DAZDEVNJAK Fire Salamander (Salamandra salamandra) Amphibian which is distinctive due to its black skin with yellow spots

and the plump appearance of its body, which usually measures not more than a handsbreadth. Behind its large, prominent eyes are long protruberances which are the parotid glands. The colour contrast has the function of reminding possible predators, after a first experience, of the disagreeable consequences of attacking one of these animals: the parotid glands secrete a substance which irritates the mucous membranes. The salamander prefers to live in humid areas of the mid-level mountain, where it sometimes becomes quite abundant. On the lower grounds it occupies the moreshady, humid places amongst the leaf litter at the edges of mountain streams and small creeks. Its nocturnal and twilight habits, though, sometimes make it seem much more rare than it is in reality. Pjegavi da`devnjak - Salamandra Salamandra L. Rasprostranjen je po srednjoj i zapadnoj Europi. Da`devnjak je troma kopnena `ivotinja, duljine 15 do 28 cm. Zadr`ava se na vla`nim, sjenovitim i mahovinastim mjestima u gorskim umama. Danju se skriva u dubokim rupama ispod korijenja i kamenja. Prepoznatljiv je po svojoj istaknutoj obojenosti koju mnogi prirodoslovci smatraju zastranom bojom. Na crnoj podlozi jako odudaraju naran~asto`ute pjege. Tijekom zime skupe se u ve}em broju na povoljnim mjestima, a parenje se odvija tijekom prolje}a i ljeta na kopnu. `enka nosi jajaca devet do deset mjeseci, a sljede}e godine u prolje}e odla`e ve} razvijene li~inke du`ine 2,5 3 cm. Li~inke, ili ponekad jajaca, `enka odla`e u hladne vode izvora i gorskih potoka. Li~inke su jednoli~no sme|kaste boje s vanjskim krgama i ~etiri no`ice, a pravu obojenost dobiju kad odrastu. Ko`ne `lijezde na zatiljku i le|ima da`devnjaka izlu~uju jetki sok koji `ivotinju titi od neprijatelja. Razli~iti grabe`ljivci me|u sisavcima i pticama ga ne diraju. Hrani se pu`evima, gujavicama, kukcima, pa i manjim kralje`njacima, te pojede i slabije jedinke svoje vrste.

Arboreal Salamander (Aneides) Care Sheet by Marc S Staniszewski

Juvenile Santa Cruz salamander (Aneides flavipunctatus niger) from Big Basin Redwoods State Park, California

Description The small genus Aneides comprises of just 5 species yet represents some of the most interesting salamanders in the world. The majority of species occur along the western seaboard of the USA (Washington, Oregon and California) and Vancouver Island, the Sierra Nevada Mountains, northern Mexico and a relict population of an extremely rare species in New Mexico. One species occurs in Eastern USA predominantly in Pennsylvania, Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee with relict or isolated populations in surrounding states. All are similarly sized within the 4 - 7 inch (102 - 178mm) range and also have patterning which usually gives them excellent camouflage against the habitats they usually inhabit. They are normally nocturnal although in certain parts of the range (usually in primary undisturbed forest) I have observed these salamanders during daylight in cooler parts of the year. Their stealth and pursuit of prey is unsurpassed in the caudata world. They are equipped with an extensible tongue which they use to snare small invertebrates. Their vision is also excellent. Another unusual trait is the fact that these salamanders sometimes appear to be grazing on algae and/or lichens on tree bark with the outward projecting teeth (gently move a finger along the snout of these salamanders to feel these small projections). Whether they are actually feeding on the plant material or on microbes that live on the vegetation is not

currently understood. The generic names comes from their climbing abilities although some species spend much of their life on the ground. They are all equipped with well-developed rounded or square toepads which allow excellent grip on tree bark, plant stems, rocks and even glass. Unfortunately Aneides are not regularly available in captivity due to their rather small or fragmented ranges and some species are becoming increasingly rare due to habitat loss, especially in central California.

The arboreal salamander (Aneides lugubris) is the stockiest species of the genus Aneides

The Species Species Descriptions The green salamander (Aneides aeneus)

Green Salamander - (Aneides aeneus)

This truly beautiful, stream-lined species attains a maximum of 5 inches (140mm) with 4 inches (102mm) being more usual. A wonderfully patterned species with a network of green and black markings which renders it almost invisible against lichen-encrusted rocks. Juveniles are identical in coloration to adults although they appear more plump. The toes are more squared than in other Aneides. Occurs in southern Ohio, southwest Pennsylvania, extreme west Maryland, West Virginia, western Virginia, eastern Kentucky, central eastern Tennessee, extreme northeast Mississippi, northern Alabama, extreme northwest Georgia, northwest South Carolina and southwest North Carolina. Within its range populations are rather scattered and disjunct because of fairly specific habitat preferences. Sandstone rock faces with numerous damp (but not wet) crevices, nooks and crannies are the preferred habitat although beneath the bark of rotten trees, talus rocks piles and log piles are also favoured. However, even in seemingly suitable habitats it may be absent and therefore other factors may play a part in distribution. With the aid of a torch and long cocktail stick Erik Keyster and myself were able to capture a number of these salamanders in a sandstone rock area at 3,000m elevation in southern Tennessee this year. These ranged in sized from a 30mm juvenile to a large 130mm male. Clouded Salamander - (Aneides ferreus)

A juvenile clouded salamander (Aneides ferreus) observed in Humboldt State Park, Northern California

Up to 4 inches (114mm). A fairly common species where it occurs although it seems to be absent from seemingly suitable habitat within its range. The dorsum is dark brown or black with a silvery gray or green lichen-like pattern. Juveniles possess a coppery or red tail stripe and are slimmer than the adults. There is some variation between different areas and apparently in some populations the silvery markings are greatly reduced or reddish marking may be present. Eyes possess a golden upper iris. Occurs from northwest Sonoma county in northern California to the western slope of the Cascade Mountains in Oregon. A large population occurs on the island of Vancouver which is thought to be an isolated relict or possibly even introduced. On my recent trip to northern California I found this species in fairly healthy numbers especially in the natural and man-made clearings in redwood groves such as trails, car-parks and camping grounds where the gap beneath the loosened bark of toppled trees, or even leaf and detritus piles built up on the flat surface of lopped trees seemed to provide idyllic retreats. Juveniles outnumbered adults by 2 : 1 in sampled areas. Moisture is important to the activity of these salamanders because on previous trips during drier times I have never observed these salamanders. Black Salamander - (Aneides flavipunctatus)

Santa Cruz Black Salamander (Aneides flavipunctatus niger) is probably one of the rarest salamanders in the world. This specimen was one of eight captive bred by myself in 1993

A small, relatively plump species measuring 3 - 4 inches (76 102mm). The dorsum ranges from inky black without markings in Aneides f.flavipunctatus to black with lots of silvery,yellow or rarely gold speckles in Aneides flavipunctatus niger. Juveniles of the latter subspecies have similar patterning interrupted by black bars.

Juveniles are more streamlined than adults with a proportionally larger head. This species ranges from the Santa Cruz Mountains in central-west California to southwest Oregon. Nowhere have I found it to be as common as Aneides ferreus or A. lugubris. Compared to other species Aneides flavipunctatus (along with Aneides ferreus) is less arboreal and is often found beneath logs and rocks on the forest floor. When I discovered this species in the San Franciscan Bay area, it was always found beneath logs nestled on streams that had run dry but still retained some degree of moisture. During December in Big Basin Redwoods State Park I discovered several Santa Cruz black salamanders sitting stationary on top of logs in full (but weak) sun. Even when captured they made no attempt to escape. Sacramento Mountains Salamander - (Aneides hardii) At a maximum of just 3 - 3 inches (76 - 89mm) this federally protected species is the smallest of the Aneides. Its slim body ranges from dark brown to bronze with dark-green or grey patches. Toe tips are rounded and the belly is lightish grey or sometimes cream. Juveniles are of an identical pattern although they possess a distinct brown-bronze dorsal stripe. Although this species is probably not as rare as the more localised Santa Cruz black salamander (Aneides flavipunctatus niger) proper research into the latter has never been exhaustively carried out. It occurs in the vicinity of the Sacramento, White and Capitan Mountains of southern New Mexico occurring at altitudes ranging from 8,300 to 11,700 feet where it is generally more common on northern and western slopes. Due to its southerly distribution, its period of observable activity coincides with the rains from June to August. In the important paper 'The Natural History of the Salamander Aneides hardii' by Johnson and Schad (1959), they explained how this species is often found beneath the bark of rotten timber (especially Douglas Fir) and talus rock piles. Clutches of eggs are deposited deep within sodden rotten wood that is 'punky' and almost ready to collapse. Arboreal Salamander - (Aneides lugubris)

The arboreal salamander (Aneides lugubris lugubris)

The most familiar species of the genus, Aneides lugubris attains 2 - 4 inches (64 - 114mm) and is easily distinguished by its incredibly well-formed jaw-bone muscles, especially in males. The smooth, plump body is brown to chocolate and often displays very small yellow spots. In the Farallon subspecies Aneides lugubris farallonensis, these spots are much more conspicuous. The belly is cream or white, the toes possess square tips and the tail is highly prehensile. Juveniles are darker, sometimes black with heavy yellow or gold speckling and the base of the limbs possess a yellow or gold blotch. They are easily confused with juveniles of Aneides flavipunctatus niger in the Santa Cruz region. Although it is reported to be the 'champion climber' being found 60 feet up in woodpecker holes and bark piles collected in between branches, I have always found this species beneath large sections of rotting logs which are usually within a clearing. In Big Basin Redwoods State Park near Boulder, Santa Cruz, literature in the small nature museum explains how this species frequents the wooden buildings of the park often crawling unsuspectingly onto someone's shoulder. Distributed from Humboldt County to northwest Baja California, Mexico and also on many islands of the central and southern California coast including South Farallon, Catalina and Los Coronados. Also occurs on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevadas. Captive Care Housing

Aneides demand vivarium designs that replicate, at least in part, their natural habitat. The base of the vivarium should comprise of a moist (not sodden) layer (2-4 inches depth) of material such as a forest chipped bark, sand and peat mixture. Several small ferns can be planted as can be various clump mosses which should be misted regularly to encourage growth. Next is to build up the decor. For Aneides aeneus this entails creating miniature sandstone, granite or talus rock piles with plenty of moist cavities which may provide suitable nesting sites. It is important to ensure that rocks where used are kept uniformly moist. This can be achieved by packing the gap behind the rocks with moist river sand and watering this regularly. Capillary action will ensue with rocks drawing enough moisture to maintain a damp surface. The green salamanders may even tunnel into the sand and nest. All other species require sections of dampened tree stumps or thick branches where the bark is loosened to provide refuge during the day. Large pieces of cork bark or tree bark can also be spread over the substrate. The whole vivarium should be misted daily but it is important to not make it sodden. There is actually no need for a water source although a small trickling waterfall will not only look appealing but also maintain humidity at an acceptable level. As all Aneides are excellent climbers (and will easily scale glass), it is important to ensure the vivarium is escape proof. In addition it must have good ventilation to prevent a stuffy atmosphere. Lighting There is certainly no requirement for UVB lighting (unless live plants are maintained in the terrarium) because arboreal salamanders are primarily nocturnal or crepuscular. Locating the terrarium in a well lit place (but not in direct sunlight) will provide them with the photoperiods necessary to promote breeding. Temperature/Humidity In the wild, during warm weather Aneides will crawl deep into damp cool crevices, rotting logs or beneath tree roots. However, even during July my colleague Erik Keyster discovered that Aneides aeneus were active on warm nights (temperature 72 - 76F.) even though daytime highs were in the high 80's / low 90's. West coast Aneides would appear to be just as tolerant of these warm temperatures although peak activity is reached during spring and early summer when daytimes are cool to warm and nighttimes are cool. Significantly, during this period, rainfall is prevalent and therefore humidity is quite high. During much cooler, damper weather Aneides may even forage during the day as I discovered in

Big Basin Redwoods State Park. One species - Aneides hardii - is very susceptible to high temperatures and probably would not tolerate anything above 74F. Its high altitude, hostile habitat means that during most of the year is leads a subterranean existence or hibernates. However, this species is not generally available in captivity. Generally speaking then, maximum temperatures should be between 50 and 68F. Unless such temperatures can be constantly maintained then there really is no point attempting to keep Aneides as they will simply die. Heat stress is a well documented fatality in plethodontid salamanders. Temperature governs reproductive, feeding and hibernation behaviour. In the wild these salamanders are able to move deep underground to escape heat. In captivity they do not have such opportunities. In some areas it may be necessary to install some sort of air cooling/conditioning device, or I have personally utilized an old refrigerator, converted into a glass fronted cool terrarium for maintaining many plethodontid salamanders. Humidity is also important. Being plethodontid or lungless salamanders, the exchange of oxygen and waste gases through the skin demands a moist environment. Mist the terrarium three or four times daily, using a slightly acidic water (clean rainwater which is free from pesticides/herbicides is ideal). DO NOT close off ventilation points to increase humidity. This will result in stale air and fungal/bacterial explosions which will prove far more harmful. Always ensure there is excellent ventilation. Feeding/Watering Regimes Misting of the cage should take place just before lights are switched on/near dawn and just before dusk/lights are switched off. Aneides are able to capture surprisingly large insects with their extensible (chameleon like) tongue. Food consists mainly of insects, including fruitflies, spiders, 3 - 7mm crickets, small waxworm, freshly sloughed mini-mealworm and caterpillars. Crickets should be gut-loaded with carrots, oranges and other nutrients. Food can be dusted every other sitting with a vitamin supplement such as RepCal. It is a joy to watch these salamander stalking their prey like a cat even during full daylight. Aneides are not greedy feeders and may take only one or two food items per day. They rarely become obese in captivity. Dormancy Dormancy appears to be important where breeding is concerned. All Aneides require a brief hibernation period from December to

February (Aneides hardii disappears from September until May in its habitat) at temperatures of around 44F. I hibernate my specimens in a refrigerator but ensure that the container is given air for 2 hours each day. Only attempt to hibernate sexually mature and well-fed Aneides. Yearlings and two yearlings should be cooled to a minimum of 50F. Aneides may also undergo an aestivation period in the wild but in breeding Aneides flavipunctatus niger I found this not to be necessary. If you do plan to aestivate Aneides place them in an escape-proof plastic shoe box or old aquarium filled with damp (not too damp) newspaper. Place the container somewhere where the temperature is around 70F. certainly not above 75F. for a maximum of 4 weeks. If they show signs of desiccation then remove immediately. Breeding Correct hibernation, temperature and humidity regimes are essential in reproduction. Courtship usually takes place in winter with eggs being laid in spring. There is no aquatic stage, mating, egg deposition or larvae. Males are distinguished by the presence of two cirri on the upper lip (small pointed projections), are usually more stream-lined, have a wider head or possess a distinct mental gland. In Aneides aeneus eggs are suspended by a pedicel to a cave or crevice roof which is moist or has high humidity and a cool atmosphere. Other species deposit their eggs deep within rotting logs, in moist tree holes or underground within hollows under tree roots. These may or not be suspended by a pedicel. Females usually tend to eggs (especially in Aneides aeneus and A.hardii) where she will secret moisture to ensure they do not desiccate. The eggs are between 3 and 7mm and white to white-yellow in colour. Number of eggs ranges from just 3 - 4 in A.hardii to 22 in A.aeneus. Larval development takes place entirely within the egg shell. Miniature replicas of the parents hatch out after 50 - 90 days. Juvenile coloration is different to adults in West Coast species. They measure 30 - 40mm on hatching (depending on species) and must be separated from the adults who may accidentally bite of a leg or even devour them whole. Rearing such small creature requires patience and care. Maintain them in containers of moist sphagnum moss or newspaper (NEVER allow this to dry out) and provide a diet of small aphids, sweepings, hatchling mini-waxworm. Within 2 - 4 weeks they are able to take relatively large crickets and will grow steadily to reach maturity in 12 - 24 months.

Other Comments Longevity is in the 3 - 10 year range (apparently Aneides hardii has only survived 18 months in captivity due to specific requirements). Handling of arboreal salamanders must be kept to a minimum. The skin is rather delicate and can be easily damaged. Always wet hands before handling these and any other plethodontid salamanders. The Mandarin Salamander FAQ by Marc S Staniszewski

The Mandarin Salamander (Tylototriton shanjing)

INTRODUCTION The small and primitive genus Tylototriton (family Salamandridae) includes some of the strangest caudates known. There are five described species which have been split into two sub-genera; Tylototriton and Echinotriton. Echinotriton is so called because of the extremely sharp spines (from the Greek Echino which means spiny or spiky) which, in 2 species, are able to penetrate through small apertures in the flanks to act as a defensive mechanism against predation. The genus Tylototriton contains the most colourful and primitive species of which one in particular, the

Mandarin salamander (Tylototriton shanjing (=verrucosus)) perhaps represents one of the most stunning caudates. Fortunately it is this species which is most likely to appear in the hobby, once due to large scale imports, recently as a result of small-scale European captive breeding projects.

The beautiful markings make the Mandarin Salamander (Tylototriton shanjing) a unique caudate species

DISTRIBUTION & BEHAVIOURAL MECHANISMS Also called the Emperor or crocodile newt, the Mandarin salamander hails from the mountains of western China (primarily in the Himalayan subregion of western Yunan), Burma, extreme northeast India, northern Thailand (where it is probably extinct) and Nepal. Here it inhabits cool woodland and forest often in the vicinity of slow-moving water. Attaining a length of 6 - 8 inches (15.24 20.32cm), its vivid dorsal coloration of a dazzling orange vertebral stripe culminating in a completely orange tail along with 12 - 14 orange rounded protuberances along the ribs on a black, dark brown or maroon background makes it conspicuous. Therefore it would seemingly be quite open to predation. However apart from being quite shy (which is anomalous with its captive behaviour as can be seen later), its skin contains some rather distasteful and potentially harmful alkaloids. In addition the skull and upper vertebrae are heavily armoured with additional layers of thick bone (which gives it the appearance of wearing a decorate crown hence the name emperor) which serves to deter predators. The startling

coloration actually enables it to bath freely in the open during the day where the shifting reflection of light against the pebbly beds in the water enables a phenomenon known as cryptic colouring (ie. the colours are broken up so that they merge with the colours of the pebbles). Even so certain water snakes of the genus Natrix and raptors (birds of prey) are known to prey on this salamander without displaying any adverse effects. Therefore it is generally accepted that this is the main reason for the mandarin salamander being primarily nocturnal in the wild - a trait which is not common in captive specimens. CAPTIVITY Up until recently most mandarin salamanders were imported to Europe and the US from wild caught specimens originating in Thailand. In 1992 alone nearly 10,000 were exported from this region and inevitably this lead to the probable extinction of Tylototriton from this country. Since then strict laws limiting the collection of this and other amphibians have come into force and therefore this wild-caught specimens are only likely to be available in small quantities. Unfortunately such specimens still tend to be poorly treated during capture and subsequent shipment resulting in some unpleasant ailments which can prove difficult to treat (see disease section). Another better source is the increasingly successful efforts of breeders in Britain and Germany (for some reason this species is not as sought after in the US and therefore few people attempt to breed them). Occasionally juvenile and sub-adults are available in specialist herptile outlets which represent healthy individuals (if properly cared for by the dealer) which will settle down and make excellent captives. Initial Care From experience I have found that the first few weeks of new captive life of the mandarin salamanders, whether of wild-caught or captive bred origin (although especially the former), can determine how well it succeeds thereafter. Poor treatment often leads to a rapid decline in the salamanders health, particularly loss of appetite and malnutrition. Therefore it is important to provide at the very least comfortable surrounds and optimum temperatures, photoperiod. light intensity and diet. In addition I found they prefer to be kept isolated during such a period and this allows the hobbyist to determine the health of each specimen. Mandarin salamanders virtually always refuse food

during their first few days in a new captive set-up but if given plenty of dark, cool and humid hiding places, a temperature in the 60 70F band, twelve hours of low light intensity (I have found the 7W night-light bulbs ideal) they soon come to terms with their new surrounds. The favourite food (and I have offered these salamanders many types) is most certainly waxworm or tebo's (for larger specimens). These can be dusted freely with multivitamin powder. Subsequent Care Once over the initial 'quarantine' period where specimens are frequently emerging from their hides during daylight and taking food regularly, mandarin salamanders can be introduced together into a suitable container. I have found that an all-glass aquarium is quite appropriate as this species does not especially object to the 'openness' of glass. A 36-inch aquarium will quite comfortably house up to four specimens with a 3:1 or 2:2 male to female ratio being preferred where breeding is to be attempted. This must have a secure lid as, like most caudates, mandarin salamanders can escape out of the smallest gaps. Adequate ventilation is also essential. The aquarium must be scaped in the land:water fashion with water being in the form of a suitable bowl or other container or preferably a glass division (see diagram 1). The latter allows one of the small pumps that have recently come on to the market to be neatly located in a corner which aerates, agitates and cleans the water (if an undergravel filter is fitted) - essential where breeding is concerned. The depth should be no greater than 4 inches (10.16cm) at its deepest part, rising gradually out of the water by utilizing rocks and bogwood up to the glass division. The reason for this is that Mandarin salamanders are not particularly adept swimmers although they seem to enjoy bathing. In the main however, during the non-reproductive period they are largely terrestrial. The land section should consist of lots of rocks and bogwood with plenty of hiding places and can be padded out with a moist moss (Java moss is probably the best type as is does not seem to deteriorate like ordinary sphagnum). Heating & Lighting The aquarium should never be located in a room that catches a lot of sun, especially in summer. Lighting should be quite subdued as mentioned earlier as this encourages specimens to leave their nighttime hiding places in search of food - a habit that is very

unusual in caudate amphibia. In normal room temperatures of 68F., a night-light will not give out much heat. The actual temperature range at which these salamanders are active depends on their region of origin. For instance those hailing from Thailand can tolerate higher temperatures than types from China and Nepal, but are less able to tolerate cold conditions. As most individuals directly or indirectly originate from Thailand it can be assumed that the temperature should be in the 55 - 75F. range although as low as 40F. and as high as 85F. will be tolerated for short periods. Below 50F. and these salamanders enter a period of dormancy (which proves integral where breeding is to be attempted). FEEDING Once settled down in captivity, these salamanders are voracious, even greedy eaters. Most foods that smell acceptable are taken but after studying this species for fifteen years I have found that the following list represents the ten most relished foods in order; 1) Waxworm 2) Tebo 3) Earthworm (not those from compost heaps) 4) White Slugs 5) Cabbage-white caterpillars 6) Strips of lean beef 7) Crane-fly larvae 8) Chopped pinkie mice 9) Crickets (cooled down in fridge) 10) Brown Slugs Of course it is essential that any invertebrates that have been collected from the garden should be free of pesticide and in the case of earthworms, thoroughly swilled in fresh water. All food can be liberally dusted in multivitamin powder although if the food is varied enough, this need only be at every third or fourth feed. BREEDING Sexing Sexing these salamanders is extremely easy with males possessing a much more swollen cloaca, tending to be rather smaller and more streamlined. They also have somewhat thicker forearms.

Behaviour The reproductive behaviour of Tylototriton shows remarkable similarities to the western European/North African ribbed newt Pleurodeles waltl. Usually mating takes place in water. A few weeks after a dormancy period from December to March where the temperature should not rise above 55F., the male attempts to wrestle a female into the water using his snout and hooked forearms (which he interlocks with the females forearms and drags her along). This may take hours or days depending on the female receptiveness but eventually a successful mating will occur. Fertilization is external, the male dropping up to three small coneshaped spermatophores which he then nudges or drags the females cloaca across. However I have also observed this behaviour on land and sometimes fertilization may occur without there being any contact whatsoever between the two sexes. Egg Deposition & Care Females then undergo a 7 - 21 day period of ova development (although sometimes even though a successful pairing is observed no eggs are subsequently laid). She then begin to search in the water for suitable egg-laying sites. In all my own successes, eggs have been adhered in small clumps of 10 - 15 eggs to the side of partially submerged rocks. The normal quantity is within the 40 - 60 range although as many as 100 eggs have been reported. Eggs are about 2mm diameter with a yellowish nucleus. Although Zimmerman reports that eggs should be removed to rearing tanks, I have found this to prove fatal with many eggs spoiling as a result. Therefore I recommend that eggs should be left in situ for the time being although the aerator part of the pump should be switched off as this may prove troublesome to the resultant larvae. I have never known adults to devour their own eggs as mandarin salamanders rarely take food underwater. Hatching and Larval Care At a water temperature of 65 - 70F. the larvae hatch in 10 - 18 days and measure approximately 9mm in length. Allow them to grow on for a period until they are 15mm at which point they should be moved to a large aquaria with about 4 inches of gently aerated water and plenty of oxygenating plants such as Elodea. Initially yellow, they soon turn darker. Food consists of live paramecium, daphnia, brine shrimps, tubifex and bloodworm later turning to Asellus, tiny strips of raw beef, chopped earthworm and inevitably small waxworm! Mandarin salamander larvae are notoriously slow developers taking between 110 - 150 days to

metamorphose. During the later part of development the bony ridges and colours begin to become obvious although vivid coloration will not develop until they are six months old. On metamorphosing they measure approximately 1.9 - 2.5 inches (4.83 - 6.35cm) and must be given easily egressable sections of land. Most emerge with remnants of their gills and can be moved to plastic containers of damp Java or sphagnum moss where they will feed greedily on waxworm. Maturity is attained in the second or third year. DISEASE In line with most caudates, mandarin salamanders are relatively resistant to disease. However there are two ailments which occasionally crop up which must be treated in the early stages. Needless to say not only should infected animals be isolated but also the aquarium from where they are taken should be thoroughly disinfected. 'Bumblefoot'

Swelling of the digits commonly known as 'bumblefoot'.

Caused by an undescribed bacterium (probably Pseudomonas) which affects the digits and limbs of mandarin salamanders, these swell to an excessive degree causing much discomfort and eventually the affected area will either split or drop off. If treated with a tropical fish compound such as BSB (Broad Spectrum Bactericide) such as that produced by TAP (Technical Aquatic Products), the condition can be arrested and reversed. Place three drops of the BSB in a pint of water and bath the infected salamander in this for ten minutes twice daily.

Mouth Rot & Skin Rot

Necromatic tissue is commonly seen around the jaws

Almost certainly caused by the either the bacterium Flexibacter coulmnaris, Aeromonas hydrophilia or Pseudomonas vectors, this disease is seen in the form of mouth erosion (especially the lower jaw) but can also spread to the ventral surface, cloaca and underside of the limbs where large open sores are prevalent. Continual treatment by bathing the infected specimen twice daily for 5-10 min in a strong solution of the Finrot/Mouthrot compounds frequently sold for tropical fish. 5 drops in a pint of water should suffice. I have found that the Interpet and Waterlife compounds are excellent in this respect. Once the disease clears up, treatment should continue for a further four weeks to prevent reoccurrence.

Necromatic tissue can prove fatal around the limbs and cloaca

Badly infected specimens may require a course of topical or injected antibiotics such as a 2.5% or 5% solution of Ticarcillin, Enrofloxacin or Baytril. Unfortunately such antibiotics can only be acquired on prescription (at least this is the case in England) and are extremely expensive. If correctly treated Mandarin salamanders will not only survive such disease but will show complete recovery with entire limbs or a new jaw being regenerated. However it is cannot be stressed how important it is to treat such diseases early. Sometimes it is better to euthenase particularly badly infected specimens which have lost most of the head, torso or cloaca. OTHER SPECIES

The charming but ultimately endangered Black Crocodile newt (Tylototriton taliangensis)

I have recently acquired a number of very rare but very beautiful black crocodile salamanders (Tylotriton taliangensis) which where actually saved from a Chinese food market in the town of Luizho, eastern China. Occurring in a small area of the southwest mountainous subregion of the western Himalaya's, China, this species is far more streamlined and aquatic and proves to be an extremely 'friendly' species in captivity. Unfortunately it is also near extinction and I would only recommend experienced keepers to attempt this newt as it will not tolerate temperatures above 60F..

Attaining 7.5 inches (19.05cm), its dorsum is a inky black with bright orange markings present on the parotid glands, digits and lower tail. I keep my specimens in a very cool aquaterrarium complete with slow-running water (to which I add a 12cm diameter cube of iced rainwater on a daily basis) and a mossy platform with cork bark hides. I have seen my specimens in a Pleurodeles-like amplexus on several occasions but I know my females are not yet properly conditioned (watch this space for details of eggs and larvae as and when they arrive!). Whenever I walk into the room, one or more specimens will poke their heads out expecting a morsel (which they usually get in the form of waxworm, slugs and earthworm.). All in all, a charming, but alas difficult species (unless temperatures can be kept low). So far I have I have not kept any other species of genera Tylototriton or Echinotriton. However, future trips to Chinese food markets in the next year or so may provide me with further surprises.