Measurement of the Characteristics of High-Q Ceramic Capacitors Mark Ingalls and Gordon Kent, Senior Member, IEEE

See Reference 9

Abstract - The quality factor, equivalent series resistance, and the frequency of selfresonance are parts of the specifications of high-Q ceramic capacitors. These quantities are obtained from measurements on transmission lines with the capacitor in series or shunt. Part A; Resonant structures designed to extend the Electronics Industries Association (EIA) standard RS-483 downwards below 10 MHz and upwards above 3 GHz are discussed. For the low-frequency lines, a rule from extrapolating Q values outside the range of data is proposed. The rule is based on the frequency-dependence of the input/output coupling. The high-frequency line incorporates a method of tuning which eliminates the need for interpolations or extrapolation. It is particularly suited to measuring small parallel-plate capacitors which can be mounted on a flat shorting plate. Part B: It is shown that the first self-resonance, when viewed in terms of a series R, L, C equivalent circuit, is a poorly defined quantity. It is not always observable; it may not exist; and it may be of minor importance to design applications. It is proposed that the resonance specification of capacitors should be the first parallel resonance, defined as the first maximum in dissipation loss. INTRODUCTION In addition to the capacitance value and operating voltage, the electrical specifications of low-loss ceramic capacitors normally include the equivalent series resistance Rs, the quality factor Q, and the lowest self-resonant frequency fs. Both Rs and Q are frequencydependent, and the characteristics of the dependence are affected by the proximity of the frequency to fs. Rs and fs are directly measurable, at least in principle, and Q is derived from the relation Q = |Xc | / Rs (1)

where |Xc| is the magnitude of the series reactance of the capacitor, also a directly measurable quantity. However, as fs is approached, (1) cannot be used. The measurement techniques for Xc and Q and the techniques for determining fs are based on the characteristics of a transmission line with the capacitor mounted in series or shunt. When the line ends are lossless terminations, the perturbations of the structure's Q and its resonance's determine the values of Rs, and Xc of the test unit. When measuring fs , at least one end of the line is a matched load (or generator impedance), and fs is determined from scattering parameter data. The interrelation of Rs, Xc, and fs, as well as the similarities of the structures used for the measurement, provide the threads that unify the otherwise disparate parts of this paper. Part A deals essentially with resonant lines as standard fixtures for determining Rs and |Xc| of capacitors varying from 1-1000 pF. Although the frequency range is on the order

of 10-3000 MHz, these structures are useful principally for the low-frequency end of the specifications. Part B deals with the problems of self-resonances: definition, measurement, and significance. These questions belong to the high-frequency end of the specifications. II. PART A: RESONANT STRUCTURES FOR MEASURING R AND X A. Introduction The genesis of resonant structures for measuring dielectric materials and capacitors may predate the Laboratory for Insulation Research, but the published work of its staff [1]-[2] comprises the foundation for much of the current use of such devices. Since that period, few new ideas have been proposed, but the advances in electronics have facilitated greater precision, ease of measurement, and a commensurate refinement of calculation procedures. Recent advances of resonant structure techniques [3], [4] have focused on the need for standards to apply to the characterization of high-Q ceramic chip capacitors, i.e., the measurement of Rs and Xc at frequencies above the limits of bridge performance. In particular, the Boonton 34A resonant coaxial line with associated procedures and calculations has been adopted by the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) as standard RS-483 and the American Society for Testing and Materials as standard F752-82. The measurement frequency range is 25 MHZ to 1.25 GHz. Other work [5]-[7] has been directed towards extending the technique down as low as 4.5 MHz and upwards to 3000 MHz. The essential requirement in extending the standards in frequency range is that all structures produce the same results in the frequency ranges that are common. One difficulty in satisfying this criterion is size and style of the test capacitor that is required for the overlap. Accurate data may be obtainable at the low-frequency limit of one structure, but if that frequency is close to the upper limit of a second structure the data from this structure may not be reliable. We describe in this part two low-frequency resonant lines, 1.5 and 4.5 m long, and one high-frequency line 10 cm long. The latter is intended for the measurement of small parallel-plate capacitors. B. Review of Analytical Results The prototype model of the structure is a coaxial line terminated at its ends in some combination of open and short circuits. The capacitor to be tested (DUT) is inserted into a gap in the center conductor. The gap, assumed symmetrical about its center, is represented by a network of discontinuity susceptances: b1 in shunt and b0 in series. Both susceptances are normalized to the characteristics admittance. The DUT may be included in b0, but it is assumed to have no effect on b1.

For high-Q lines and devices, the resonant frequencies are essentially independent of losses. The equations giving resonant frequencies are shown in Table I and Fig. 1 for various lengths and end conditions. The conclusion indicated by these equations is that b1 and b0 are easily separable only when the line is symmetric with respect to the gap center. In this case, b1 can be determined from one set of frequency measurements, and it can be subtracted from the combination (2b0 + b1) that is determined from another set of measurements. If 1 = 0 and the termination is a short, as is approximately the case with the Boonton 34A line, the combination (b0 + b1) is measured. For many applications |b1| << |b0| and |1| << 1, and the formulas used in standard RS-483 are good approximations. However, both inequalities are compromised when the objective is to measure the susceptance of very small singe-layer capacitors. TABLE 1 RESONANCE RELATIONS FOR OPEN AND/OR SHORT CIRCUIT LINE TERMINATIONS 1. Resonance with open circuits at both ends [(b1 + b0 ) cos 1 + sin 1 ][(b1+ b0 ) cos 2 + sin 2 ] = b0 cos 1 cos 2 if 1 = 2 = [b1 cos + sin ] [(2b0 + b1 ) cos + sin ] = 0 2. Resonance with short circuits at both ends [(b1 + b0 ) sin 1 - cos 1 ][(b1+ b0 ) sin 2 - cos 2 ] = b0 sin 1 sin 2 if 1 = 2 = [b1 sin - cos ] [(2b0 + b1 ) sin + cos ] = 0 3. Resonance with short at l1, and open at l2 [(b1 + b0 ) sin 1 - cos 1 ][(b0+ b1 ) cos 2 + sin 2 ] = b0 sin 1 sin 2 if 1 = 0 - l1 Z=0 (b0 + b1 ) + tan 2 = 0

l2

jb0 y0 jb1 y0 jb0 y0

(a) a. equivalent circuit of gap; 1 = 2 l1 / . Fig.1. General relations and notation

(b) b. Line cross section; 2 = 2 l2 /

The low-loss assumption permits the calculation of (1/Q) by using the fields and currents that would exist in the absence of losses. For the unloaded Q0 () (the Q without coupled losses), 1/Q0 = [R0 / L0 ] + [end losses + gap losses] / [( L0 / 2) II* dz ]. (2)

where R0 and L0 are the resistance and inductance per meter of the line and is the resonant frequency. It is assumed that there is no stored magnetic energy in the gap. In general, the resonant frequency and current distribution depend on the gap admittance so that the second term of (2) also depends on the gap admittance. Thus the use of (2) to extract the contribution of device losses to the reciprocal Q is complicated in a non-trivial fashion. In several special cases, however, the device losses can be cleanly separated. In the first case, assume a short circuit at z = 0 and an open circuit at z = l2. When no test unit is in place and the gap spacing is large, the second term of (2) is negligible. Then at a resonant frequency 0, 1/ Q0c (0) = R0 /0L0 (3)

When the gap is shorted either by a dummy conducting test unit or by closing the gap, at the new resonance 1. 1/ Qsc = Ro/1L0 + [fixture losses] / [(1L0 / 2) II* dz]. (4)

The term (Ro/1L0 ) is (1/Q0c) for a line of somewhat different length that would produce an open circuit resonance at 1. Since R0 is determined by the skin effect, in principle, we have 1/ Qsc (1 ) - 1/ Q0c (0 ) [0 / 1 ] (1/Q). (5)

Knowing the current distribution for the shorted line, one can calculate a fixture resistance from (5), i.e., R(fixture) = Z0 (4/)(1/Q) (6)

By a similar procedure, the resistance of the DUT plus R(fixture) can be obtained, and (6) can be subtracted out. Other simple cases are the symmetric lines either open or shorted on both ends. Essentially, the same procedure applies. The simplest Q-measurement to perform is the measurement of the bandwidth of the transmission through the resonator. The observed loaded QL is less than Q0, according to the relation QL = Q0 /(1+ 1 + 2) (7)

where 1 and 2 are the coupling coefficients at the two ports. With equal inductive coupling and skin effect, the frequency-dependence of (7) is, in principle, QL = {Q0 (0 ) [ / 0 ]}/{1+2 (0 ) [ / 0 ]3/2}. (8)

Unless the coupling is very small and the frequency range is limited, (5) fails to provide sufficient accuracy. To take the coupling into account, one may fit any smooth curve to the observed Q0c values and used that curve as an interpolation rule between data points. When it is necessary to extrapolate beyond data points, there must be a technical argument to justify the curve-fitting procedure. The consideration leading to (8) provide the necessary rationale for its use as the extrapolation rule.

C. Structures for Testing in the Range 5-200 MHz A principle objective in extending downwards the resonant line technique was to enable measurements of capacitors at or near 10 MHz, as required by the Defense Electronics Supply Center (DESC). A second objective was to cover the frequency range upwards past the lower limit of the Boonton 34A. The lowering of the fundamental resonance by increasing line length also lowers the unloaded Q, but some of this loss can be retrieved by increasing line radii while maintaining the optimum ratio of radii. The design specifications for two low-frequency lines are shown in Table II. Except for the fixture and short, commonly available materials were used. The input and output ports, both located at the shorted end, employ inductive coupling. The loops can be easily rotated for coupling adjustment. Fig. 2 shows the shorted end of a DLI-1.5 line. Also shown for comparison are the Boonton 34A and a 10-cm line.

TABLE II DESIGN SPECIFICATION OF 1.5-m (DLI-1.5) AND 4.5-m (DLI-4.5) RESONANT LINES Mechanical Length DLI-1.5 DLI-4.5 Diameter ID outer conductor OD center conductor Materials Conductors Fixtures and ends Center supports Solder Electrical Fundamental resonance DLI-1.5 DLI-4.5 Characteristic impedance Coupling

1.54 m 4.58 m 10.16 cm 2.80 cm hard-drawn Cu pipe OFHC copper plate Teflon Sn62 47.99 MHz 16.21 MHz 76.025 input and output by inductive loops located at the shorted end; loop area 2.8 cm2

Fig. 2. Left to Right; DLI-1.5 (shorted end showing), Boonton 34-A, and DLI-0.1.

D. Calculations of Q and Fixture Resistance Since both DLI-1.5 and DLI-4.5 must be used at frequencies below their fundamental resonances, extrapolation of the open and short-circuit Q data is required. Moreover, apparent test capacitor losses are particularly sensitive to the extrapolated values. The frequency-dependence of the loaded Q's shown in (8), can be viewed as a function to be fitted to the data by some criterion that determines Q0(o) and ( o). The fitting procedure that seemed most appropriate in view of the required low-frequency accuracy was the following: fit the lowest data point exactly; fit one of the remaining data points exactly; choose from these fits the one showing the least deviation from the other data. The results of this procedure are shown in Table III. As confirmation of the fitting procedure, the coupling factor was also calculated from the insertion loss: L = 20 log [2/(1+2)] (9)

For DLI-4.5, the insertion loss at 16.21 MHz was -39.5 1.5 dB, and the corresponding (fo) = 0.0054. With this value and (8), the ratio Q0 / QL at f0 was found to be 1.0109. Although the insertion loss measurement lacks accuracy, the close correspondence of these results to the values to Table III gives additional credence to the fitting procedure. Fixture loss was calculated from the extrapolated or interpolated Q0c values, the Qsc values measured when the line was shorted by a copper block (dummy capacitor), and (6). The fixture resistance, shown in Fig. 3, is approximately proportional to (f)1/2. This skin effect frequency-dependence is an additional argument in support of the extrapolation rule and the fitting procedure. Note that extrapolation from data is a high-risk operation at best, and the problem is compounded here by the sensitivity of the extrapolated Q to the coupling parameter (0). Among the various fitting criteria that were explored, the one chosen produced the most plausible results, in particular, the frequency-dependence of the fixture resistance.

TABLE III COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTAL Q VALUES WITH FITTING FUNCTION l / 1/4 3/4 5/4 7/4 A: DLI-4.5 = 0.0053 (Q0 / QL ) = 1.0109 Frequency (MHz) QL (Observed) 10.00 16.21 1462.40 48.65 2393.71 81.08 2913.58 113.50 3181.07 B: DLI-1.5 = 0.0079 (Q0 / QL ) = 1.0161 Frequency (MHz) QL (Observed) 10.00 48.00 2416.87 144.07 3825.91 240.22 4535.01 QL (f) (Calculated) 1162.39 1462.40 2419.15 2913.58 3143.28

l / 1/4 3/4 5/4

QL (f) (Calculated) 1118.89 2416.87 3908.56 4535.04

Fig. 3. Resistance of fixture with dummy capacitors, DLI-1.5, and DLI-4.5.

0.1

Trend
Rs (ohms)

DLI 1.5 0.01 DLI 4.5

0.001 10 100 F (MHz) 1000

E. A 10-cm Line for Testing Very Small Capacitors Efforts to measure very small capacitors with the Boonton 34A have met with such limited success that the results cannot be accepted with confidence. For example, the data for a gap on the order of 0.1 mm without a capacitor give capacitance values, calculated according to EIA Standard RS-483, that are appreciably below the theoretical values, and this discrepancy increases with frequency. Moreover, the data were not well reproduced by repeated experiments.

Part of the limitation of the 34A is mechanical; it is not designed to allow precise control of the gap spacing. The electrical problems stem from the fact that l1 is not strictly zero and that the capacitance values to be tested are comparable to the capacitance of the empty gap. The finite value of l1 can be accounted for by modifying the calculations of RS-483, resulting in a procedure that is cumbersome at best, but the solution to the second problem requires a line with smaller center conductor, less overall volume, and micrometer control of the gap spacing. The 10-cm line, designed for this purpose, is shown in Fig.2. The fundamental resonance with the gap shorted is 720 MHz, and the characteristic impedance is 75.056 . The DUT is placed in the center of the shorting end plate; contact with the center conductor is made with the micrometer, which is attached to it by a dielectric rod. A Teflon disk, which supports the center conductor, makes a smooth bearing. The location of the capacitive couplings at the open end eliminate any possible coupling interaction with the DUT. The flat end plate and moveable center conductor result in some simplification of the calculations prescribed in RS-483. First of all, the last equation of Table I is strictly correct. When the DUT is a parallel-plate capacitor, small enough so that b1 is not affected by its presence, the capacitance can be calculated from C (DUT) = [Y0 /4 f0 ] [(1/d ) tan d (1/c ) tan c ]-[0 A / d] (10)

where f0 is the fundamental resonance, shorted line; c is the resonance phase with the DUT; d is the resonance phase with gap spacing d equal to the DUT thickness; A is the DUT area. Second, the gap spacing without the DUT can be adjusted to achieve the same resonant frequency as occurs with the DUT. The Q0c at this frequency can be measured, thus avoiding any problem of interpolation. Then the DUT conductance G (DUT) = Y0 [(c - cosc sin c ) / 4 cos2 c] (1/Q) is determined directly from experimental data. (11)

F. Results and Discussion The extrapolation and curve fit represented in Table II was found to be repeatable, after removing and replacing coupling loops, by the simple procedure of adjusting the loop orientation to achieve the previously measured insertion loss. This extrapolation rule was used for the calculation Rs data obtained on DLI-1.5 and DLI-4.5. The extrapolation rule of RS-483 was used for the calculations based on data from the 34A line. Comparison of results from three lines, DLI-4.5, DLI-1.5, and the Boonton 34A, is presented in Fig. 4 (a) and (b). There is evidently good agreement in the frequency ranges that overlap.
Fig. 4. (a) Series resistance of 43-pF monolithic capacitor.
0.10 BOONTON 34A DLI 1.5 DLI 4.5

Rs (ohms)

0.01 10 100 F (MHz) 1000

Fig. 4. (b) Series resistance of a 470-pF monolithic capacitor.

0.10 BOONTON 34A DLI 1.5 DLI 4.5

Rs (ohms)

0.01 1 10 F (MHz) 100 1000

Fig. 5 shows results derived from the data obtained with DLI-1.5, the Boonton 34A, and DLI-0.1. The agreement between the latter two is poor near 2 GHz. The discrepancy may be related to failure of the extrapolation rule of RS-483 at high space harmonics and to a correctable fault in the center conductor of DLI-0.1. The parallel resonance of the capacitor at 5.8 GHz, observed by insertion loss measurements, may account for the variations of the DLI-0.1 results.
Fig. 5. Series resistance of 47-pF parallel plate capacitor.
1.00

BOONTON 34A DLI 1.5

Rs (ohms)

DLI 0.1 0.10

0.01 0.1 1.0 F (GHz) 10.0

III. PART B: SELF-RESONANCE OF CERAMIC MONOLITHIC CAPACITORS A. Introduction For the circuit designer a capacitor is a device that stores electrostatic energy, and its physical size has no bearing on its circuit characteristics. When energy is alternately stored and removed, there is some inertial effect that retards the transfer, and some energy is lost to heat. These effects are accounted for by a series R, L, C equivalent circuit, and the device appears to have a new characteristic: a self-resonance. The validity of this concept at low frequencies is unassailable, but it is a mind set that fails to accommodate the observed characteristics of capacitors at wavelengths in the dielectric comparable to the physical dimensions of the device. Although the monolithic chip capacitor in particular is so small in size that the low-frequency model seems appropriate in the microwave range, its characteristics are better described by a distributed circuit model [8]. There is not one self-resonance but a sequence of resonance's similar to those of an open-circuited transmission line. Nevertheless, the series resistance and series resonance are data requested by circuit engineers and required by specification MIL-C-55681B. The military specification lacks an operations definition of resonance that is appropriate for monolithic capacitors. The question of definition is considered in Section III-B and related to the resonance behavior of monolithic capacitors in Section III-C. The experimental problems of resonance measurement are discussed in Section III-D. A proposal for resonance specification is contained in Section III-E.

B. Definitions of Resonance The definitions of resonance, or the frequencies at which resonant phenomena occur, can be derived from three difference viewpoints. First is the experimental or operational view that defines resonance in terms of observables in some sensible test configuration. Second is the circuit theoretic view in which the device is conceptually treated as a known interconnection of ideal R, L, and C elements. The field theoretic view, which is third, defines resonance in terms of energy absorption and storage. The three viewpoints are equivalent for some simple circuits, but a small complication may invalidate the equivalence. Resonant frequencies may be determined from a single port measurements by one or more of three criteria. Assuming frequency to be the independent variable, resonance occurs at: 1) the frequency at which X (or B) is zero; 2) the frequency at which R (or G) is an extremum; 3) the frequency at which |Z| (or |Y| ) is an extremum; Clearly, if 1) and 2) are equivalent, 3) follows; if 1) and 3) are equivalent, 2) follows. Also, 2) and 3) may be equivalent when 1) fails. However, there is no necessity that any two be equivalent. A network consisting of interconnected ideal R, L, and C elements has a driving point impedance that may depend on frequency and all elements. According to the principles of dimensional analysis, the total number of variables can always be reduced by combining them to form a set of dimensionless variables. In this process, one may form all possible independent combinations of the form (LM Cn)-1/2. One of these sets may be defined as the characteristics (or resonant) frequencies of the network. The functions that describe the terminal characteristics will depend explicitly on some or all of these frequencies. The circuit theoretic definition makes sense from the measurement viewpoint providing it is possible in a noninvasive way to probe the network at points where these frequencies, or combinations thereof, can be uniquely inferred from the data. If probing is not possible, the characteristic frequencies may be observable only by inference from an exhaustive supply of data. As an example of the problem of relating observables to characteristic frequencies, consider the various possible interconnections of three elements, illustrated in Fig. 6. In the circuits shown in Fig. 6 (a)-(d), no inconsistency exists between definitions (1)-(3); all yield the resonant frequency. In the circuits in Fig. 6 (e)-(h), only 2) yields the resonant frequency. When one of the elements is divided, as shown for two cases in Fig. 7, other complications are introduced. In the case of Fig. 7(a), the characteristic frequency is unchanged, but there is no frequency dependence of the admittance when

RL = Rc = (L / C)1/2 . The division of C, as in Fig. 7 (b), produces two characteristic frequencies, the series resonance (L C0 ) -1/2 and the parallel resonance [LC0 C1 / (C0 + C1 )]-1/2. If the criterion 1) is applied, the data yield two, one, or no resonant frequencies, depending on the relative value of R. The conditions for the three possible results are as follows: (L / C1 + L / C0 )1/2 (L / C0 )1/2 >R, two resonances, =R, one resonance, <R, no resonances

(b) (a) (c)

(d)

(e)
Fig. 6.

(f)

(g)

(h)

Various possible interconnections of three circuit elements, R, L, C.

C1 Rl RO

C0

(a)

(b)

Fig. 7. Two branch parallel resonant-circuit combinations. (a) R divided between branches (b) C divided between branches.

The driving point conductance has a maximum at the series resonance, but the maximum of the driving point resistance occurs only approximately at the parallel resonance. Thus criterion 2) yields one exact and one approximate characteristic frequency. Criterion 3), like 1), fails to give characteristic frequencies. Nevertheless, all three are good approximations when R is sufficiently small. From the field theoretic viewpoint the driving point impedance and admittance are defined by Z = [2P + j4(WH WE )] / II* (12) Y = [2P + j4(WH WE )] / VV* (13)

where P is the average power dissipation,WH is the average stored magnetic energy, and WE is the average stored electric energy. To calculate these averages, the volume must be defined by a closed surface across which no energy flows except at the driving point where the current of voltage is defined. The frequencies at which WH = WE are those given by 1), and the frequencies of 2) are those for which P is an extremum with the constraint of constant current or constant voltage. If the fields are known throughout the volume, P, WH, and WE can be calculated, and the resonant frequencies follow. These quantities may also be calculated for a known network of interconnected R, L, C elements, and the results must contain the characteristic frequencies. The dilemma that occurs when the equivalence of the empirical criteria of resonance 1)3) fails is not resolved by the field-theoretic definition, but (12) and (13) serve to focus attention on stored and dissipated energy rather than element interconnections. To apply them in this context, we assume only that the capacitor is a parallelopiped of unknown contents, attached in some known matter to a microstrip transmission line. The current and voltage must be defined on some transverse plane of the microstrip that has a specific relationship to the geometry of the device. The equations motivate the interpretation of terminal characteristics in terms of field distributions, a viewpoint suited to the higher frequency range. From the circuit-theoretic viewpoint the classification of resonances into series and parallel can be decided by the known mode of connection of the elements. When the circuit configuration is unknown, an experimental standard for this classification is needed. If criterion 1) applies, series and parallel resonance can be distinguished by the sign of the derivative of the reactance, i.e., positive for series and negative for parallel. If criterion 2) applies, the classification can be based on whether R at resonance is a minimum (series resonance) or a maximum (parallel resonance). These two classification schemes are not necessarily equivalent. The fact that the empirical criteria for resonances and their classification are not always equivalent raises at least two questions: a) which resonance criterion is a principal significance? and b) must there be a single universal definition of resonance?

C. Resonances of Monolithic Capacitors The totality of measurements of monolithic capacitors supports the conjecture that the driving-point impedance has the approximate form Z () = {1/C} { A0 / j -1/2

An [ jn + n ] / [(j + n)2 + (n0)2] }

(14)

The actual resonant frequencies are not strictly harmonic; they fall on a dispersion curve that is characteristic of a folded line with periodic loading [8]. Nevertheless, the approximation by the set [n0] is reasonable up to the point where resonances are obscured by losses. The loss parameters {n} increase slowly with frequency, and the residues {An} are affected by boundary and excitation conditions. When the excitation is strictly at the end of the equivalent folded line, the residues take values that permit the approximation of (14): Z () = jZc(){(cos cosh + j sin sinh ) / (sin cosh - j cos sinh )}. (15)

Here Zc() is the characteristic impedance of the folded line and is the attenuation over the line length. Both vary slowly with frequency. The electrical length is approximately proportional to frequency. Criteria (1)-(3) are equivalent definitions of resonance for both (14) and (15). At resonances, dx /d = - (1/C) csch2 < 0 dx /d = + (1/C) sech2 > 0 (16)

Expression (16) provides a clear distinction between parallel and series resonances. The date from which characteristics (14) and (15) are inferred are the resonances observed as well-defined peaks in dissipation loss when the capacitor is mounted in series or as a load on a 50- microstrip transmission line. The connection of a capacitor to the microstrip introduces, unavoidable, some additional circuit elements. These result from the discontinuity in the line as well as the electrode structure that couples the line to the portion of the capacitor where (15) approximates the impedance. The impedance data that are obtainable on the line include the effects of these lossless elements, and in general, criteria 1) and 2) are not equivalent. The observed resonances, defined by 2), are classified as parallel by the sign convention for the derivative of the phase, although X (0)0, in general. The series resonances are poorly defined by 2), but the data show that a series resonance occurs between each pair of parallel resonances. As illustrated in Fig. 8, this bracketing of series resonance is useful at the higher frequencies, but it is unsatisfactory for specifying the lowest series resonance.

When the lowest series resonance is measured by application of criterion 1), the coupling and discontinuity reactances affect the measurements. One cannot say with certainty how the resonance of the capacitor is related to the apparent resonance. The illusive nature of the first series resonance is the principal measurement problem.

Apart from the reactances that are not strictly attributable to the capacitor, the manner of excitation of the active portion of the capacitor and it losses also affect the series resonances. To demonstrate these effects, consider the folded line model of the capacitor when it is simultaneously driven at one end and at the center by sources in phase and of relative strengths A and B. By criterion 1), the resonances occur when [(A + 4B) cos + 4B cosh ] sin = 0 (17)

Parallel resonances occur when sin =0 unless A = 0. Then = (2n + 1) is the set of series resonances, and = 2n gives the parallel resonances. The A = 0 case occurs when the capacitor is mounted on edge, symmetrically with respect to the gap in the microstrip.) If B0, a shift occurs in the series resonances that depends on A, B, and the losses. For a small shift (B/A <<1),

(n - n0) / n0 (-1)n 4(B/A) cosh

(18)

where n is the nth resonance when B = 0. Evidently, the first series resonance is shifted downwards and the second moves upwards. Other phase relationships between the sources produce different shifts. In particular, if A and B are out of phase, i.e., (B/A) < 0, the first two series resonances tend to move close to parallel resonance that is between them. D. Resonant Frequency Measurements Three connections of a capacitor to a 50- microstrip transmission line are practical for the measurement of resonances. First is the series connection between source and load, second is the shunt connection from line to ground at a point between source and load, and third is the connection from line to ground to serve as load. The first two, duals of each other are suitable for measurement of the scattering parameters, S11 and S21. The load connection is suitable for measuring only the reflection coefficient. These connection are illustrated in Figs. 9 and 10.

From measurements of return loss and insertion loss, using either the series or load connections, well-defined peaks in energy absorption can be observed. In almost every case the frequencies of absorption can be classified as parallel resonances by using the minimum-maximum criterion for the series connection or the derivative of the phase criterion for the load connection. Also in almost every case, the series resonances cannot be observed by criterion2).

Equation (15) can be used to derive the characteristics of a capacitor near a resonance. Near a series resonance where = 0, R = Zc [1+( - 0)2 / cosh2 ] tanh G = (1/Zc)[1-( - 0)2 / sinh2 ] coth Near a parallel resonance, also represented by = 0, R = Zc [1-( - 0)2 / sinh2 ] coth G = (1/Zc)[1+( - 0)2 / cosh2 ] tanh (21) (22) (19) (20)

These results show that when is small, the series resonance is well defined by (20) but poorly defined by (19), and the parallel resonance is well defined by (21) but poorly defined by (22). With the series or load connection, (19) and (21) apply, and only parallel resonances are readily observable. In principle, criterion 2) suffices for determining all resonances, providing the dual series and shunt connections can be achieved. The possible shunt connection illustrated in Fig. 9 (b) shows the difficulty in satisfying this requirement. Near the resonant frequencies the capacitor has dimensions that are comparable to the wavelength in the dielectric of microstrip substrate and in the dielectric of the capacitor. This fact eliminates any transformation from the series to shunt connection that preserves the reference plane. Accordingly, the well-defined resonances that are measurable with the shunt connection may not correspond to the series resonances that occur with the series connection. When criterion 2) is impractical for the determination of resonances, a vector analyzer is needed to obtain the phase information that permits the use of criterion 1). With the capacitor in the load connection and the analyzer adjusted to shift the reference plane to the measurement port, the series resonance occurs when the polar plot of the reflection coefficient crosses the negative horizontal axis. Essential to an accurate measurement is the correct analyzer adjustment and a well-defined reference plane.

The wide gap on which the capacitor is mounted in Fig. 10 (a) tends to distribute the characteristics of the capacitor over a significant length of the microstrip, and the measurement may be invalid at the reference plane located at the center. Evidence of this effect is the observed change of the reflection coefficient when the capacitor is rotated 180 about the vertical axis, a change which does not occur when the narrow gap in Fig. 10 (b) is used. Nevertheless, the length l1 from the reference plane to the short in Fig. 10 (a) provides a convenient variable for discussing the problem of calibrating the analyzer and correctly transferring the reference plane to the measuring port. With the HP-8510 analyzer the transference of the reference plane is accomplished by introducing a time delay , preferably equal to the transmission time over the distance l0. The reflection coefficient observed at the measurement port is then S () = ej2 [R - Z0 + jX1] / [R + Z0 + jX1 ] (23)

where (R + jX) is the impedance of the capacitor, X1 is the sum of the capacitor reactance and that introduced by the shorted line of length ll, Z0 is the characteristic impedance of the microstrip, and = ( 0) represents the deviation of the time delay from the correct value o. The frequencies at which the imaginary part of S() is zero are solutions of X/Z0 = -tan - cot 2 + [1 + cot2 2 - (R/Z0)2]1/2 (24)

Where = (l1 / Vph). If it is assumed that (R / Z0) <<1, and are both small, and 0, (24) is approximately ( / o ) (2oo Z0 / Zc ) {[1- (R / Z0)2] ( / o) l1/ l0}. Here and are, respectively, the frequency and time delay errors. This result shows that a correctly adjusted time delay with a short that is beyond the reference plane gives an apparent resonant frequency that is low. The lowering of the frequency is to be expected since the short provides a small series inductance. If the time delay is set by calibration with the short, / o = (l1/l0), and the estimate remains low. If the short is located at the reference plane, the frequency error increases as the time delay error increases. Data obtained by varying the time delay show that the coefficient on the right of (25) is of the order of five or more for a microstrip of the order of 1-cm long. Unless the reference plane is very well defined and the time delay accurately set, uncertainties in the resonant frequency can be as high as 25 percent. (25)

The narrow gap connection of Fig. 10 (b) removes much of this uncertainty but not without cost. The increased capacitance across the gap is a shunt element across the test unit, and the result is the equivalent circuit of Fig. 7 (b) near the resonance. The frequency of zero reactance is shifted upwards; it is possible, though unlikely, that the reactance remains negative as the frequency is swept well beyond the series resonance of the capacitor per se. An invasive experiment that provides good values of series-resonant frequencies requires removing the top surface of the capacitor and shorting the end of the active part. The short transforms series resonances to parallel resonances, which are readily observable by criterion 2). The data indicate that series resonances occur almost exactly midway between parallel resonances. Although this result is of technical interest, the unknown effect of the destructive operation on the resonances should be ignored. E. Resonances Specification Both theoretical and experimental considerations make the determination of parallel and series-resonant frequencies problematic. The series resonances are unobservable by criterion 2) in the series connection, an equivalent shunt connection is unachievable. Criterion 1) may fail to give series resonances which do, in fact, exist; when applied to parallel resonances, the frequencies may differ significantly from the frequencies of maximum energy absorption. Moreover, the use of different criteria for different resonances is a questionable method for the establishment of standards. Destructive testing is equally unacceptable. Monolithic capacitors are commonly used as dc blocks in a series connection, as RF bypass elements in a shunt connection, and as elements in a filter. For the first two applications the impedance measure is usually 50, and the transmission system is microstrip or stripline. Filter applications are too diverse to permit generalization. In series or shunt connections, parallel resonances are usually a detriment to the operation of the circuit. They may be the cause of unacceptable insertion loss or parasitic oscillations of amplifiers. Series resonances, by contrast, are frequencies at which both insertion and dissipation losses are so low as to be on the threshold of measurement capability. Moreover, they tend to be so broad that their precise values are of no import. The circuit designer may choose to center the band at the series resonance to take advantage if the low loss, but the limits of the band are set by the adjacent parallel resonances. The change of phase near a series resonance is important in the filter application. However, the designer must be aware that the configuration of the capacitor mounting can alter the apparent value of the resonance by a significant amount. It is common practice to incorporate as an integral part of a filter design some means of phase adjustment or tuning.

In view of these considerations, specifications of monolithic capacitor self-resonant characteristics in terms of parallel resonances would prove satisfactory both to the applications engineer and the manufacturer of capacitors. Resonant-frequency measurements should be made on a 50- microstrip line, mounted in the series connection. Parallel resonances should be defined as those frequencies at which the dissipation loss is a maximum. Capacitors should be mounted with the internal electrodes parallel to the ground plane, and the gap length should not exceed 20 percent of the length of the capacitor. The capacitors should be centered on the gap. Excellent parallel resonance data can be obtained with a relatively primitive network analyzer system. Thus the manufacturer would not be burdened with the necessity of making questionable measurements on a very costly vector analyzer. Better performance of monolithic capacitors is obtained when the hidden electrodes are normal to the ground plane. In this mounting the odd-ordered parallel resonances observed with the horizontal mounting are transformed approximately to series resonances. Whatever the mounting, series resonances, as defined by criterion 2), must occur between adjacent parallel resonances. REFERENCES 1. W. B. Westphal, Dielectric Materials and Application, A. R. VonHippel, Ed. Cambridge, MA:MIT Press, 1959, 4th printing, ch. 2, p. 63. 2. A. R. VonHippel, Dielectrics and Waves. New York: Wiley, 1954, 3rd printing, ch. 23, p. 74. 3. R. E. Lafferty, "Measuring capacitor loss," Electronic Design, New York: Hayden, 1976. 4. J. P. Maher, R. T. Jacobsen, and R. E. Lafferty, "High-frequency measurement of Qfactors of ceramic chip capacitors," IEEE Trans. Components Hybrids, Manuf. Technol., vol. CHMT-1, no. 3, 1978. 5. Application Note 80500, Alpha Industries, Inc, Woburn, MA, July 1976, p. 202. 6. Interim Data Sheet C35, Vitramon, Inc., Bridgeport, CT, ppl. 1, 4, 1978. 7. M. Ingalls and G. Kent, "Resonant coaxial lines for measurement of capacitors in the frequency range: 10-100 MHz" presentation to Amer. Soc. for Testing Materials, subcommittee FO1.12, June 18, 1986. 8. ----, "Monolithic capacitors as transmission lines," IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. MTT-35, pp. 964-970, Nov. 1987. 9. Document copied to best original by Dielectric Laboratories for internet use. 6/13/02.