent (e.g. inching). 4.4 Multifunction relays Electromechanical or electronic relays Electromechanical or electronic relays protect the motor using the current flowing into the motor. They are perfectly suitable for regular operation. However, they are not able to take into consideration multiple potential problems due to voltage temperature or specific application. Furthermore users requirements as maintenance or production management has become a major concern and electrical manufacturers has introduced to the market new products which can be tailored to the application and offer a global protection for the motor and the driven load. Features These relays has been developed using the following technologies: voltage and current sensors, the latters use ironless devices (Rogowsky sensors) which are fast and offer an outstanding linearity: 1. Electronic combining numerical and analogic technologies, the result being a good capacity for treatment and data storage. 2. Use of field buses to exchange data to and from the PLCs and other devices. 3. Use of accurate motor modelisation algorithms. 4. Use of embedded programmes whose parameters can be defined.

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This new generation of product allow to reduce the costs from the design of the equipment, as PLCs programming are made simple, to the operation as maintenance cost and downtime are dramatically cut down. Protection relay selection guide Main functions are given in the table bellow. More in depth information can be found in the manufacturer data sheets.

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Protection relay selection guide Main functions are given in the table bellow. More in depth information can be found in the manufacturer data sheets.
Overload relay (thermorelay or electronic relay)

Type of relays

PTC probe relay

Overtorque relay

Multifunction relay

Built in the starter Type of control Current Protection classes Overcurrent Ground Fault Phase imbalance Mechanical locking during/after starting No load operation Voltage and power supply Voltage imbalance Phase loss Phase inversion Undervoltage Overvoltage Power in power factor Temperature PTC probes PT100 probes Numerical functions Truth table Timer Starting mode Direct on line Reversing Star delta Part winding two speed motors
Operation/maintenance

Outside the starter

Segregated motor monitor

10 et 20 ++ ++ +

+++

5 to 20 +++ ++

5 to 20

5 to 30 +++ +++ +++ +++

++ ++ module

++

++ module

+++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ module module 3 I/O module module 10 I/O +++ +++ 10 to 20 I/O ++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++

+++ +++ +++

+++ +++ +++ +++

Dignostics Log Links/communication Local display Remote display (communication bus)

+ module + module module

+ module module module

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4.5. Motor circuit breakers Overview This device is a thermal and a magnetic circuit breaker in the same package which protects a motor against short circuits and overload by rapidly opening the faulty circuit. It is a combination of a magnetic circuit breaker and overload relays. It complies with the IEC 60947-2 and 60947-4-1 standards.

Motor circuit breaker

In these circuit breakers, the magnetic devices (protection against short circuits) have a non-adjustable threshold, usually about 10 times the maximum current setting of thermal release units. The thermal elements (protection against overload) are compensated for fluctuations of the ambient temperature. The thermal protection threshold can be adjusted on the front of the unit. Its value must correspond to the rated current of the motor to be protected. In all these circuit breakers, coordination (type II) between the thermal elements and short-circuit protection is built into the device.

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Moreover, in the open position, the insulation distance (between contacts) in most of these units is adequate to ensure isolation. They also have a padlocking device. Tripping curves A motor trip switch is characterized by its tripping curve, which represents the time it takes to trip based on the current (multiple of Ir). This curve is divided into four zones: 1. lc normal operating zone 1. As long as I < Ir, there is no tripping. 2. Thermal overload zone 2. Tripping is ensured by the thermal feature; the greater the overload, the less time it takes to trip. The standards refer to this as inverse time. 3. Strong high current zone 3, monitored by the instant magnetic or short-circuit feature which works instantaneously (less than 5ms). 4. And on some circuit breakers (electronic), an intermediate zone 4, monitored by a timed-delay magnetic feature with a delay function (0 to 300ms). The standards refer to this as definite time-lag. This prevents accidental tripping at switch-on with magnetizing peak currents.

Thermal magnetic circuit breaker operating zones

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Their limits are: Ir : setting current for protection against overload; should correspond to the rated current value (In) of the motor to be protected. Im : tripping current of timed magnetic protection. Iinst: tripping current of instant magnetic protection. This can range from 3 to 17 times Ir but is usually close to 10 Ir. Ics : service rated breaking capacity in short circuit. Icu : ultimate (maximum) breaking capacity in short circuit. Conclusion Motor protection is an essential function for ensuring the continuity of machine operation. The choice of protection device must be made with extreme care. The user would be wise to select devices that include electronic communication features to foresee and prevent any faults. These greatly improve the detection of abnormalities and the speed with which service is restored.

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Motor Starter Co-ordination 5.1 Concepts The need for co-ordination All motor starters include devices which provide short-circuit protection, power switching and overload protection. The devices may be separate components, such as a set of fuses or an MCCB, a contactor, and a thermal overload relay. Alternatively, the functions may be combined in a single component - a fully integrated starter. Under overload conditions, the overload protection will trip the supply to the motor in a time which depends upon the current. The greater the current, the faster the overload will trip, but in the event of a short circuit. Its response time is still not fast enough to prevent damage to the motor or starter. Separate protection against short circuits is, therefore, necessary. Motor starters may, however, be subjected to a whole range of fault conditions, from a minor overload to a high-current short circuit. If the devices making up the starter are not properly coordinated, certain levels of fault may not be correctly handled. Possible consequences include overheated cables and equipment, with an associated risk of fire: contact welding in the switching device, rendering it unfit for further service, and permanent degradation of the characteristics of the overload protection device, rendering it unreliable - or even unsafe - for future use. Standards Telemecanique have offered certified motor starters for a number of years. The original combinations were tested to IEC 292 providing Type 'c' co-ordination. The current standards were introduced as the IEC 947 series for Low Voltage Switchgear and Control-gear in the early 1990s. These were then adopted by CENELEC in Europe and published as the EN 60947 series of standards.
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More recently the IEC has adopted the EN numbering system for standards, with many standards now being developed in parallel by the IEC and CENELEC and published at the same time. Thus IEC 60947-1 and EN 60947-1 are basically the same standard with possible minor differences in the text. CENELEC EN standards are published as an identical version by the Standards organization of each European country using the prefix of that body. For example, in the United Kingdom- EN 60947-1 has been published as BS EN 60947-1, All standards shown in the catalogue as IEC/EN can therefore be read as the equivalent BS EN standard. 5.2 Solutions Three products Telemecanique 'd' and 'F' range contactors, used in conjunction with Merlin Gerin magnetic-only (MA) trip MCCBs or GEC Alsthom brand type T HRC fuses (marketed by GE Power Controls), and LR2 bimetal thermal or LR9 electronic overload relays, offer an exceptional versatile choice of motor starting options. The range of options is increased still further by choosing an LT6 multifunction protection relay in place of standard overloads. Two products Many users prefer the convenience of a resettable circuit breaker to the use of replaceable HRC fuses. In this situation, Telemecanique 'd' and 'F' range contactors, used in conjunction with GV2 or GV7 motor circuit breakers having a motor overload characteristic, provide an attractive solution, GV2 and GV7 motor circuit breakers are specifically designed for use in motor starter circuits, and combine overload and short-circuit protection in a single device. Single product For the vast majority of straightforward motor starting requirements up to 30kW, fully integrated single-component products in the Integral

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range are an ideal and economical choice. Integral Control and Protection Switching (CPS) devices offer a true black-box solution, with fit-and-forget performance, even after being subjected to short circuit fault conditions. All products in the range are fully tested to IEC/EN 60947-6-2, and automatically offer total co-ordination under all operating conditions. Fuse and MCCB Type 2 combinations IEC / EN 60947-4-1 This standard covers both contactors and motor starters. Provisions relate specifically to motor starters assembled from separate components typically a set of fuses or magnetic-only MCCB, a contactor, and a thermal overload relay. Starters comprising other combinations of components are, however, not excluded. This standard defines two levels of co-ordination: Type '1' providing complete protection for individuals in the case of a fault, but not directly limiting the amount of damage which may be caused to the starter, meaning costly downtime after a fault, together with the inconvenience and expense of having to replace damaged equipment. Type '2' co-ordination also offers complete protection for individuals against injury, in the event of a fault, but additionally offers an improved level of protection for the starter, potentially reducing plant downtime.

The table below shows the tests which are required for Type '2' coordination but it's important to note that only the r test is compulsory. Manufacturers who have only carried out the "r' test can still claim Type 2' co-ordination - here is no obligation to carry out the subsequent making and breaking tests to ensure that the starter is fit for further service.

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Test requirements

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Control and protective switching (CPS) IEC / EN 60947-6-2 This standard relates specifically to control and protective switching (CPS) devices, which are more usually referred to as integrated starters. Because no welding of contacts is allowed under any short circuit fault condition, this standard does not usually cover starters made up of separate components, such as a motor protection circuit breaker and a contactor, mounted on a common baseplate, even though these are sometimes loosely described as "integrated starters". It only applies to starters which are designed, manufactured and marketed as a single, totally-integrated unit meeting all the requirements of the test sequences specified. This distinction is important, as the standard demands higher levels of performance than those required by IEC/EN 60947-4-1 starters assembled from separate components. For example, IEC/EN 60947-6-2, in addition to a no contact welding requirement under short circuit conditions, provides guaranteed continuity of electrical life, even after a number of fault clearances. The standard ensures the highest level of co-ordination, with comprehensive protection for personnel and equipment. In addition, as the table below shows, comprehensive performance testing, involving thousands of making/breaking capacity operating cycles, both before and after short-circuit testing, closely resembling the normal operating conditions of a starter. Users selecting Integral CPS products which conform to this standard can, therefore, be sure of black-box convenience with fit-and-forget safe efficient performance with downtime and stoppages for maintenance reduced to a minimum. Component selection criteria Component co-ordination in motor starters Selection of components for use in a motor starter combination should be based on the following criteria: Thermal overload selected to allow a current setting for the rated full-load current of the motor.
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SCPD (Fuse, circuit breaker or CPS device) selected to provide an overload/SCPD crossover current value, which allows correct motor starting, protection of the overload and contactor under short circuit conditions, and is suitable for use at the prospective short circuit current. Contactor having a suitable AC3 rating with a breaking capacity greater than the SCPD/overload crossover current, and, when used with class 20 or class 30 overloads, an adequate time/current withstand capability.

Coordinate Motor Circuit Protection In international markets, the IEC motor circuit protectors are recognized and utilized as stand-alone short-circuit protection devices. Not until the available fault current exceeds the interrupting capability of the motor circuit protector, do back-up short-circuit protection devices need to be used. See diagram below.

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Several key benefits of using IEC circuit breakers include: Provide useful group motor ratings Resettable after fault occurs Visible trip indication Overload protection Provide local On-Off and isolation

Type 2 Coordination Type 2 Coordination is a term used to describe a level of protection that can be achieved by properly coordinating the selection of the shortcircuit protection device with the withstand capability of the motor controller and overload protection device in the circuit. The concept of Type 2 Coordination originated from the IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) standard 947-4-1. In this standard, two levels of short-circuit coordination are identified. Type 1 Coordination is defined as follows: Under short-circuit conditions, the contactor or starter shall cause no danger to persons or installation and may not be suitable for further service without repair and replacement of parts. In other words, contact welding is allowed in the contactor and overload burnout is acceptable. In either case, replacement of the control components is required. Type 2 Coordination on the other hand, limits the effect of a short-circuit on the control components. Type 2 Coordination is defined as follows: Under short-circuit conditions, the contactor or starter shall cause no danger to persons or installation and shall be suitable for further use. The risk of contact welding is recognized, in which case the manufacturer shall indicate the measures to be taken in regard to the maintenance of the equipment.

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Figure 5.2 illustrates the results of a short-circuit if a motor branch circuit was protected by current limiting device vs. a circuit without a current limiting device. In circuits using a current limiting device, the letthrough energy is limited to less than 1/2 cycle. This limited level of letthrough energy allows the control components to survive a short-circuit and continue operation with little or no maintenance required. In general, fuses have had much better current limiting capabilities than do circuit breakers, although some current limiting circuit breakers can provide Type 2 Coordination results. It is best to consult the control manufacturer for recommended short-circuit protection devices required to achieve Type 2 Coordination. Control manufacturers can provide component selection data (see Table 5.2) that has already been proven during Type 2 testing programs. By following the manufacturers guidelines, you can be assured of achieving Type 2 Coordination in your motor branch circuit installation. Benefits of Type 2 coordination include: Increased productivity and less down time Reduced component replacement costs Simple selection of SCPDs and motor circuit components with manufacturer supplied data

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Table 5.2 Manufacturer Fuse Recommendation for Type 2 Coordination

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Figure 5.2 - Let-through Heat and Current

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5.3 Motor Overload Protection Overload relays are used in a motor circuit to protect motors and circuit conductors from damage caused by prolonged periods of overcurrent conditions. If motors are exposed to increased levels of continuous current and prolonged periods at locked rotor condition, damage to the motor and circuit conductors can occur. Motors can be damaged or destroyed under any of the following conditions: Low or high supply voltage Phase unbalance Continuous excessive loading Single-phasing Jam or stall conditions Ground/earth faults Mechanical failures such as seized motor bearing or binding mechanical linkages

By selecting the proper type of overload relay with the appropriate functionality, the motor can be protected from damage caused by these conditions. Types of Overload Relays Today three basic types of overload relays are available: eutectic alloy, bimetal, and solid-state. Lets take a closer look at each type of overload relay and review the basic features of each. Eutectic Alloy Overload Relays Eutectic alloy overload relays are typically used with NEMA motor starters. These overload relays utilize a solder type alloy within heater elements. As current moves through the heater element, the solder is heated until a predetermined melting point (trip point) is reached. At the trip point, the solder is instantaneously changed from a solid to a liquid,
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allowing the ratchet mechanism to open a normally closed contact, dropping out the starter coil circuit.

Key features of a eutectic alloy overload relay: Tamper-proof Not effected by nuisance tripping caused by vibration Manual reset only Single-phase sensitive Selectable trip classes 10, 20, 30

Bimetal Overload Relays

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Two types of bimetal overload relays are available, NEMA and IEC. The NEMA type bimetal overload relay utilizes replaceable heater elements that indirectly heat bimetal strips. As the bimetal strips are heated, they flex towards a trip point, at which time a normally closed contact will open, dropping out the starter coil. Key features of a NEMA type bimetal overload relay: Flexibility of changeable heater elements. Automatic reset Selectable trip classes 10, 20, 30 Ambient temperature compensation Single-phase sensitive

IEC bimetal overload relays are similar to the NEMA devices except that the heater/bimetal are integral to the overload relay. To allow for added flexibility, the overload trip setting is adjustable over a range of motor full load current settings. The typical FLA setting range would be 1.0:1.5 (min. to max. setting). IEC bimetal overload relays are typically designed to Class 10 trip characteristics. This means that the overload relay will trip in less than 10 seconds at locked rotor current. Key features of an IEC type bimetal overload relay are: Manual or automatic reset Ambient temperature compensated Single-phase sensitive Wide current adjustment range (1:1.5)
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Solid-state Overload Relays

Solid-state (electronic) overload relays are the newest and fastest growing type of overload protection devices. Until recently, solid-state overload relays were large, costly, and impractical for use on the vast majority of small motors used in industry today. With recent development in solid-state overload technology, the cost and size of the solid-state devices have been significantly reduced while the functionality has been greatly increased. The latest solid-state overload relay technology utilizes integral current transformers, application specific integrated circuits (ASIC), and/or microprocessors along with electromechanical design principles to produce a compact, high functionality overload protection solution. Available in either NEMA or IEC versions, the principle of operation is the same. As motor current passes through the integral current transformers, power is available to supply the integrated circuit. By monitoring the three-phase power, the ASIC can process current data, and activate a trip mechanism on overload conditions, opening a normally closed contact and dropping out the motor starter coil circuit.

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Key features of solid-state overload relays: Trip classes 10, 15, 20, 30 Ambient temperature compensation Single-phase protection Manual or automatic reset Low power consumption (less heating and smaller panels) Advanced Motor Protection

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As a result of integrating a microprocessor or an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) as the brains of a solid-state overload relay, the opportunity to add advanced protective functionality to the overload relay becomes very practical. Besides basic overload protection, advanced solid-state overload relay devices can offer additional functionality that previously would have required several additional protection devices to be used in the motor circuit. By consolidating many protective features into a single device, installation costs, component costs, panel size, and maintenance time can be significantly reduced while performance and efficiency of the system can be increased. An additional benefit of solid-state devices is its ability to function via network communications. Through a communication network, vital motor information can be collected, processed and displayed in order to take corrective action prior to reaching fault conditions. Examples of data that can be obtained through the solid-state overload relay include: % Thermal capacity used (0100%) How close is the motor to a trip condition (100%)? Phase unbalance Average current FLA settings Fault frequency Fault cause indication

Through triac outputs, control via a communication network can occur. Control functions include: Start/Stop Reset Restart limit

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Advanced Protection Feature Jam/Stall protection selectable - I/O selectable Ground (earth) fault protection selectable - I/O selectable

Advanced Solid-State vs. Traditional OLRs

Solid-state OLRs Trips within 0.5 sec at 400% of FLA setting Monitors phase vector angles Trips at ower level prior to fault level Trips within two se. on fully loaded motor Dip switch setting increased accuracy 2.5% Increased accuracy 1% Fault cause indication - Jam/Stall - Ground earth fault - Improper setting - Comunication loss - Test - Phase loss - Overload 3.2:1 and 5:1 Traditional OLRs Relays on overload trip curve response None-rely on SCPD

Single-phase protection Trip setting accuracy Repeat accuracy of trip setting LED trip indication

Sensitive to singlephase conditions Potentiometer or heater elements: 10% 5% - 10% None

Wide current adjustment range Low power requirement and low heat dissipation. Trip classes 10, 15, 20, 30 Network communcations

150 mW per device Selectable by DIP switch setting Control, data acquisition and fault cause indication Control - Start/stop - Reset - Restart limit Data acquisition - % thermal capacity used (trip warning) - Trip frequency - Phase unbalance - FLA trip setting - Average current Fault cause indication (see above)

1.6:1 and 1.1:1 6W or greater per device Dedicated components per trip class None

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Coordinated Motor Circuit Protection Coordinated motor circuit protection for a branch circuit consists of providing a continuous level of damage protection from minor overloads through major short-circuit currents. Such protection provides benefits of reduced down time and replacement costs as well as greater safety. The purpose of the overload protection in any branch circuit is to provide starting and running protection from overcurrents caused by such problems as binding bearings or jammed parts in the machine. These overcurrents range up to motor locked rotor current, usually about six times the motor full load current. Since locked rotor current is also initial starting current, overload protective devices require some designed in time delay in order to prevent nuisance tripping during start up. The time/current curve of an overload protective device shows that the time to trip is inversely related to the magnitude of overload current.

The purpose of the short-circuit protective device is to prevent higher levels of overcurrent from damaging components of the motor branch circuit. Short-circuit currents are considered to range from motor locked rotor current up to the maximum current available at the motor circuit.

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Short-circuit currents result from such problems as wiring errors, insulation breakdown, and accidental contact with the circuit by tools or other metal objects. Short-circuit protective devices must react quickly to minimize damage. The time/current curve for a short-circuit protective device shows its trip time is also inversely related to current. You can see, however, that the slope of the curve is very steep.

The National Electrical Code requires short-circuit and overload protection for the branch circuit. If these curves are overlaid we then have a time current curve that illustrates the behavior of the protective devices for all levels of current. If the curves intersect, the point of intersection is called coordination point. This point should be just above motor locked motor current (68 x FLC) for proper coordination. If the curves are properly coordinated, the short-circuit protective device will react to currents above the overload range, but will not trip if the overcurrent is in the overload range.

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If, however, these curves do not intersect, or intersect well above the motor locked rotor current, the overload protective device will react to short-circuit currents in the gap between the overload range and shortcircuit protection, and probably be damaged.

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If the curves intersect in the overload range below the locked rotor current, the short-circuit protective device will nuisance trip on motor start-up.

Life of a Typical Motor Installation Over the life of a typical motor installation, several different fault conditions can occur, from high level faults such as short-circuits or ground faults to low level faults such as overloads and jam conditions. When selecting motor circuit protection devices, several questions should be raised. Is the motor circuit critical to the manufacturing process? What is the total cost of downtime in the application? Is the application more susceptible to certain types of fault conditions? Is Type 2 Coordination important?

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Do I need to collect motor data and be warned of impending fault? Are fuses or circuit breakers preferred for short-circuit protection?

Dependent on the answers to these questions (and possibly many others), the process can begin to specify the type of products required to adequately protect the motor circuit. For less critical applications such as a fan or blower, where critical manufacturing processes or safety issues are not a consideration, meeting code requirements with fuses and a traditional overload relay may be the ideal solution. On the other hand, in a critical application, where the manufacturing process relies on a continuous flow of materials and downtime can be very costly, the best protection solution may require the following capabilities: Selecting a short-circuit protection device that provides Type 2 Coordination Selecting a solid-state overload device that provides: o Ground fault protection o Jam/Stall protection o Network communications to more closely monitor the motor data and application

By properly outlining the application requirements and selecting the appropriate protection components, the optimum implementation costs and motor circuit protection scheme can be developed to optimize the maximum life and performance of the motor and application.

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Life of a 40 HP Motor

5.4 Terminology To help understand Coordinated Motor Circuit Protection, it is necessary to be familiar with the characteristics and definitions related to fuses, circuit breakers, overload relays, short-circuit, and overload protection.

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Ampere Rating The continuous current carrying capability of a fuse or circuit breaker. Ampere-squared Seconds (I2t) An expression related to the thermal energy associated with current flow. Available Fault Current The maximum possible short-circuit current that can flow in an unprotected circuit. BS88 Fuse Designations British Standards Institute has defined basic physical specifications (size, mounting dimensions, labeling) and guidelines to fuse manufacturers for providing maximum let-through current and energy for fuses (in a standard format). Fuse designed to British Standards are described by their dimension (e.g., Al, A2, A3, A4, B1, etc.) and continuous current rating. Circuit Breaker A device designed to open and close a circuit by non-automatic means and to open the circuit automatically on a predetermined overload current. Clearing Time The total time measured from the beginning of the fault to the interruption of the circuit. Current Limiting Circuit Breaker A circuit breaker that does not employ a fusible element and that when operating within its current limiting range, limits the let-through I2t to a value less than the I2t of a cycle wave of the symmetrical prospective current. Current Limiting Fuse A fuse which will limit both the magnitude and duration of current flow under short-circuit conditions. The available fault currents a fuse will clear in less than 1/2 cycle, thus limiting the actual magnitude of current flow. DIN Fuse Designations DIN/VDE Standards specify physical specifications as well as classes of operation for fuses. The class of operation is identified by two or three letters (e.g., gL, aM, gTr). The gL fuse is a general purpose fuse with characteristics that are well suited for the protection of starters and associated wiring. These fuses are described by their dimension (e.g., 00, 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4) and continuous current rating. Dual-element Time Delay Fuse A fuse of special design which utilizes two individual elements in series inside the the fuse casing. One element is a spring-actuated trigger assembly that operates that operates on sustained overloads, but which
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ignores momentary surges. The other element operates without intentional delay on currents of fault magnitude up to the interrupting rating of the fuse. Fast-acting Fuse A fuse that opens very quickly on currents of fault magnitude. This type of fuse is designed with no intentional time-delay characteristics. Fast-acting fuses are commonly used to protect solid-state electronic devices. Fuse An overcurrent protective device with a fusible link that operates to open the circuit on an overcurrent condition. High Level Fault Short-circuit currents between the threshold current of a fuse that would be used for the branch circuit protection of a motor in a given application and the test current for the controller of that motor, per the short-circuit test of UL 508. Interrupting Rating The maximum short-circuit current that an overcurrent protective device can safely open or clear. Let-through Energy (I2t) A measure of thermal energy developed within a circuit during the total clearing time of the fault current. Low Level Fault Short-circuit currents that are less than the threshold current of a fuse that would be used for the branch circuit protection of a motor in a given application. Overcurrent A condition existing in an electrical circuit when normal current is exceeded. Overcurrents occur in two distinctly separate forms overloads and short-circuits. Overload An overcurrent that exceeds the normal full-load current of a circuit. Overload Current A level of current above the motor full load current, but generally not greater than six times the full load current. Overload currents are usually caused by overloading the motor and are restricted to the normal current path. These currents are typically detected by the overload relay. Peak Let-through Current (Ip) The maximum instantaneous peak current passed through a short-circuit protective device when clearing a fault current of specified magnitude. RMS Current The effective, root-mean square value of current, and the measure of its heating effect. The RMS value is calculated as the square root of the mean of the squares of all the instantaneous values of the current throughout one cycle. RMS
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alternating current is the value of an alternating current that produces the same heating effect as a given value of direct current. Short-circuit Current Excessive current caused by insulation breakdown or wiring error. Short-circuit currents leave the normal current carrying path of the circuit, such as line-to-line or line-to-ground. Short-circuits are typically detected and cleared by the branch circuit protective devices. Single-phasing The condition that exists when one phase of a three-phase power system opens. Single-phasing results in unbalanced currents and overheating in polyphase motors and other three-phase inductive devices. Proper selection of dualelement time-delay fuses and/or protective relays will help protect motors from damage during single-phasing conditions. Threshold Current The magnitude of current which an SCPD becomes current limiting. Time-delay Fuse A fuse with a built-in time delay that allows temporary a harmless inrush currents to pass without opening, but is designed to open on sustained overloads and currents short-circuit magnitude. UL Class of Fuse/CSA Fuse Designations Underwriters Laboratories and the Canadian Standard Association have developed basic physical specifications (size, rejection features, labeling) and electrical performance requirements (interrupting rating, maximum Ip and I2t) for fuses with voltage ratings of 600 volts or less. If a fuse meets these requirements, it can be designated by a UL class of fuse or a CSA fuse designation. Typical UL fuse classes are K1, K5, RK1, RK5, J, T, and CC. Typical CSA fuse designations are HRCI-T HRCI-R, HRCI-J, and HRCII-C. Voltage Rating The maximum value of system voltage in which a fuse can be used and safely interrupt an overcurrent. Exceeding the fuse voltage rating impairs its ability to clear an overload or short-circuit safely.

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Motor Efficiency Introduction Electric motors are key components in most industrial plants and equipment. They account for two-thirds of all the electrical energy used by industrial/commercial applications in the developed world with lifetime energy cost normally totaling many times the original motor purchase price. In Europe and the USA alone, the annual cost of energy used by motors is estimated at over US$ 100 billion. Yet motor failure can cost more in terms of lost production, missed shipping dates and disappointed customers. Even a single failure can adversely impact a companys short-term profitability; multiply or repeated failures can reduce future competitiveness in both the medium and long term. Clearly, industrial companies need effective motor maintenance and management strategies to minimize overall motor purchase and running costs while avoiding the pitfalls caused by unexpected motor failures. Experienced users long have known and complained that having motors repaired or rewound by a service center reduces capital expenditures while assuring reliable operation. Rising energy cost in recent years, however, have led to questions about the energy efficiency of repaired/rewound motors. It is common experienced that repair/rewinding inevitably decreases motor efficiency. Based largely on a handful of studies of mostly smaller motors (up to 30 hp or 22.5 kW, they often asserted that efficiency drops 1 5% when a motor is rewound even more with repeated rewind. One reason is quality of materials and workmanship where the lowest bidder took the task. As a result, low quality and cheap materials were used. The process of rewinding had been marginalized so us to not affect the profitability of doing business. EASA and AEMT had conducted a study to find definitive answers to efficiency questions, particularly as regard repaired/rewound motors. Observations here in the Philippines pointed out mostly on rewinding motors with no specific controls on stripping and rewind procedures, using different winding configurations and slot fills, and physical (mechanical) damage to stator core, rotor and its shafting.
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There are also many cases where repairing the existing motor is the best choice. This is especially true if an upgrade is required to address the cause of failure, or in some cases, where cost, availability or unique performance is an issue. The motor service center is in an excellent position to make this assessment. Quite often when a motor fails, the procedure is to remove the damaged motor from service and replace it without thorough evaluation of the root cause of the failure. Depending on the motor size and the amount of damage, the old motor may be repaired and placed into spares inventory or even scrapped. The problem with this approach is that the replacement motor, whether new or rebuilt, may fail again for the same reason. If a root cause failure analysis is conducted, it is often possible to identify and correct the underlying cause. All that may be required is to modify the motor, driven equipment or system to extend the mean time between failures (MTBF) significantly. In most cases, where a standard motor is no longer suitable for the application, the service center is able to make the required modification faster than the motor manufacturer can produce a unique model. 6.1 Repair-Replace Decision Model The decision whether to repair or replace an electric motor has been one of economics. Replacement of an older electric motor with a more efficient model often makes sense for a motor operating continuously. However, in most cases the decision is more complex (Refer to figure below). A motor that operates infrequently, a motor with special mounting or design features, an EPACT motor or a motor larger than those covered by EPACT are all examples where the repair option may be the better choice.

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When comparing the cost to replace or repair an electric motor, the equation should include not only operating cost and payback period, but also downtime and associated factors such as capital depreciation, lost opportunities and customer good will. A replacement EPACT motor that fails within a year or two may have significantly higher cost than a repair that optimizes the motor for its unique application. Annual energy savings of several million pesos are quickly wiped out by unscheduled downtime when a motor fails unexpectedly.

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Much todays literature emphasizes efficiency and the cost of energy as stand-alone factors in the repair-replace decision matrix. Frequently, the cost of the motor or its repair is a small fraction of the total cost of downtime when lost production is factored in. Considerations (other than efficiency and simple payback) include reliability, performance and anticipated motor life as well as availability of a replacement. Of these, the most critical may be reliability. A motor customized to its application will offer the greatest chance of long life. Zero Downtime is a noble goal, one that requires commitment and planning. Unusual Service Conditions

It makes economic sense to identify the weak link in any process, and to detect imminent failure before it occurs. When link is strengthened, the entire process becomes stronger. A motor subject to harsh environment should be of a suitable enclosure, and can be modified to further protect the motor from this hazard. 10% of motor losses are caused by friction and windage loss, thereby reducing motor efficiency. The pictures on the right side are typical examples of improvement after the repair.

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More than 50% of electric motor failures start as bearing failures, bearing temperature detectors or vibration probes are logical options in many cases, or implementation of predictive maintenance program to prevent any catastrophic failures. Vibration analysis is one of the best tools for predictive maintenance that can detect bearing problems. Whether the concern is winding temperature, vibration or bearing temperature, specific accessories can be incorporated into the repair process to enhance motor life and permit the end-user to monitor the critical feature. With most companies returning to their core business, and outsourcing maintenance, the competent service center is best qualified to assess the cause of each motor failure and develop a plan to reduce the possibility of a repeat failure. The service center warranty ensures the repairer has a vested interest in identifying the root cause of the motor failure, and performing a quality repair.

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Examples of upgrades and modifications Once a cause of failure is determined, the service center can work with the equipment owner to identify specific remedies to extend MTBF. The following are but a few examples of frequent problems and solutions service centers encounter. Voltage Optimization When a winding failure is the result of low applied voltage, the replacement motor regardless of efficiency will be subject to the

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same low line voltage. The solution then is to redesign the motor to optimize performance at the actual applied voltage. It is common to apply a 230 volt motor to a 200 or 208 volt application. Compounding the problem, the utility supplying 208 volts is allowed to deviate and may supply even lower voltage. The table below illustrates the effect on efficiency and winding temperature.

Low voltages are common problems in any facility. While many manufacturers can deliver a motor to optimize non-standard line voltage, typical manufacturer lead times of five to eight weeks may be prohibitive. The service center can accomplish the same voltage optimization during a motor repair. An added benefit: It is common practice for manufacturers to produce motors with up to 12 leads, so that the motor may be used on multiple voltages, often as part-winding start or Wye-start, delta run. This means the electrician may deal with 9 to 12 leads in the junction box, increasing the chances of a ground failure from abraded leads. When electric motor is repaired, the service center has the option of installing only the number of leads required. With only 3 or 6 leads, there is more room in the junction box and less chance of lead damage or misconnection during installation.

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Corrosion Resistance A chemical plant removed a 600 hp motor for routine repairs. The corrosive environment had rusted through the motor frame in numerous places, even the mounting feet. Although running when removed from service, the motor was beyond repair and had to be replaced.

When a motor (new or rebuilt) is placed into a known corrosive atmosphere, the service center can take precautions to greatly improve motor life. At the simplest corrosion-resistant paint can be used to protect the frame. In extreme cases, the shaft can be chrome plated, or replaced with a stainless steel shaft to better resist corrosive materials. When caustic solutions are evident, aluminum parts may be quickly eroded. Preventive measures may be as simple as dipping the rotor with varnish to protect it. The rotor might even be rebarred using bronze alloy of similar resistivity to avoid changing the torque characteristics (rotor cage resistance should be maintained to avoid changing motor performance). The rotor should also be balanced after work is done to the rotor. A precision balance requires only slightly more time than a standard balance.

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The exploded view of an open motor below illustrates the ease with which various degrees of weather protection can be accomplished by the addition of covers, filters or guards. While an open motor is ill-suited to outdoor operation, the upgraded WPII enclosure was designed for outdoor service. Protection from Abrasive Dust An electric motor operates downwind of a rock quarry and abrasive dust sandblasts the windings. Unprotected windings do not last very long in this type of environment. The service center can topcoat the windings with a special material that absorbs impact energy, thus protecting the windings. Filters can be added to exclude the dust from the motor enclosure, or additional covers can be installed to upgrade the enclosure. Motors operating in rock quarries, cement mills or power plants benefit from this treatment. These treatments can also be applied to new motors before they are placed into service. Energy Efficiency Improvement There are occasions when rewinding a motor where the opportunity may exist to enhance the motor performance and reliability by modifying the winding configuration and copper content. For many designs, the copper loss (I2R) is the largest loss component as shown in the right side picture. In some cases, this loss can be reduced by converting from a concentric, machine-wound configuration to a traditional, hand-inserted lap winding. In many cases, the copper content (slot fill) can also be increased. Figure below (Example of slot fill) shows the contrast between a relatively low slot fill (40 to 50% where the wire is PD2/4) and one of a much higher percent slot fill (60 to 64%). Stator I2R loss can be reduced by increasing the conductor crosssectional area and/or decreasing the mean length of turn (MLT). Changing the winding configuration can also increase the stator I2R loss, although some changes (e.g., increasing the cross-sectional area) will reduce it.
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Mean length of turn (MLT). Allowing the MLT to increase will increase stator I2R losses and therefore decrease motor efficiency. Conversely, decreasing the MLT where possible will reduce stator I2R losses to help maintain or even improve efficiency. The goal is to reduce the straight section of the coil where it exits the slot to the minimum required to avoid mechanicals train on the slot cell. Whatever coil shape is used, make sure the coil end turns are no longer than those of the original winding.

Avoid reducing the MLT too much. Doing so could make the stator difficult or even impossible to wind. It may even affect cooling, in extreme cases causing winding temperature to rise. The table below contains the results of an earlier EASA study that show the impact on efficiency of a 10% change in end turn length (about a 5% change in MLT) for typical TEFC (IP54) motors. Where it was feasible, reducing the MLT improved the efficiency over the nominal value. From this it is clear that end turn length and MLT are critical to motor efficiency.

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Effect of Changes to the End Turn Length on Typical TEFC/IP54, 460V Designs
HP/kW Poles 4 50/37 4 100/75 4 200/150 2 50/37 2 100/75 2 200/150 End turn length 10% short Nominal 10% long 10% short Nominal 10% long 10% short Nominal 10% long 10% short Nominal 10% long 10% short Nominal 10% long 10% short Nominal 10% long Full load efficiency (%) 93.1 93.0 92.8 94.9 94.8 94.6 95.6 95.5 95.3 92.7 92.5 92.3 93.9 93.7 93.5 95.1 95.0 94.9 Total losses (watts) 2746 2825 2911 4020 4129 4243 6921 7099 7278 2935 3024 3122 4881 5047 5212 7697 7975 8075 Change in total losses (%) -2.8 3.0 -2.6 2.8 -2.5 2.5 -2.9 3.2 -3.3 3.3 -2.3 2.5

This modification will improve heat transfer, reduce the copper loss and winding temperature and improve motor efficiency. There will be less coil movement, and increased resistance to moisture, due to better varnish retention. Even though these improvements are difficult for the service shop to quantify, they are none the less real and will usually improve motor performance and reliability. With this modification, the motors service factor will be improved and it will be able to withstand wider variations in voltage, ambient and starting conditions.

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Information on original winding data of motor is available from Electrical Apparatus Service Associations Rewind Software as shown right side corner. The latest technology for rewinding of motors is now available using SAMATIC Computerized Coil Winder. The MLT is achieved with the use of patented Adjustable Concentric Heads - one set of heads fit thousands of different motor sizesperfectly. Each element of the heads moves up and down independently, producing a perfect sized coil every time. The adjustments are made in seconds with the special Set Up jig.

SAMATIC , with its special Adjustable Concentric Heads, and special layering and tensioning features is the perfect tool to achieve the HIGHEST SLOT DENSITY/ FILL RATIO, in any coil shape, and particularly in the concentric winding method.

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Table below shows the possible efficiency improvements that can be made for a generation of T frame motors produced during the 1970s and 80s. Not all motors offer this opportunity, but for those that do this option should be considered as a possible product improvement.

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Conclusion By incorporating effective technology as it becomes available, it is possible to reduce downtime, improve productivity and operate more efficiently. Reduced costs make an organization more profitable. Savings can be redirected to improve other maintenance problems. The savvy maintenance professional is always looking for ways to improve processes, and the competent service center is able to assist in this task. When evaluating the operating cost of an electric motor, the cost of energy is only one variable (and often not the biggest one) in the equation. The key to maximizing productivity is to eliminate downtime. While zero downtime is not always possible, any significant reduction in downtime improves profitability. When downtime is measured in millions of pesos per hour, the payback reaped from extending motor life can be enormous. The economics of the repair or replace decision process are complex. All variables must be considered in order to select the best option. 6.2 Premium Efficiency Motors
Note: (This article is excerpted from "Premium-Efficiency Motors and Transformers", a CD-ROM available from CDA by calling 888/480MOTR)

There is a capital investment that can repay many times its original value over the next 20 years. At the same time, it can improve equipment reliability, reduce downtime and repair costs, and result in lower releases of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. The investment is straightforward: install electric motors having the highest electrical energy efficiency commensurate with your needs. Energy-efficient motors pay for themselves in a few years or sometimes even a few months, after which they will continue to pile up savings worth many times their purchase cost for as long as they remain in service. That's another way of saying that operating costs, not just first cost, are what you should look at when buying a new motor. The rule applies to all motors, although this article is limited to the widely used motors that fall under the requirements of the Energy Policy
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Act of 1992 (EPAct) and to those that additionally meet or exceed the National Electrical Manufacturers Association's NEMA Premium efficiency ratings. We'll explain what the ratings mean in a moment. Before we begin, however, there are three factors to keep in mind, whether you're replacing an old worn out motor or specifying a motor for a new piece of equipment. First, energy-efficient motors only provide savings when they're running, and the more the motors run, the more energy and money they save. Second, maximum savings and the fastest returns on investment are attained in regions of the country where utility rates are highest. Even so, energy-efficient motors are highly recommended even in low energy-cost areas because they eventually provide savings that more than adequately justify their cost. And third, remember that any motor selection has to be properly engineered for its intended application. It can even be worthwhile to replace fully serviceable standard efficiency (pre-EPAct) motors, including ones that were recently overhauled. That's certainly not a simple decision, and it should only be made after conducting a thorough analysis of the economic and technical factors involved. On the other hand, large companies like Cummins Engine and Weyerhaeuser did perform such analyses and found that the savings were large enough to make motor replacement programs a part of their corporate energy policies. Background Until the energy crises in the 1970s, most general-purpose motors were designed to provide rated output and operating characteristics at reasonable cost, period. Efficient operation was at best a secondary consideration. As energy prices began rising, however, manufacturers began promoting improved motors they called "high-efficiency" and "energy-efficient", although the terms were not specifically defined at the time. Old-style "standard efficiency" motors remained popular because they generally cost less than the new models. Purchasing agents were seldom inclined to spend a little more money up front in order to save on energy costs later on. Because of the national energy implications of motor

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efficiency, Congress enacted the Energy Policy Act of 1992, which granted the USA Department of Energy (DOE) the authority to set minimum efficiency standards for certain classes of electric motors. EPAct rules for motors became effective Oct. 24, 1997. All covered motors sold in the USA after that date are required to have efficiency ratings equal to or better than those listed in NEMA MG 1-1993, Table 12.10. EPAct covers general-purpose motors rated from 1 to 200 hp; 2-, 4- and 6-pole (3600, 1800 and 1200 rpm); horizontal; T-frame; single speed; continuous duty, 230V, 460V or 230/460V; NEMA Designs A and B. Efficiencies of these so-called "EPAct motors" are from one to four percentage points higher than the previous "standard-efficiency" motors. EPAct didn't bring about the manufacture of an entirely new type of motor; it simply set standards for motors that could be sold in the U.S.A. EPAct also provided grandfather protection to existing standardefficiency motors no matter how often they were rewound or repaired. NEMA Premium Motors, the New Standard EPAct was a step in the right direction, but its requirements were based on minimum efficiency levels that industry and the DOE agreed were reasonable at the time. In fact, many motors that were available before EPAct became law exceeded the statute's minimum requirements, and as motor manufacturers continue to improve their products, they are now able to offer significantly more efficient motors, sometimes at little if any cost premium, model for model. In June 2001, NEMA granted such "better-than-EPAct" motors special recognition by creating a designation called NEMA Premium. Going a step beyond EPAct, NEMA Premium applies to single-speed, polyphase, 1 to 500 hp, 2-, 4-, and 6-pole (3600, 1800 and 1200 rpm) squirrel cage induction motors, NEMA Designs A or B, 600V or less, (5kV or less for medium voltage motors), and continuous rated. The Consortium for Energy Efficiency (CEE), a non-profit organization that includes many electric utilities among its members, recognizes NEMA Premium motors up to 200 hp as meeting their criteria for possible energy efficiency rebates.

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Many motors exceed NEMA Premium efficiency ratings; however, some such motors are manufactured by companies that are not members of NEMA and who may therefore not use the NEMA premium trademark. Other manufacturers, while they may be NEMA members, voluntarily choose not to apply the label to their products. The point is that, while the NEMA Premium label assures the buyer of a certain minimum yet high level of efficiency, lack of the label does not necessarily imply that the motor doesn't meet the high standards. It therefore pays to check nameplate efficiencies and use tools such as MotorMaster+, MotorSlide, or other free publications from Copper Development Association to help identify those motors that do offer high efficiency, possibly even exceeding that of NEMA Premium. Defusing the Energy Explosion It goes without saying that more-efficient motors will consume less energy and reduce their owners' electric bills over the long run, but a rapid return on investment is most likely when the motors operate at high duty cycles. Motors that operate intermittently may or may not save enough to justify replacement except in cases where utility rates are especially high. But, in evaluating motors that operate at a high duty cycle, or continuously, replacement with energy-efficient motors can usually result in very rapid payback, and save many times their initial cost. On a nation wide basis, high-efficiency motors promise truly enormous energy savings. The DOE estimates that there are about 12.4 million motors of more than 1 hp in service in U.S. manufacturing facilities.1 CEE reports that about 2.9 million of these motors fail each year, of which 600,000 are replaced.2 According to DOE estimates, potential industrial motor system energy savings, using mature, proven, cost-effective technologies range from 11-18 percent of current annual usage or 62 to 104 billion kWh per year in the manufacturing sector alone. This savings is valued up to $5 billion. It would also avoid the release of up to 29.5 million metric tons of carbon equivalent emissions to the atmosphere annually. Industrial electric motor driven systems used in production account for about 679 billion kWh, or about 23% of all the
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electricity sold in the USA. Motors used in industrial space heating, cooling and ventilation systems use an additional 68 billion kWh. Process motor systems account for 63% of all electricity used in industry.1 It is estimated that the NEMA Premium motor program could save over 5,800 GWh (5.8 billion kWh) of electricity and prevent the release of nearly 80 million metric tons of carbon into the atmosphere over the next 10 years. That would be the equivalent of keeping 16 million cars off the road.2

Today, many industrial organizations are seeking ways to display their concern for the environment. Establishing and implementing a policy to use high-efficiency motors is one way to demonstrate environmental concern (and, at the same time, save energy and money). In fact, numerous companies have already won national recognition by including high-efficiency motors in their corporate energy policies. As to the cost of the motors themselves, a number of utilities and state agencies now offer incentive programs in the form of rebates and costsharing programs that encourage their customers to install the efficient devices. Utilities benefit from these demand-side management programs because the improved motors reduce the need to bring new power sources on line. MotorMaster+ Makes it Easy to Decide Which Motor to Choose Many business owners hesitate to replace old motors because the capital cost of a new motor usually exceeds the cost of repairing the old one. This is a valid concern, but it is important to recognize that motors themselves may be quite inexpensive compared with the cost of power they consume. Example # 1: Replacing a Serviceable Standard-Efficiency Motor To illustrate that point and also compare the true cost of owning motors of several efficiencies, we'll use software called MotorMaster+, which was developed for the DOE by engineers at Washington State University. (MotorMaster+ can be obtained free of charge from the Copper Development Association by calling 1-888-480-MOTR.)

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For this example, assume you have a serviceable standard-efficiency (pre-EPAct), 5-hp, 1800-rpm, 208-230/460-V, general-purpose, T frame, TEFC, NEMA Design B motor, one that might have been produced until not too many years ago. Assume the motor operates 8000 hours (11 months) per year at 75% of full load, and that power costs $0.075/kWh, the national average. Such motors have an average efficiency rating of 84% at full load. (Efficiency ratings for motors of this type at 75% loading range from 81% to 88.8%, averaging 84.06%.) Millions of old motors like this remain in service today, most of them having been rewound several times. Unfortunately, rewinding cannot and does not improve a motor's efficiency beyond the motor's original nameplate rating. Using the operating parameters and power cost given above, MotorMaster+ calculates the motor will consume 26,644 kWh of energy annually, and the annual cost of operating this motor will be: [0.746(W/hp) X 5(hp) X 0.75(load factor) X 8000(h/y) X $0.075/kWh)]/0.84(efficiency) = $1998.21, or about 7 to 9 times the cost of a new replacement motor! The old motor's operating cost will total $39,960 over a 20-year lifespan. MotorMaster+ can compare that motor with one that just meets EPAct's minimum efficiency requirements (87.5% at full load for this size and type of motor). A motor of this type would cost around $233 after a typical 35% discount from list price. Operating continuously for 8000 h/y at 75% load, and at 88.2% efficiency (efficiency usually peaks near 75% of full load), the annual cost to operate the EPAct motor would be: (0.746 X 5 X 0.75 X 8000 X 0.075)/0.882 = $1,903.06. This is $95 less per year ($1,900 less over 20 years) than the standardefficiency model it replaces. MotorMaster calculates a simple payback period of 2.44 years.

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If on the other hand we upgrade to a NEMA Premium motor that has an efficiency of 90.5% at 75% of full load, annual energy and cost savings rise to 1914 kWh and $144, respectively, over the standard model. One such motor would cost approximately $302 after discount, and it would pay back its purchase price in only 2.10 years. The table below lists comparisons made by MotorMaster+ for the cost of owning and operating motors of various sizes against keeping a standardefficiency motor in service. For each size, comparisons are made using average efficiency values for standard-efficiency motors, and nameplate efficiency values for commercial motors that meet EPAct efficiency requirements and for motors that qualify for the NEMA Premium designation, respectively. All motors listed are 208-230V/460V, generalpurpose, 4-pole, TEFC, T-frame, NEMA Design B types. Cost comparisons are based on 8000 h/y at 75% of rated power, and a $0.075/kWh utility rate. Energy and Cost Savings Available When Replacing Serviceable Standard Efficiency Motor with an EPAct-level or NEMA Premium Motor
Std Efficiency Motors, Average Efficiency Annual Energy Eff. at Use 75% (kWh), load cost 84.0% 26,644 $1,998 86.75 51,653 $3,874 87.55 76,771 $5,758 89.3% 100,206 $7,515 89.9% 124,457 $9,334 91.6% 244,211 $18,316 Replace with EPAct Motors Annual Energy Annual % Eff. at Use Saving 75% (kWh), kWh, load cost $ 88.2 25,374 1,270 $1,903 $95 90.0 49,773 1,919 $3,730 $144 91.0 73,780 2,991 $5,534 $224 92.6 96,626 3,579 $7,247 $268 93.1% 119,952 4,505 $8,996 $338 93.9 238,027 6,185 $17,852 $464

HP 5 10 15 20 25 50

Purchase Price (35% disc) $233 $375 $562 $666 $800 $1617

Payback Period 2.44 2.60 2.50 2.48 2.36 3.48

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HP 5 10 15 20 25 50

Std Efficiency Motors, Average Efficiency Annual Energy Eff. at Use 75% (kWh), load cost 84.0% 26,644 $1,998 86.75 51,653 $3,874 87.55 76,771 $5,758 89.3% 100,206 $7,515 89.9% 124,457 $9,334 91.6% 244,211 $18,316

Replace with NEMA Premium Motors Annual Purchase Energy Annual Price % Eff. at Use Saving (35% 75% (kWh), kWh, Payback disc) load cost $ Period 90.5 24,729 1,914 2.10 5 $1,855 $144 92.2 48,547 3,106 2.22 10 $3,641 $233 92.6 72,815 3,955 2.11 15 $5,461 $297 93.4 95,846 4,360 2.52 20 $7,188 $327 94.0% 119,043 5,415 2.62 25 $8,928 $406 94.5 236,825 7,386 2.42 50 $17,852 $464

Note: MotorMaster may produce apparent small mathematical errors due to rounding.

In most cases, replacing an older, serviceable, standard-efficiency motor with an EPAct-minimum motor results in significant energy and cost savings, as well as payback periods of three years or less. Replacing that serviceable, standard-efficiency motor with a NEMA Premium motor usually increases the savings and decreases the payback period. Remember: a payback in 2.4 years is equivalent to a 34% return on investment. Example #2: Replacing a Failed Motor A different type of comparison to consider involves choosing between two different motors for a new application, or when replacing a failed motor. The savings and payback figures will be significantly better than those listed above, because the initial capital cost must be expended in

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any event, so only the difference in initial cost between motors that meet EPAct requirements and ones that meet or exceed NEMA Premium standards enters the equation. For the operating parameters used above (8000 h/y, 75% load, $0.075/kWh), paybacks can be achieved in as little as 7 to 12 months for some motors, with 1-2 years being more typical, as in the following table.

Comparison of Annual Savings and Simple Payback When Comparing Replacement of a Failed Motor With an EPact-level or NEMA Premium Motor
Std Efficiency Motors, Average Efficiency Annual Energy % Eff. at Use 75% (kWh), load cost 88.2 25,374 $1,903 90.0 49,773 $3,730 91.0 73,780 $5,534 92.6 97,030 $7,277 93.1 120,248 $9,019 93.9 238,316 $17,874

HP 5 10 15 20 25 50

Replace with NEMA Premium Motors Annual Motor Energy Annual Purchase Use Saving Cost (kWh), kWh, Payback Premium cost $ Period $70 24,729 1,855 1.43 $1,855 $48 $143 48,547 1,187 1.60 $3,641 $89 $115 72,505 1,275 1.20 $5,438 $96 $158 95,846 1,185 1.77 $7,188 $89 $265 119,043 1,205 2.93 $8,928 $90 $177 235,331 2,985 2.64 $17,650 $224

Note: MotorMaster may produce apparent small mathematical errors due to rounding

Several other examples, worked out using MotorMaster+ software, can be found elsewhere on this Web site.

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Example #3: Motors for OEM Equipment OEM equipment suppliers sometimes but not always! offer their products with a choice of motors. If the customer looks at first-cost price alone and selects the cheapest option, it is likely that the equipment will be fitted with an EPAct motor (assuming it qualifies under the EPActlisted types described above), or one even lower efficiency. However, a smart customer will run the numbers through MotorMaster+ and specify the most energy efficient motor that meets the equipment's requirements at a reasonable first cost. Paybacks will be similar to those listed in Example #2. An example describing one major industrial company's successful experience with this practice can be found in Cummins Case Study. Additional Savings Another point to consider: premium efficiency motors are generally made to higher manufacturing standards and tighter quality controls than the old standard-efficiency motors they are meant to replace. The new motors run cooler because they generate less I2R heat, producing less stress on windings. This is generally taken to be an indication that the motors will last longer, and it can translate in reduced downtime and lower repair costs over the life of the motor. The MotorMaster+ calculations summarized in the table, above, make no allowance for incentives offered by some utilities, which can be substantial. The calculations also ignore the sharp increase in utility rates recently seen in certain regions. When these factors are taken into account, payback periods may become as short as a few months. While the savings described above are impressive, they are only an indication of what can be gained in an entire facility, even if it only operates a few motors. Many companies have examined their entire motor inventory, including motors in service as well as those held in reserve, to determine which ones could be replaced profitably. In at least one instance, a company instituted a corporate energy policy to replace all standard-efficiency motors rated at less than 50 hp, regardless of how recently they had been rewound. That action may or may not be suitable for all organizations since it involves many factors, such as utility rate

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structures, that can vary significantly. However, developing a corporate energy policy is always a smart idea, and calling CDA at 1-888-480MOTR to obtain a free copy of MotorMaster+ 3 is a very good place to start. You can also obtain a free MotorSlide calculator, case histories, and other energy efficiency information as well as a copy of the new CDROM "Premium Efficiency Motors & Transformers."

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Installation, Testing, and Maintenance Overview Establishing clean and sustainable energy systems is one of the preeminent issues of our time. This is due to two mega-issues: global warming and energy security. On the one hand, the global warming issue has led to significant discussions about reductions of carbon dioxide emissions from our power plants. One way we can contribute is to reduce our energy consumption through the implementation of energy efficient programs, thereby reducing the emission of carbon dioxide from power plants. 7.1 Installation and maintenance Foundations The motor foundation must be flat and, if possible, free from vibration. A cast concrete foundation is therefore recommended. Foundation studs or a base plate should be used to secure the motor. Motors for belt drives should be mounted on slide rails. The foundation must be stable enough to withstand the forces that can arise in the event of a three-phase short-circuits. The short-circuit torque is primarily a damped sinusoidal oscillation, and can thus have both positive and negative values. The stress on the foundation can be calculated with the aid of details in the data tables of the motor catalogue and the formula below. F = 0.5 * g * m where: F g m Mmax A 4 * Mmax A N

= stress per side, N = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2 = weight of motor, kg = maximum torque, Nm = lateral distance between the holes in the motor feet. The dimension is taken from the dimension drawing and is expressed in meters.
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The foundation should be dimensioned to give a large enough resonance distance between the natural frequency of the installation and any interference frequencies.

Motor whose foundation has no grout generates a lot of resonance that shorten bearing life.

Example of pump-motor foundation with grout and its piping has a support.

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Alignment Misaligned rotating machinery has caused, and will continue to cause, a tremendous financial loss to every industry worldwide. No one has ever really calculated how much money has been wasted on prematurely damaged machinery, lost production, and excessive energy consumption due to shaft misalignment.

Despite the best efforts to precisely align rotating machinery shafts, dynamic movement (commonly believed to be due to the thermal growth of the machine casings) has resulted in machines operating at less than optimum alignment conditions. This vexing problem has plagued machine reliability professionals for decades. What is shaft alignment? Shaft alignment is the positioning of the rotational centers of two or more shafts such that they are co-linear when the machines are under normal operating conditions. Proper shaft alignment is not dictated by the total indicator reading (TIR) of the coupling hubs or the shafts, but rather by the proper centers of rotation of the shaft supporting members (the machine bearings). There are two components of misalignmentangular and offset. Offset misalignment, sometimes referred to as parallel misalignment, is the distance between the shaft centers of rotation measured at the plane of power transmission. This is typically measured at the coupling center. The units for this measurement are millimeters.

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Angular misalignment, sometimes referred to as "gap" or "face," is the difference in the slope of one shaft, usually the moveable machine, as compared to the slope of the shaft of the other machine, usually the stationary machine. The units for this measurement are comparable to the measurement of the slope of a roof (i.e., rise/run). In this case the rise is measured in mm and the run (distance along the shaft) is measured in inches. The units for angular misalignment are mm/100mm. As stated, there are two separate alignment conditions that require correction. There are also two planes of potential misalignmentthe horizontal plane (side to side) and the vertical plane (up and down). Each alignment plane has offset and angular components, so there are actually four alignment parameters to be measured and corrected. They are horizontal angularity (HA), horizontal offset (HO), vertical angularity (VA), and vertical offset (VO). Shaft alignment tolerances Historically, shaft alignment tolerances have been governed by the coupling manufacturers design specifications. The original function of a flexible coupling was to accommodate the small amounts of shaft misalignment remaining after the completion of a shaft alignment using a straight edge or feeler gauges. Some coupling manufacturers have designed their couplings to withstand the forces resulting from as much as 3 degrees of angular misalignment and 1.905 mm of offset misalignment, depending on the manufacturer and style of the coupling.

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Another common tolerance from coupling manufacturers is the gap tolerance. Typically this value is given as an absolute value of coupling face TIR (as an example, a specification might read "Face TIR not to exceed 0.127 mm). This number can be deceiving depending on the swing diameter of the face dial indicator or the diameter of the coupling being measured. In fairness, it should be noted that the tolerances offered by coupling manufacturers are to ensure the life of the coupling with the expectation that the flexible element will fail rather than a critical machine component. If this angular tolerance was applied to a 203.2 mm (8) diameter coupling, the angular alignment result would be 0.0625/100 mm. If the coupling was doubled, the result of the alignment would be twice as precise as 0.03125/100mm. This would lead one to conclude that an angular alignment tolerance based on mm/100mm. would be something that could be applied to all shafts regardless of the coupling diameter. Misalignment Forces Calculating the forces due to shaft alignment is a far more difficult task than this manual needs to address. However, it is worthy to note that the following simple rule always applies when misalignment is present. Rule: Any Parallel or angular misalignment produces radial and axial forces. The misalignment situation depicted in Figure on the right illustrates the severe nature of static misalignment forces. Note that the static forces due to misalignment are similar to U-joint systems that are misaligned identically. Torque = Force x Distance, or Force = Torque / Distance

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Example: For a 15kW drive with 0.254 mm (0.000254 meter) parallel offset misalignment: 15kW @ 1750 rpm = 112.98 Newton-meter Force = = 112.98 Newton-meter/0.000254 meter 444,803.10 Newton

We know 444,803.10 Newton of radial force would be instantly destructive to most 15kW drives. To assume absolute shaft rigidity is a faulty assumption because there are no absolutely rigid shafts or structures in machines. Harmonic forces are dangerous When shafts are misaligned, forces are generated. These forces can produce great stresses on the rotating and stationary components. While it is probably true that the coupling will not fail when exposed to the large stresses as a result of this gross misalignment, the bearings and seals on the machines that are misaligned will most certainly fail under these conditions. Typically, machine bearings and seals have small internal clearances and are the recipient of these harmonic forces, not unlike constant hammering.

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Excessive shaft misalignment, say greater than 0.06/100mm for a 3600 rpm machine under normal operating conditions, can generate large forces that are applied directly to the machine bearings and cause excessive fatigue and wear of the shaft seals. In extreme cases of shaft misalignment, the bending stresses applied to the shaft will cause the shaft to fracture and break. Bearing life expectancy

The most prevalent bearings used in machinery, ball and roller bearings, all have a calculated life expectancy, sometimes called the bearings L10 life a rating of fatigue life for a specific bearing. Statistical analysis of bearing life relative to forces applied to the bearings has netted an equation describing how a bearings life is affected by increased forces due to misalignment. Wear of mechanical components such as shaft seals yields oil leakage. As the force applied to a given bearing increases, the life expectancy decreases by the cube of that change. For instance, if the amount of force as a result of misalignment increases by a factor of 3, the life expectancy of the machines bearings decreases by a factor of 27.

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Quite a bit of research in shaft alignment has been conducted over the past 20 years. The results have led to a much different method of evaluating the quality of a shaft alignment and to increasingly accurate methods of correcting misaligned conditions. Based on the research and actual industrial machine evaluations, shaft alignment tolerances are now more commonly based on shaft rpm rather than shaft diameter or coupling manufacturers specifications. There are presently no specific tolerance standards published by ISO or ANSI, but typical tolerances for alignment are shown in the above table. Energy Savings The correct alignment can reduce energy consumption with anything up to 15%, sometimes more.

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To calculate savings Measure amperage before and after alignment Find the difference Get motor data Find cost of energy Calculate kW savings with formula below: = Volts * amps * pf * 1.732 1000

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Pre-alignment Check
Preparations Off-site 1. Is Safety regulations complied? 2. Do you have the working permits? 3. Time limit for the production stop? 4. What is the alignment tolerance? 5. Any thermal offsets? 6. Is there any available working space? 7. What is the shaft rotation? 8. Indicate shim sizes On Visual Check a. Is working area safe to work? b. What is the foundation condition? c. What is the bedplate condition? d. What is the bolt condition? e. What is the adjustment capability? f. What are the shims conditions? g. Is there a leak in the machine? Pre-Alignment Procedures On-site actions 1. What is the machine temperature? 2. Is there a gross soft foot? 3. Have you replaced the old shims? 4. Have you check coupling specifications or loosen its bolts prior to alignment? 5. Have you double check if there is mechanical looseness on basebolts or bearings? 6. Have you measure and record the runout? Answer

Findings

Findings

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Machine Casing to Baseplate Interface Problem (aka soft foot) One of the most prevalent problems with alignment rotating machinery can be traced to machine case to baseplate interface problems. When rotating machinery is set in place on its base / frame / soleplate, one or more than one of the feet are not making good contact at the foot points on the frame. This can be attributed to warped or bowed frames, warped or bowed machine cases, improper machining of the equipment feet, improper machining of the baseplate, or a combination of a warped / uneven frame and warped / uneven machine case. This problem is commonly referred to as soft foot. Soft foot generally describes any condition where poor surface contact is being made between the undersides of the machine casing feet and where they contact the baseplate or frame. Soft foot problems seem to be worse on fabricated baseplates as opposed to cast baseplates. A fabricated baseplate is frequently made from sections of channel iron, angle iron, structural tubing, or I beams. These pieces are then welded together to construct a machine frame. The chances of making true 45 or 900 cuts on the frame pieces and welding

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them all together and insuring that everything is flat, square, and in the same plane is very slim. However, cast baseplates are not exempt from this problem either. Even in cast baseplates where the base is sand cast and the machinery feet are machined, it is possible that during the installation process the frame was warped when it was placed on the concrete pedestal introducing a soft foot problem.

Shaft Alignment Techniques and Measuring Tools The techniques and tools shown here illustrate some methods used to measure the position of the one shafts centerline of rotation with respect to another shafts centerline of rotation when the machinery is off-line. There is no one method or measuring device that will solve every alignment problem that one can possibly encounter on the various types of rotating machinery drive systems in existence. Understanding each one of these techniques will enable you to select the best measurement method for the alignment situation confronting you. Face and Rim Method Perhaps the oldest dial indicator technique used to align rotating machinery shafts is the face and rim or face-peripheral method shown below.

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Advantages: This is a good technique to use in situations where one of the machinery shafts cannot be rotated or it would be difficult to rotate one of the machinery shafts. A good method to use when the face reading can be captured on a fairly large diameter greater than 203.2 mm (8). This method begins to approach the accuracy of the Reverse Indicator Technique when the diameter the face readings are being captured on equals or exceeds the span from the bracket location to the point where the rim indicator readings are being capture. Many people who use this method understand that the rim (or perimeter) dial indicator shows centerline offset or parallel misalignment and the face indicator indicates angular misalignment.

Disadvantages: Not as accurate as the reverse indicator method if both shafts can be rotated and particularly if the face measurements are being taken on diameters less than 203.2 mm (8). If the machinery shaft(s) are supported in sliding (plain/sleeve) bearings, it is very easy to axially float the shafts toward or away from each other when rotating the shaft(s) resulting in bad or inaccurate rate face readings. Bracket sag must be measured and compensated for.
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Reverse Indicator Method This method is also often called the Indicator Reverse method or the Double Dial method. The reverse indicator method can be used on 60 70% of the rotating machinery in existence and is the currently preferred dial indicator method for measuring rotating machinery shafts. It is best suited for use when the distances between measuring points on each shaft range from 76.2 to 762 mm (3 to 30).

Advantages: Typically more accurate than the face-rim method since the distance from the mounting point of the bracket to the point where the indicators capture the readings on the shafts is usually greater than the distance a face reading can be taken. If the machinery is supported in sliding type bearings and the shafts are floating; back and forth axially when rotating the shaft to capture readings, there is virtually no effect on the accuracy of the reading being taken. Can be performed with the flexible coupling in place.

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Disadvantages: Both shafts must be rotated. Difficult to visualize the positions of the shafts from the dial indicator readings being collected. Bracket sag must be measured and compensated for.

Laser Alignment

From relying on the accuracy of our eyesight to using straightedges and feeler gauges and then eventually to shaft brackets and dial indicators, the art of measuring machinery shaft positions has been continually refined to improve accuracy and reduce the amount of time required to achieve acceptable machinery alignment. It was inevitable, however, that all was not to stop here, particularly in light of the technological explosion in electronics. With the advent of the microprocessor chip, the semiconductor junction laser, and silicon photodiodes, new inroads have been forged in the process of measuring rotational centerlines that utilize these new electronic devices instead of the mechanical measuring instruments.
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Express alignment adapting the reverse indicator method within a maximum of seven (7) meters measuring distance. Flexible & Rigid Couplings One of the most important components of any drive system is the device connecting the rotating shafts together known as the couplings. Since it is nearly impossible to maintain perfectly collinear centerlines of rotation between two or more shafts, flexible couplings are designed to provide a certain degree of yielding to allow for initial or running shaft misalignment. There is a wide assortment of flexible couplings designs, each available in a variety of sizes to suite specific service conditions. Coupling and Shaft Misalignment Tolerances Whats the Difference? It is important for the person selecting the coupling not to be confused by the term allowable misalignment in a coupling. The coupling manufacturers will often quite information on allowable misalignment for the coupling and not necessarily the equipment it is coupled to. These tolerances seem to lull the user into a sense of complacency leading one to believe that accurate shaft alignment is not necessary since the coupling can take care of any misalignment (famous last words).

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It is imperative that you can differentiate between coupling tolerance and alignment tolerances. Coupling misalignment tolerances quoted by flexible coupling manufacturer typically specify the mechanical or fatigue limits of the coupling or components of the coupling. These misalignment tolerances are frequency excessive compared to the alignment tolerances mentioned above. The said alignment tolerance is concerned with the survivability of not the coupling, but also the shafts, seals, and bearings of the machinery over long periods of time. The Role of the Flexible Coupling Exactly what is coupling supposed to do? If a perfect coupling were to exist, what would its design features include: Allow limited amounts of parallel and angular misalignment Transmit power Insure no loss of lubricant in grease-packed couplings despite misalignment Easy to install and disassemble Accept torsional shock and dampen torsional vibration Minimize lateral loads on bearings from misalignment Allow for axial movement of shafts (end float) even under misaligned shaft conditions without transferring thrust loads from one machine element to another Stay rigidly attached to the shaft without damaging or fretting the shaft Withstand temperatures from exposure to environment or from heat generated by friction in the coupling itself Ability to run under misaligned conditions when equipment is initially started to allow for equipment to eventually assume its running position Provide failure warning and overload protection to prevent coupling from bursting r flying apart Produce minimum unbalance forces Have a minimal effect on changing system critical speed(s).

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Types of Flexible Couplings

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V-Belts with Cogged or Synchronous Belt Drives

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About one-third of the electric motors in the industrial and commercial sectors use belt drives. Belt drives provide flexibility in the positioning of the motor relative to the load. Pulleys (sheaves) of varying diameters allow the speed of the driven equipment to be increased or decreased. A properly designed belt transmission system provides high efficiency, decreases noise, requires no lubrication, and presents low maintenance requirements. However, certain types of belts are more efficient than others, offering potential energy cost savings. The majority of belt drives use V-belts. V-belts use a trapezoidal cross section to create a wedging action on the pulleys to increase friction and improve the belts power transfer capability. Joined or multiple belts are specified for heavy loads. V-belt drives can have a peak efficiency of 95% to 98% at the time of installation. Efficiency is also dependent on pulley size, driven torque, under or over-belting, and V-belt design and construction. Efficiency deteriorates by as much as 5% (to a nominal efficiency of 93%) over time if slippage occurs because the belt is not periodically re-tensioned. Cogged belts have slots that run perpendicular to the belts length. The slots reduce the bending resistance of the belt. Cogged belts can be used with the same pulleys as equivalently rated V-belts. They run cooler, last longer, and have an efficiency that is about 2% higher than that of standard V-belts. Synchronous belts (also called timing, positive-drive, or high-torque drive belts) are toothed and require the installation of mating toothed-drive sprockets. Synchronous belts offer an efficiency of about 98% and maintain that efficiency over a wide load range. In contrast, V-belts have a sharp reduction in efficiency at high torque due to increasing slippage. Synchronous belts require less maintenance and re-tensioning, operate in wet and oily environments, and run slip-free. But, synchronous belts are noisy, unsuitable for shock loads, and transfer vibrations. Example: A continuously operating, 100-hp, supply-air fan motor (93% efficient) operates at an average load of 75% while consuming 527,000 kWh annually. What are the annual energy and dollar savings if a 93% efficient (1) V-belt is replaced with a 98% efficient (2) synchronous belt? Electricity is priced at $0.05/kWh.

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Energy Savings

= Annual Energy Use x (1 1/2 ) = 527,000 kWh/year x (1 93/98) = 26,888 kWh/year Annual Cost Savings = 26,888 kWh x $0.05/kWh = $1,345

Further Considerations: For centrifugal fans and pumps, which exhibit a strong relationship between operating speed and power, synchronous belt sprockets must be selected that take into account the absence of slippage. Operating costs could actually increase if slippage is reduced and a centrifugal load is driven at a slightly higher speed. Synchronous belts are the most efficient choice. However, cogged belts may be a better choice when vibration damping is needed or shock loads cause abrupt torque changes that could shear a synchronous belts teeth. Synchronous belts also make a whirring noise that might be objectionable in some applications. (Reference: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/motor.pdf) Mounting Pulleys, Sheaves, Sprockets and Gears In general, the closer pulleys, sheaves, sprocket, or gears are mounted to the bearing on the motor shaft, the less will be the load on the bearing. This will give greater assurance of trouble-free service. The center point of the belt, or system of V-belts, should not be beyond the end of the motor shaft. The inner edge of the sheave or pulley rim should not be closer to the bearing than the shoulder on the shaft but should be as close to this point as possible. The outer edge of a chain sprocket or gear should not extend beyond the end of the motor shaft1. (Reference: NEMA, MG 1 2006. 14.7.1. Refer also to Section 11 of this manual: Application of V-Belt Sheave Dimensions to Alternating Current Motors Having Anti-Friction Bearings.)

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V-Belt Tension Forces A typical belt drive is tensioned using the force-deflection method to measure the relative tension of the belts. A belt is deflected for a distance of 1/64 of its span, and the force to obtain this deflection is measured. Refer to figure on the right side.

Using this general rule, the shaft force per belt (applied at the sheave) due to belt tension equals 32 x the deflection force. It should be noticed that the horsepower does not enter into the equation at all. Set Belt Tension per the Manufacturers Recommendation. The belt system should be designed to match the load requirements. Providing excess belt capacity may result in increased belt wear and decreased efficiency. Rule: Shaft force = Deflection force x 32 x number of belts The following chart provides some typical force values for V-belt drives.

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It is obvious that V-belts produce a significant amount of force, especially when larger belt cross-sections and numbers of belts are used on the drive. Flat, synchronous, poly-V and round belts also require significant levels of tension in order to operate. Bearing Maintenance In order for a bearing to function properly it is important that the correct mounting method be used. The type of bearing used for a given application and the method of mounting and dismounting is determined initially at the design stage. Mounting should, wherever possible, be carried out in a clean and dust-free room and not where there are dustproducing machines.

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Causes of Premature Bearing Failures in Electric Motor Root Cause of Premature Failure Excessive load Unbalance Misalignment Belt tension Improper bearing installation Shaft fit Improper shaft tolerance Improper shaft surface finish (machining method) Housing fit Improper housing tolerance Out-oh-round housing condition Installation error Force across races (improper pressing ofbearing) Bearing cocked on shaft or in bore (internal misalignment) Axial pressure (false thrust) Incorrect bearing installed or bearing installed backward Improper maintenance Over lubrication Under lubrication (especially in high temperature applications) Lubrication incapacity Shaft Failure Excessive misalignment Excessive belt tension Loose fit with mating drive mechanism (sheave, pulley, coupling, etc.) % of Failures 50 90%

5 10%

5 10%

0.1 3%

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Dirt and debris can affect the internal clearance of the bearing and the fit of the bearing on the shaft or in the housing. A small speck of dirt can pinch the outer ring outside diameter. Also it can keep split housing from being tight. This can cause an out-of-round housing bore in which the bearing's outer ring may turn. Dirt on a shaft at the seal contact area can cause seal wear which results in lubricant leakage. Dust and dirt mixes with the lubricant in the bearing and forms a lapping compound that causes wear in the bearing. Do not remove a new bearing from its original package until immediately before it is mounted. New bearings are thoroughly coated with slushing compound to keep out air, moisture and rust. The slushing compound used by most bearing manufacturers is not normally removed since it is compatible with nearly all petroleum lubricants. When synthetic oils and greases with synthetic oils are used, the slushing compound must be removed. However, with synthetic hydrocarbon oils and greases, the slushing compound does not have to be removed. Bearings are wrapped in heavy duty, waterproof, polylaminate paper. Care should be taken not to drop bearings or handle them roughly. They should not be exposed to large temperature changes which might cause condensation to form. Do not handle the bearing any more than necessary. Fingerprints can become a starting point for rust. Mounting and Dismounting Bearings Housing Bore Fit Because the electric motor bearings normally is assembled into its housing with a slightly loose fit, bearing failures often cause the outer ring of the bearing to turn in its bore, particularly at the non-drive end. This turning action causes some wear on the bearings outer ring but typically much more in the softer metal of the housing. This is especially true of aluminum housings. When the failed bearing is replaced, it the housing bore is not brought back to proper dimension (interference fit), the new bearing turns more easily in the bore. This creates an immediate wear situation in which the housing wear and subsequent bearing looseness cause a drastic reduction in bearing life, as well as increase the vibration level.

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The proper method to repair a bearing housing is to replace the worn housing with a new one or to machine and sleeve the worn housing. The sleeve is bored to proper dimension after being pressed into the old housing. It is important not only to return the bore to proper dimension but to maintain concentricity of the new bore with the old bores center line as well. It is never adequate to use epoxy or other types of adhesives to maintain the bearing in intimate contact with its housing. First, it is difficult to maintain proper concentricity of the bearing with the stator bore once the housing bore is worn. Then the epoxy or adhesive is never as durable as the metal of the housing. Use of these materials is confined to emergency repairs where short duration solutions are needed. This type of repair is seldom a long-term solution. Shaft Fit Often the bearing turns on the shaft during a failure. In that case, the shaft has to be replaced or built up to proper dimension. Typically, the rolling element bearings in an electric motor are installed with a tight fit on the shaft. The proper dimensional tolerance for a shaft journal may be as small as 0.00635 mm off of nominal dimension. This level of accuracy is difficult to achieve in many service centers with standard lathes and tooling. It is more appropriate to use a tool post grinder on the lathe to grind the shaft to proper dimension. Another alternative is to utilize a grinder designed to handle cylindrical objects using their centers. Either of these two methods will achieve the proper tolerance and surface finish if used properly. A lathe will normally not produce better than a 16 micro inch rms surface finish. Using a grinder, a surface finish of up to 4 micro inch rms can be achieved. Pressing a bearing on the ground surface finish provides more intimate contact between the two surfaces and greater holding force as a result. Bearing Installation Three basic methods to mount bearings are cold mounting, temperature mounting, and hydraulic mounting.
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Prior to mount the bearings, it is necessary prepare the shaft where the bearing is to be mounted. Ensure shaft and housing interference fits are met, cylindricity of the shafting and pour oil to prevent rush and corrosion later on. A. Cold Mounting Bearings up to a 4"(10.16cm) outside diameter can be cold mounted using a sleeve and a hammer or a press. An ordinary hammer should be used. Hammers with soft metal heads are unsuitable as fragments of the metal may break off and enter the bearing. The end faces of the sleeve should be flat, parallel and burr free. It should abut the ring with the press fit.

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When a shaft is put in a vise in any assembly or disassembly operation, it is important to protect the shaft from the jaws with sheets of copper or brass. A replacement bearing must be an exact duplicate of the failed bearing. Bearings and shafts are designed for each other and you cannot make any changes unless a redesign of the machine is made. If the bearing fits too loosely on a shaft, it can creep or slip. This causes the bearing to overheat and also results in abrasive wear to the bore of the bearing and the surface of the shaft. If the press fit is too tight, the inner ring of the bearing will be stretched so much that there will be no room for the balls or rollers to revolve freely. An arbor press can be used for mounting small bearings. Place a sleeve between the bearing and the press. The end faces of the sleeve should be flat, parallel and burr free. It should be so designed that it abuts the ring which is to be mounted with an interference fit, otherwise the rolling elements and raceways can be damaged leading to a premature failure. To facilitate mounting and also to reduce the risk of damage, the bearing seating on the shaft and in the housing should be lightly smeared with thin oil.

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At times it is necessary to have a press fit on the inner ring since it rotates and also on the outer ring if there is some unbalance load that could cause the outer ring to creep. The pressing force then must go through both the inner ring and the outer ring at the same time; otherwise the bearing will be damaged. If a spherical roller bearing was used for inner ring rotation where there was an unbalance load, a pin could be put through one oil hole in the outer ring to prevent outer ring creep. With this arrangement a press fit of the outer ring would not be necessary. B. Temperature Mounting Temperature mounting is the method of obtaining an interference fit by first introducing a temperature differential between the parts to be fitted, thereby making the assembly easier. The required temperature differential can be obtained as follows: a) Treating one part (this is, generally speaking, the most common method). b) Cooling one part. c) Simultaneously heating one part and cooling the other part. The temperature differential method is suitable for any bearing size, both straight-bore and tapered bore. Because of the equipment required, the cold mounting method is used wherever possible for bearings under a 4"(10.16cm) outside diameter.

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The most usual bearing mounting is that in which the inner ring is mounted with an interference fit on the shaft, and the outer ring is mounted with a line-to-fine to loose fit in the housing. For non-separable bearings over a 4"(10.16cm) outside diameter, it is necessary to heat the entire bearing or just the inner ring, depending on the method of heating, so that the inner ring easily goes over the shaft. In the case of a separable bearing, it is only necessary to heat the inner ring. The bearing should be uniformly heated within a maximum temperature of 250F(121C). Methods for heating a bearing are: Hot oil bath, Hot plate, Induction heater, and Oven.

A sealed bearing can never be put in a hot oil bath. The hot oil bath is probably the most common method used. Both the oil and the container should be clean. Quenching oil having a minimum flash point of 300F (149C) should be used. The quantity of oil used in a bath should be large in relation to the volume of the bearing. An insufficient quantity heats and cools too rapidly, thus introducing the risk of in adequately or unevenly heating the bearing. A wire rack should be installed 3"(7.62cm) from the bottom. This prevents direct contact of the bearing with the higher temperature at the bottom and also separates the bearing from any contamination that may have settled at the bottom. Alternatively, the bearing can be suspended in the bath from above. After a bearing has been heated in oil, its bore should be wiped with a clean lint-free cloth before mounting. Once the bearing is heated it should immediately be placed on the shaft and locked in place. If a locking device is not used as part of the mounting, or if it cannot be fitted until later, some mounting tool should be used to hold the inner ring against the shaft shoulder until the inner

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ring has cooled sufficiently to be firm on the shaft. If this is not done, the inner will walk away from the shaft shoulder. Remove bearings In many instances, bearings have to be removed from the shaft simply to allow other parts to be removed. Regrettably it often happens that bearings that are perfect before removal for inspection or cleaning are damaged during removal or mounting. It is good practice only to remove bearings when strictly necessary. Bearing inspections should instead be done by listening to the sound of the bearing and observing the lubricant.

Normally the removal of small and medium-sized bearings does not present any difficulty. They are usually removed cold with the aid of a conventional puller. If the bearing is an interference fit on the shaft, the jaws of the puller must act on the inner ring of the bearing. If this is not possible, the puller may be applied to the outer ring, provided that the outer ring and puller are rotated during pulling. The removal of large bearings is more complicated. They can be removed cold with the aid of hydraulic tools for example. It is a good idea to get expert advice before attempting the removal of large bearings. Heating Rings When flangeless inner rings of cylindrical roller bearings (N series), or those with only one flange, have to be removed infrequently, heating rings can sometimes be used. The inside diameter of the ring is the same

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as the raceway diameter of the inner ring. The ring is heated using a hot plate or naked flame to approximately 280 C and then placed over the inner ring and clamped using the handles. The heat is transferred from the heating ring to the bearing inner ring, causing the bearing inner ring to expand. Once the bearing inner ring expansion has overcome the interference fit, then it is easy to remove the bearing inner ring

Lubrication Rolling bearings - ball or roller bearings - are used in most motors. Sleeve bearings are often used in large motors, especially for high speeds. The correct amount of grease for roiling bearings and the grade of oil for sleeve bearings is normally stated in the manufacturer's maintenance Instructions that come with the motor. The rolling bearings of motors from ABB Motors are lubricated before dispatch with full-charge grease suitable for use in dry or humid conditions at normal ambient temperature. Lubrication of rolling bearings in a closed bearing housing The bearings of small motors are normally mounted in closed bearing housings. These have no openings for lubrication. When the grease needs replacing, the bearing housing must therefore be opened and cleaned before new grease can be put in. However, with the grades of grease in use nowadays the bearings of small motors can be regarded as lubricated for life and maintenance-free.

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If motors are to be used in a wet environment, for example, or in a high ambient temperature, the bearing may need relubricating. Motors for such duty can often be modified from a closed bearing housing to some form of valve lubrication. Rolling bearings with grease valve lubrication The principle of valve lubrication is that, while the motor is running, grease is forced in behind the bearing and so through it. The old grease is forced out through a gap on to a rotating disc which carries the excess grease out through an opening in the outer bearing cover. The grease that remains in the outlet opening serves as a seal against the entry of dust. The advantages of grease valve lubrication are that the grease can be changed with the motor in service, and that the bearing can never be over-lubricated. A plate stating the lubrication intervals is attached to every motor with grease valve lubrication. It is important to follow these instructions. The stated intervals are for a motor installed in a normal environment. If the place is particularly dusty or wet, the intervals should be shorter. A low-pressure grease gun is recommended, since it delivers more grease per stroke. It is advisable to use the grease nipple fitted during manufacture of the motor, since its opening will be large enough to preserve the lubricating capacity of the grease as it passes through. Before lubricating the bearing, clean the nipple to prevent any dirt on it from being forced into the bearing with the grease. The bearings should be lubricated when the motor is running, but there is a procedure for lubricating with the motor stationary. To do this, first inject about half the recommended amount of grease, and then run the motor at full speed for about one minute. Then stop the motor and inject the remainder of the grease. If the entire amount is injected at once with the motor stationary, there is a risk that some of the grease will force its way past the inner bearing seal and into the motor. Always continue until fresh grease comes out through the grease outlet. The life of new bearings will be extended if they are relubricated after a few days' running in.

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Grease valve lubrication allows the grease to be changed while the motor is running and prevents over lubrication. Fresh grease is forced in through the nipple, displacing old grease, which is discharged through an opening in the bearing cover. The bearing housing provides excellent protection from dust and contamination. Slip rings and brushes Motors with brush and slip-ring gear require more inspection than squirrel-cage motors. There is no way of preventing brush dust collecting on all surfaces near the brush gear, and the parts must be thoroughly cleaned by vacuum-cleaning and wiping, generally once or twice a month. The cable connections of the slip-ring unit and the free movement of the brushes in the holders must be checked at the same time. Raising the brushes by pulling on their connecting leads is a good way of checking the soundness of the leads at the same time as ensuring that the brushes move freely.

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Brush wear of 1 to 5 mm per 1000 hours' running is acceptable, but there may be wide variations as a function of load, environment, vibration etc. The contact surface of the brushes must be smooth and uniform in normal service. Faults can therefore be detected with considerable certainty by studying the appearance of the brush contact surface. If, for example, the surface is too bright, this is usually due to excessive brush friction or movement, causing it to hammer on the slip ring. Ideally the contact surface of the brush should be semi-matt and with fine-pores. The surface of the slip rings must be even and free from spots, preferably with a brownish patina after the motor has been in service for a while. A scratched or scored surface and no patina may be a sign of poor brush quality. If there are craters due to sparking, or if there is serious scoring, the rings must be ground or turned. The surface finish after machining must be Ra 1.5.

For all types of brush holder the distance between the bottom edge of the holder and the slip ring must be 2 to 2.5 mm. For every brush material, manufacturers state the brush pressure that will give the best performance at the slip ring. Usually the brush pressure is around 0.02 N/mm2 (200 g/cm2). A typical rotor for a slip-ring motor is shown at right side. The three phases of the rotor winding are connected to the slip rings on the shaft.

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Brush wear There are several reasons for abnormal brush wear. These are the usual ones: 1. Nature of load - Under-loading often leads to high brush wear. If the motor operates largely at low load, a brush material with a higher graphite content may have to be used. 2. Brush material - The brush material is a highly important factor in minimizing brush wear, in doubtful cases, use the trial and error method and consult your local brush supplier. 3. Humidity too low - The lower the humidity the greater the wear. It has been found that there is a risk of rapid wear if the water content per cubic meter of air is below 3 to 4 grams. 4. Brushes binding in holders - If brushes stick or bind in the brush holders, there will be serious wear. 5. Dust - Abrasive dust, such as concrete dust, increases the-wear; softer types of dust, such as textiles dust, have a lubricating effect.

Detail of slip-ring housing on a totally-enclosed slip-ring motor.

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7.2 Description of Routine Tests Visual Inspection and Mechanical Inspection General inspection Machine to be inspected for cleanliness, all screws are tightened, rating plate are correct and are legible, earth-connection exists, gaskets for terminal box, all accessories are mounted (starters, lifting eyes, etc.) (Such details are noted in the form for workshop use when machine arrives and should be counter-checked and/or noted). Apart from this, an inspect ion will take place to make sure that the client's requirements has been executed, i.e., special grease for heat or coldrooms. Approval label with date of test shall be sticked-on. In general, when the machine leaves the test area, the machine shall be in good condition if not best, to serve as advertising for the workshop thus, giving the workshop as well as the company a good reputation with regard to job orders and its execution. After the final test, the machine shall be painted before delivery to the customer. When the machine to be tested has been installed to test bench following points are checked: 1. The serial number of the machine is marked onto the machine Fans, fan motors, main terminal box, terminal blocks and other auxiliary devices are properly connected and their type is correct Sleeve bearings are filled with oil. 2. Oil connectors if any are correct type Air gap measurement Air gap is measured during assembly by a thickness gauge. The air gap of HX machines is measured only if the machine should be tested in accordance with some classification society or the protection type of the machine is "e" (explosive atmosphere).

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Axial play Axial play check is done to machines with sleeve bearings. When the machine is running at rated voltage and speed magnetic and windage forces are trying to move the rotor. Because there is no axial locking the stator and rotor should be directed so that there is enough axial play. When the machine is running at rated voltage and speed the point of a bearing gasket is marked to the shaft with a drawing ink. After the machine has stopped, the rotor is moved first to the one direction until it stops and then to another direction. The displacements to the mark are measured. It is checked that the magnetic center is in the axial play area. Electrical Tests and Measurements Insulation Test Conditions Test should be performed to indicate the suitability of the insulation for continued operation. Inspection and insulation resistance tests should be performed with acceptable results before the high-potential tests. Other tests, indicated below, may also be applied. All test results should be retained. Trends in results are often better condition indicators than the absolute values (Reference: IEEE Stds. 95) Inspection Insulation should be examined for evidence of degradation or damage, such as: 1. Puffiness, cracking, separation or discoloration as indication of thermal aging. 2. Contamination of coil and connection surfaces. 3. Abrasion or other mechanical stresses. 4. Evidence of partial discharges (corona). 5. Loose wedges, fillers, ties, banding, or surge rings. 6. Fretting at supports, bracing or crossing (an indication of looseness or movement). (Reference: IEEE Stds. 432, Sec. 5)

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Insulation Resistance Test Test voltage should be applied for one minute. (Reference: IEEE Stds. 43, Sec 5.4 and 12.2). Recommended Minimum Insulation Resistance Values at 40OC (All Values in M) Minimum Insulation Resistance IR1min = kV + 1 IR1min = 100 IR1min = 5 Test Specimen For most windings made before about 1970, all field windings, and others not described below. For most DC armature and AC windings built after about 1970 (form-wound coils). For most machines with randomwound stator coils and formwound coils rated below 1kV.

Notes: 1. IR1min is the recommended insulation O resistance, in meg-ohms, at 40 C of the entire machine winding. kV is the rated machine terminal-to-terminal voltage, in rms kV.

2.

Reference: IEEE Stds. 43, Table 3.

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Guidelines for DC Voltages to be Applied during Insulation Resistance Test Winding Rated Voltage (V)a < 1000 1000 2500 2501 5000 Insulation Resistance Test Direct Voltage (V) 500 500 1000 1000 2500

5001 12000

2500 5000

> 12000
a

5000 10000

Rated line-to-line voltage for three-phase AC machines, line-to-ground for single-phase machines, and rated direct voltage for DC machines or field windings

Reference: IEEE Stds. 43, Table 1.

Polarization Index (P-I) Test The polarization index test should be performed at the same voltage as the test mentioned in Insulation Resistance Test for ten minutes. The recommended minimum value of polarization index for windings rated Class B and highest is 2.0 (Reference: IEEE Stds. 43, Sec 9.2: and IEEE Stds.432, App. A2). If the one minute insulation resistance is above 5000 megohms, the calculated polarization index (P.I.) may not be meaningful. In such cases, the P.I. may be disregards as a measure of winding conditions (Reference: IEEE 43, Sec 5.4 and 12.2).
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High Potential test High-potential tests should be performed on windings and some accessories of electrical machines at a specified voltage. To avoid excessive stressing of the insulation, repeated applications of the highpotential test voltage is not recommended. Machines to be tested must be clean and dry. Inspection and insulation resistance tests with acceptable results should be performed before the high-potential tests. Insulation resistance tests should be repeated at the completion of the high-potential tests. When a high-potential test is conducted on an assembled brushes exciter and synchronous machine filed winding, the brushless circuit components (diodes, thyristors, etc.) should be short-circuited (not grounded) during the test. High-potential test should be successively applied between each windings or electric circuit under test and the frame (or core) of the machine. All other windings or electric circuits not under test should be connected to the frame (or core). High-Potential Test Using AC New Accessories Effective AC HighAccessory* Rated Voltage** Potential Test Voltage Thermostats 600 volts 1000 volts + 2 times Thermocouples the rated voltage of Thermistors the accessory or Resistance 50 volts equal to the hightemperature potential test voltage detectors (RTDs) of the machine, whichever is lower. Space heaters All * Accessories not connected in the line circuit ** Unless otherwise stated Reference: NEMA Stds. MG 1, 3.1.8.

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Capacitors of capacitor-type motors must be left connected to the winding in the normal manner for machine operation (running or starting). Electrical machines may be tested using AC or DC highpotential test equipment. A DC instead of an AC voltage may be used for high-potential tests. In such cases, the DC test voltage should be 1.7 times the specified AC voltage. Failure under test can be less damaging to the winding if a DC voltage is used. Multiply the AC test voltage by 1.7 to obtain the equivalent DC test voltage. AC High-potential testing should be performed by applying specified voltage at 50-60 Hz continuously for one minute. DC high-potential testing should be performed by applying specified voltage for duration of one minute after test voltage is reached. The DC potential should be increased gradually to the desired test voltage in order to limit the charging current. Caution: after completion of a DC high-potential test, the winding must be grounded to the frame (or core) until the charge has decayed to zero. (References: IEEE Stds. 4 and 95; and NEMA Stds. MG 1, 3.1.1) High-Potential Test Using DC New Accessories Effective AC HighAccessory* Rated Voltage** Potential Test Voltage 1700 volts + 3.4 Thermostats 600 volts times the rated Thermocouples voltage of the Thermistors accessory or equal to Resistance 50 volts the high-potential test temperature voltage of the detectors (RTDs) machine, whichever Space heaters All is lower. * Accessories not connected in the line circuit ** Unless otherwise stated Reference: NEMA Stds. MG 1, 3.1.8.

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This test evaluates ground insulation. It will usually detect damaged slot liners and conductors outside the slot liner. It does not stress insulation between turns, coils or phases. Insulation Power Factor Insulation power factor, dissipation factor, and tip-up test may be performed on large machines. Interpretation of results is by comparison with results of tests on similar machines. No standard interpretation of results has been established (Reference: IEEE Stds. 432, Sec. 8.1). Step Voltage Test Step voltage tests are useful if performed at regular maintenance intervals. Changes in results may indicate insulation degradation (Reference: IEEE Stds. 95). Surge Comparison Test The surge comparison test is most often applied to winding circuits using a test voltage of twice the circuit rating plus 1000 volts.

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This will check for shorted wires and misconnections. This is the only test that stresses insulation between turns, coils, and phases. Although it stresses the insulation to ground, it usually is not accepted as a ground insulation test. Interlaminar Insulation Test Defects in laminated cores can be detected by loop or core tests (Reference: IEEE Stds. 432, Sec 9.1, App. A4) Bearing Insulation Test Bearing insulation should be tested with a 500V megohmmeter. Insulation resistance should be 1 megohm or greater. Winding Resistance measuring With a resistance bridge the resistance in the windings is measured. Measuring can be either between terminals or per phase, note in the form which alternative has been used.

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No load test With connectors attached according to rating plate a voltage is applied from test bench to SI, S2 and S3; and the voltage is adjusted to rated voltage. Make sure that the frequency is correct and that ammeters are shorted during start-up- Voltage current, power, speed and frequency are noted in the form. Measuring is according to the 2-Wattrneter principle. See sketch below.

kW =
wattmeter connection according to sketch connection according to sketch

520 130 520V 130 5A 1

x 5 x 1 = 20V

VW skd AW kA

= = = =

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where:
W kW = skd

x AW x kA

VW = the voltage the wattmeter is connected for every single test skd = reading on wattmeter AW = the current the wattmeter is connected for every single test kA = current constant

During the test balance vibrations and bearing are checked. No load test executes at rated voltage. No load current varies with the number of poles as an average, the following table can be used:

(Valid for machines up to 10 HP) Dissymmetry between phase currents can be 10% without winding fault. Speed For AC motors, no-load running test should be made at rated voltage and rated frequency. The speed should be measured and compared with nameplate speed. Current No-load current should be compared with full-load current.

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Cooling System The cooling system should be verified as being operational. Bearing Temperature Ambient and bearing temperature may be measured periodically until temperatures are stabilized. Vibration measurement The vibration tests should be in accordance with NEMA Stds. MG 1, 7 for standard machines, as arranged with the customer, or as necessary to check the operating characteristics of the machine. When there are special requirements, i.e. lower than standard levels of vibration for a machine, NEMA Stds. MG 1,7 for special machines is recommended. The unfiltered vibration limits for resiliently mounted standard machines (having no special vibration requirements), based on rotational speed, and is shown in table at the right. Vibration levels for speeds above 1200 rpm are based on the rms 2.69 mm/s. Vibration levels for speeds below about 1200 rpm are based on the peak velocity equivalent of 0.0025 inch (0.0635 mm) peak-to-peak displacement. For machines with rigid mounting, multiply the limiting values by 0.8. You may also refer to ISO 10816-3 Vibration Severity Chart in page 115.

RPM @ 60 Hz 3600 1800 1200 900 720 600

Unfiltered Vibration Limits Resiliency Mounted Machines Velocity Velocity RPM @ Velocity in/s peak mm/s 50 Hz in/s peak 0.15 3.8 3000 0.15 0.15 3.8 1500 0.15 0.15 3.8 1000 0.13 0.12 3.0 750 0.10 0.09 2.3 600 0.08 0.08 2.0 500 0.07

Velocity mm/s 3.8 3.8 3.3 2.5 2.0 1.7

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Machine Sound The limits specified herein are applicable to motors operating at rated voltage without load. Acoustic quantities can be expressed in sound pressure terms or sound power terms. The use of a sound power level, which can be specified independently of the measurement surface and environmental conditions, avoids the complications associated with sound pressure levels which require additional data to be specified. Sound power levels proved a measure of radiated energy and have advantages in acoustic analysis and design. Sound pressure levels at a distance from the motor rather than sound power levels, may be required in some applications, such as hearing protection programs. However, the information provided here is only concerned with the physical aspect of noise and expresses limits in terms of sound power level. Reference: NEMA MG 1 -2006, 9.2. Performance Test Full-load tests may be made as arranged with the customer or as necessary to check the operating characteristics of the machine (Reference: IEEE Stds. 112 and 115 and NEMA Stds. MG 1).

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7.3 Recommended Winding Tests Windings should be tested to ensure that there are no grounds, shorted circuits, open circuits, incorrect connections or high resistance connections.

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Stator and Wound Rotor Windings One or more of the following tests should be performed: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Insulation resistance tests. Winding Resistance Test Growler Test. Phase-balance test Surge comparison test Polarity Test Ball rotation test (low voltage energization).

Squirrel-cage windings One or both of these tests should be performed: 1. Growler test 2. Single-phase test 7.4 Other Tests Tan Delta Measurements Tan , representing the dielectric and discharge energy losses, is measured in steps of 0.2 x U up to the main voltage U. The rate of rise of tan as a function of voltage describes the average partial discharge level both inside and on the surface of the insulation. This makes it difficult to determine the condition inside the insulation. For old windings, tan measurements can not estimate the age or predict failure of the insulation. Voltage Unbalance Alternating-current polyphase motors shall operate successfully under running conditions at rated load when the voltage unbalance at the motor terminals does not exceed 1 percent. Performance will not necessarily be the same as when the motor is operating with a balanced voltage at the motor terminals. [MG 1-12.45]

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Unbalanced currents resulting from unequal line voltages applied to an induction motor produces an elevated temperature rise compared to a motor operating with balanced voltages. Should voltages be unbalanced, the motor horsepower rating should be derated in accordance with MG 1 Part 14. [MG 1-14.36] Variation from Rated Speed The variation from the nameplate or published data speed of alternatingcurrent, single-phase and polyphase, medium motors shall not exceed 20 percent of the difference between synchronous speed and rated speed when measured at rated voltage, frequency, and load and with an ambient temperature of 25oC. [MG 1-12.46]. Variation from Nameplate AmperesAlternating-Current Medium Motors When operated at rated voltage, rated frequency, and rated horsepower output, the input in amperes shall not vary from the nameplate value by more than 10 percent. [MG 1-12.47] 7.5 Motor Starting Capabilities and Considerations It should not be assumed that because can drive a running load, it also has the capability to accelerate the load up to rated speed. During starting, a motor must deliver the energy required to accelerate the load. To do this, the motor torque must exceed that needed to accelerate the load. The motor torque value in excess of the load torque requirement is termed the torque available for acceleration as shown at the right side.

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Though this explanation appears to be relatively simple and straightforward, there are some complex conditions: namely, that the motor torque during starting is not constant. Unless the load is a pure inertia load (very rare), it does not have a constant speed-torque relationship. Therefore, the torque available for acceleration is the difference between the speed-torque curves for the motor and the load. The acceleration time for the motor and load system can be determine from the following formula: Acceleration time = (Wk2 x rpm) / (308 x Tacc) The inertia of the load is the Wk2 factor in pound-feet squared; the rpm is the speed change of the load; and Tacc is average accelerating torque in Newton-meters. The formula using metric units is: Acceleration time = (Wk2 x rpm) / (9.55 x Tacc)

However, we need to refer back to the comment about torque available for acceleration not being constant. Calculating acceleration time would require determining the torque available at every point in the motor and load speed-torque curves. The practical method of accomplishing this is to break the curves into parts, or increments, and average the results. Motor torque ratings are normally based on full rated voltage being available at the motor terminals. In many applications the voltage at the motor is less than rated, due to such conditions as voltage drop in the feeder circuit or reduced voltage starting. The result is a reduction in motor torque, varying approximately as the square of the ratio of applied voltage versus rated voltage. The effects or saturation reduce the motor torque even more. For example, if the voltage at the motor were 80% of rated, the expected torque reduction would be (0.8/1.0)2 = 0.64, or 64%. Due to the reduced flux, however, the torque would probably be closer to 57% of rated.

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Although the motor torque available has been reduced, the load torque remains unchanged. The result is a longer acceleration time. If the reduced motor torque is equal to that of the load, leaving none available for acceleration, the motor and load will not accelerate beyond the speed point. Further, if the motor torque is less than that of the load at initial startup, the rotor will not rotate. That is, it will remain in a locked-rotor condition. Figure below illustrates both of these conditions.

A major limiting factor for the starting capability of a motor is heating of the stator and rotor. During acceleration, some of the electrical energy is used to drive the load, and the remainder is absorbed by the stator and rotor in the form of heat. The primary source of this heating is I2R losses in the stator and rotor, which are much greater during acceleration than during normal operating conditions. The starting current of a motor is frequently between 6 and 8 times rated current. If we take the average value of this range, 7 times rated current, the ratio of I2R at starting compared to running would 72 or 49, assuming the resistance remains unchanged. Since the heating also increases winding resistance, it would be reasonable to expect at least 50 times normal heating during starting conditions.

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Fortunately, under normal stating conditions, the heating period is relatively short. For example, NEMA MG1 Part 12.49 allows an acceleration time of up to 12 seconds for motors rate to 500hp (375kW) and rated 1kV or less. During this period parts of the stator and rotor may reach temperatures in excess of their rated temperatures. Conservative motor designers assume that all of the heat generated during staring is absorbed in the components that produce the heating e.g., the stator and rotor. Therefore these components heat very rapidly, and to relatively high temperatures. However, since the duration of acceleration time is very short, it does not normally have a negative impact on motor life. Upon attaining rated speed, the current and temperature drop to normal levels for the load conditions. For motors larger than 500hp (375kW), or with loads with greater than normal inertia, the motor manufacturer should be consulted to determine the time limit for accelerating the load. Motor starting capabilities are thermally limited by either the stator or the rotor. If the stator is limiting factor, the motor is termed to be statorlimited; and if the rotor is the limiting factor, the motor is said to be rotor-limiting. In general, smaller motors, such as in NEMA frames, tend to be stator-limited; and larger motors well above NEMA frame size, tend to be rotor-limited. According to the NEMA standards, there are three conditions that apply to the maximum inertia rating. 1. Applied voltage and frequency in accordance with 9.9. 2. During the accelerating period, the connected load torque is equal to or less than a torque which varies as the square of the speed and is equal to 100 percent of rated-load torque at rated speed. 3. Two starts in succession (coasting to rest between starts) with the motor initially at the ambient temperature or one start with the motor initially at a temperature not exceeding its rated load operating temperature.

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If the starting conditions are other than those stated above, the motor manufacturer should be consulted. When additional starts are required, it is recommended that none be made until all conditions affecting operation have been thoroughly investigated and the apparatus examined for evidence of excessive heating. It should be recognized that the number of starts should be kept to a minimum since the life of the motor is affected by the number of starts. [MG 1-12.54] Failure of motor components may be due to a number of stresses associated with acceleration. In the rotor, the bars and end rings that make up the rotor cage are subject to high and cyclic (alternating) magnetic forces. Heating of the rotor cage results in axial expansion of the bars and radial expansion of the end rings, creating stress in various sections of the bars and end rings. Current tends to crowd the tops of the bars during starting; causing bending stresses as the top of the bars try to expand more than the bottoms. This is depicted in the figure at the right. As speed increases during acceleration to the thermal and other stresses already mentioned.

The mechanical and electrical forces also affect the stator windings. The excessive starting current leads to rapid heating of the windings and consequently, rapid thermal expansion resulting in physical stress. The torque forces associated with starting are many times normal, leading to

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winding movement and possible motion between adjacent conductors, or between conductors and frame or core, which can result in a short circuit or ground fault. Each acceleration period is a fatigue cycle, and the cumulative effects results in a finite life for the motor based on the number of starts. However, there are no standards or guides for the minimum number of starts for a motor. Returning to our opening statement, use caution with motor applications. Do not assume that because a motor can drive a running load, it also has the capability to accelerate that load up to rated speed. 7.6 Maintenance and Reliability Rotating Equipment Maintenance Problems The maintenance department of any industrial plant develops gradually, over a period of time. The maintenance constitutes a very high percentage of the plants overall operating costs. In North America it is not unusual to see companies spending up to 50% of their total operating budget on what is referred to as maintenance. Performing planned and cost-effective maintenance on rotating equipment therefore is important, and more emphasis and planning towards having well managed, costeffective and reliable maintenance programs in place has to be considered in the companys long range planning. Maintenance problems are usually caused by: normal wear and tear, careless or untrained operations and maintenance personnel, improper lubrication or incorrect lubrication selection, and failure to make small repairs and adjustments which become catastrophic failures. Additional maintenance problems are caused by: incorrect equipment or component design, excessive loads and speeds, incorrect alignment practices, excessive amounts of vibration, using low quality replacement parts such as bearings, seals and fasteners, and unwillingness by management to place meaningful priorities on the maintenance functions.
Note: Others causes of maintenance problems could be listed, but one thing is abundantly clear; rotating equipment maintenance costs money and failure to perform corrective maintenance on equipment eventually costs the company far more over the long term.

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Current research in North America indicated the following cost related statistics concerning rotating equipment maintenance and reliability: Over 25% of bearings used in rotating equipment fail prematurely due primarily to faulty installation and/or poor lubrication practices. Over 70% of the failures experienced in plant and industrial hydraulic systems are caused by contaminated hydraulic fluids. Inconsistent and poor lubrication procedures are one of the principles causes of machinery breakdown. The average construction/contracting company spend between 25-45% of its operating budget on mobile equipment maintenance. This value is for parts and labor, not for fuels, lube or depreciation.

In order to reduce these trends and high costs, management and employees must consider changing their view of what the maintenance function is to be. Programs must develop which provide effective maintenance practices and are seen as investment, rather then costs. Once this change in thinking takes place, and is put into practice with management and employee support, long-term maintenance expenditures can be reduced. The recommended method for ensuring that reliable maintenance program works in a particular environment is to have the people in that environment develop the program. Rather than just copy a maintenance program from someone else, develop it to respond to the in-plant equipment maintenance needs and ensure the program is satisfactory for the companys objectives.
Note: Approximately one third of all maintenance dollars are wasted because the money is spent on reaction instead of proactive and prevention activities. This is mostly due to inefficiencies in maintenance programs which probably do the right things, but at the wrong time and often for the wrong reasons.

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Maintenance Program Objectives The primary objectives of any maintenance programs activities include: 1. To ensure that the equipment operates safely and relatively trouble-free for long periods of time. 2. To maximize the availability of machinery and equipment necessary to meet the planned production and operational objectives. 3. To consistently maintain the plant equipment in order to minimize wear and premature deterioration. 4. To make the equipment reliable so it can be counted on to perform to set standards and conditions. Maintenance Improvement and Reliability Program (MIRP) The following ten steps outline a plan when a company is considering developing an effective Maintenance Improvement and reliability Program (MIRP). Step 1: Begin by initiating a total maintenance approach. Production and maintenance must collectively work together. The maintenance department has to be viewed as being an integral part of the organization. Step 2: Established a clear vision by having the employees and management identify the problems, then specify the goals and objectives that must be set in order to achieve success. Step 3: Analyze the organization. Will the organization, as a whole, support the type of improvements required? If not, consider changing the organizational structure and/or redesign the system to meet the identified needs. Review the production and operational policies and procedures, as they may not be suited to the maintenance improvement and reliability program. Step 4: Begin to develop an action plan. Identify what is going to be attempted, who is to be involve, what are the resources required, etc. Action plans take on many different forms, but it is important that the

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plan contains inputs drawn from the reviews and analysis rather than from complaints. Step 5: Assess the condition of the equipment and facilities. Be objective in the assessment. Determine which equipment requires immediate attention. Step 6: Select the appropriate maintenance program. Is a computerized maintenance system needed? What technique will be employed, reactive, preventive or predictive maintenance? Determine the order maintenance activities will be carried out, first, then second, etc.? What type of reporting system will be used to track and record the data collected when measuring the performance of each piece of equipment? Step 7: Measure equipment condition. When measuring for equipment condition which method(s) will be considered: vibration analysis; fluid analysis; non-destructive testing; or performance monitoring methods? Step 8: Prepare the maintenance personnel. As the maintenance program activities and methods are implemented ensure that the maintenance personnel are trained to understand the program and why the activities and methods are performed. Without this step no type of maintenance improvement and reliability program will succeed. Step 9: Monitor equipment and machinery effectiveness to the detail the maintenance program requires. Monitor for performance, reliability and quality. Overtime, the recorded information can be used to evaluate the machinery and equipment condition and situation. This is an on-going activity of any quality maintenance program. Step 10: Initiate periodic reviews. Equipment and machinery effectiveness is based on scheduled predictive and preventive maintenance activities. The reviews of these activities may indicate common problems and trends which identify any design or operational changes required. Include engineering, maintenance and production personnel in these periodic reviews. Ensure that action plans develop from these review sessions, not just complaints.

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7.7 Maintenance Programs Methods of Maintenance There are three ways to perform maintenance: preventive, and reactive or breakdown maintenance Preventive Maintenance Programs: Normally involve the routine scheduling of maintenance activities. The schedule is based on the past experience and the manufacturers recommendations. The activities of the preventive maintenance program are usually based on periodic sampling and inspections. An unskilled preventive maintenance team may leave the machine in a worse condition after the planned shutdown. Sufficient spare parts and available maintenance personnel are allocated when overhauls and shutdowns are scheduled. Often there continues to be unplanned losses, albeit, less than when no form of maintenance program is in place. Many repairs are often initiated before components reach their maximum working life, which results in a great deal of unnecessary expense. Predictive Maintenance Programs: This is a systematic method of monitoring the plants rotating equipment performance and is carried out on a regularly scheduled basis to determine the equipment condition. Predictive maintenance utilizes information from past and current performance records to objectively predict mechanical problems. Predictions based on the analysis of the information form the basis for corrective actions to be taken.
Note: Unlike breakdown maintenance and preventive maintenance, predictive maintenance is an active condition monitoring approach rather than a reaction or time based approach to maintenance.

To run efficiently in modern industries, the production machinery must operate near or at the design capacity with a minimum downtime. The
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specific purpose of a quality predictive maintenance program is to minimize unscheduled machinery failures, reduce maintenance costs and loss of production. To accomplish these objectives a program is required which will: 1. Regularly monitor the mechanical condition of all critical production equipment. 2. Identify outstanding problems. From this program, the severity of each problem is quantified, and scheduled maintenance procedures are performed to prevent failures. Predictive maintenance program evolved from preventive maintenance programs. Preventive maintenance program for rotating equipment are generally based on periodic sampling and inspecting. Most preventive maintenance programs have established schedules for periodic inspections of identified equipment which is critical to the operation. Predictive maintenance programs reduce the frequency and severity of emergency repairs and can increase equipment life. This system and the data gathered regarding performance and condition from the basis for predictive maintenance programs. In a predictive maintenance program the specific maintenance tasks are based on actual need. This approach reduces the failures and downtime as repairs are often now done, and maintenance intervals therefore, should be extended. Reactive (Breakdown) Maintenance Programs: This type of maintenance program occurs by default if problems arent detected and corrected prior to absolute failure. Typically reactive or breakdown maintenance is the most expensive of the three maintenance methods. Reactive maintenance may, however, be justified for certain non vital machinery, or for machinery where lifetime and cost of failure does not justify a more planned approach to maintenance programs are.

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Predictive Maintenance Program Benefits Setting up an effective predictive maintenance program will provide many of the following benefits: improved operator safety reduced environmental hazards increased production increased machinery availability provide for scheduled rather than unscheduled downtime reduced risk of catastrophic failures minimize unnecessary repairs and repair time reduce spare part inventories improve product quality optimize maintenance department size better utilization of maintenance personnel

7.8 Machinery Condition Monitoring In previous machinery and equipment maintenance, a machine was often permitted to operate until compete failure occurred. Actual machinery condition monitoring was quite simple, as there was no real sophisticated method for measuring machine condition, nor did management or the employees concern themselves with a more proactive approach to maintenance. The maintenance plan was to periodically tear down and overhaul the machine as assurance against failure. Four techniques were commonly used in the past to monitor the machinery condition and these techniques continue to be used, although each technique has come more sophisticated. The techniques described sense the condition of the machine. 1. 2. 3. 4. Any increases or decreases in temperature (touch and smell). Any increases or decreases in vibration (touch). Any change in noise or sound from the machine (listen). Any visual or observed changes and problems (sight).

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Each technique helps in determining to what extent a mechanical fault exists and if it is progressing. The corrective action is often based on feel, sound, or appearance. Temperature Higher temperature often indicates that a bearing is acting abnormally. High temperature can be detrimental to the bearing, the lubricant, and the shaft and seals. This is evident when the machine has continued to operate for extended periods when the bearing or lubrication temperatures have been in excess of 260F (125C). Causes of high bearing and lubrication temperatures include insufficient or excessive lubrication, contaminated lubricants, overloading, bearing damage, faulty installation, insufficient bearing clearances, and improper or failed seals. It is necessary to check the temperature of bearings periodically, both at the bearing itself and at other locations on the machine where there is high temperatures could be cause for concern. Any significant change in temperature is usually a good indication that a problem exists, especially if the operating conditions of the machine have not been altered. Bearing temperatures can be determined roughly by hand feel, or by routinely and accurately checked with a surface thermometer. A permanently installed heat sensor may also be installed on or near critical parts of the machine. Overheating is often first detected by smell resulting from hot plastics or oil. Another method commonly used to feel the condition of a machine is to determine how much vibration exists at the machine. By touching the bearing, high temperature and vibrations are felt. The amount of vibration present is difficult to measure this way, but one may be able to compare the vibration felt today to how it felt yesterday, or several weeks ago.

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Vibration can be more accurately measured by using tools such as vibrations meters, analyzers, or monitors. Use of a simple vibration meter. The probe is placed on, or near the bearing and a vibration reading is given on the meter. The amount of vibration measured is used to determine the severity of the vibration and the condition of the machine. Listening One method used to identify irregularities on machinery and equipment is to listen for changes in sounds emitted from machines while operating under conditions of normal loads and speeds. One can do this by placing a screwdriver blade on the bearing housing and being safely positioned so the ear contacts the screwdriver handle. The ear is listening to the internal sounds coming from the bearing. Abnormal noises may be detected and traced to a specific component of the machine by experienced maintenance personnel. More sophisticated methods are used to listen to bearings as well. A stethoscope can be used to listen to the internal sounds of the bearing parts. Microphones can be held over the machine or mounted at critical points to measure the sound amplitude being emitted. Sound measurements can be used to determine the severity of the problem. Sound and vibration are closely associated when determining irregularities in running machinery. Grinding, squeaking and other irregular sounds can point to worn bearings. The squeaking noise is often caused by inadequate lubrication. Insufficient bearing clearances can make a metallic tone. Indentations in the outer ring raceway will produce smooth, clear tones, and ring damage caused by shock loads or hammer blows lead to sounds varying in frequency according to the operating speed of the machine. Intermittent noises probably indicate damage to certain spots on the rolling members. Contamination in the bearing produces a rough grinding sound. Damaged bearings produce irregular and loud noises. Good bearings sound smoother, fewer irregular sounds, less grinding sounds, and more of a constant humming sound.

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Sight Maintenance personnel, as shown in illustration #3, can simply look at equipment to see if there is anything out of the ordinary happening. Check for any apparent oil leaks or grease leaks around seal areas, or if any of the bearing housings are loose, cracked or improperly assembled. Check the lubricant. Discoloration or darkening of the oil is usually a good indication that the lubricant is either contaminated or worn out. It is also very important to check whether or not there is sufficient lubricant. Is the lubricant the proper one for the application? Check whether the air is free of obstructions. Take a small sample of used oil and compare it with new oil. If it is cloudy in appearance, water has more than likely mixed with it, therefore, the oil must be replaced. Dark or thick oil is a sure sign of contamination or that the oil has started to carbonize. Overheating may have caused this problem. Corrective Maintenance Corrective maintenance work should be planned and scheduled, unless true emergencies unexpectedly arise. Planning involves identifying all resources necessary to repair the machinery. This identification of resources may include: tradesman man-hours worked available materials/replacement parts required special tools and equipment availability of contract personnel location of mechanical drawings supply of assembly/disassembly guidelines safety orientation installation and setting procedures sequence of tasks and time durations work schedules and shift rotations job cost estimates safety and environmental regulations and permits
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arrangements for restrooms, lunchrooms, lockers, etc.

Note: The maintenance planner responsible for planning and scheduling the corrective maintenance work must have direct access to records which contain past maintenance history, information on equipment design, bill of materials, parts list, assembly/disassembly drawings, and current inventory status for specific parts and assemblies.

7.9 Maintenance Planning There are three basic areas of planning administered by maintenance planners. Long-Range Planning: These plans for maintenance requirements are allied with, and dependent on, long-range sales and production forecasts. Planners work with management to outline what is needed in the way of decisions in order to reach certain goals in five to twenty years. Short and Mid-Range Planning: These plans project from one to five years into the future. Plans are developed under the direct supervision of the managers responsible for defined maintenance and production activities. Maintenance program are involved in both short and midrange planning. Immediate Planning: This type of maintenance planning may be referred to as day-to-day maintenance planning. This type of planning is done on a pre-programmed routine and is carried out by the maintenance teams. These plans are generated from the inspections, observations and performance measurements regularly performed as part of the predictive maintenance program. These plans are primarily concerned with action oriented maintenance activities for today, tomorrow, and the following week.

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