CARBONATE EXPLORATION PLAYS

The following section briefly summarizes carbonate exploration plays in both frontier and mature basin settings. Carbonate play types in both frontier and mature basins can be linked to the hierarchy of cycles present in carbonate sequences, from the large-scale 2nd-order transgressive-regressive cycles that are most important in defining large, potential reserves in frontier or less explored basins, to 3rd-order cycles that define remaining potential in subtle stratigraphic traps in mature basin settings. Higher-order sequences and cycles become most important, of course, in building a stratigraphic architecture for efficient production strategies. Of particular importance in classifying play types are (1) volumetric dominance of highstand systems tracts, (2) position of platform successions within 2nd-order supersequences, (3) amount of early marine cement, (4) architecture of 3rd-order systems tracts (position of porosity pinchouts), and (5) seal integrity. Figures 1, 2, and 3 summarize play types and divide them into major plays by systems tract. Frontier plays assume a working hydrocarbon system is present. Major plays in frontier and less explored basins are grouped here into two reservoir categories: (1) third-order highstand and less commonly, transgressive systems tracts containing reservoir-quality grainsupport lithofacies in ramp to rimmed shelf margin, or open platform settings, and (2) both transgressive and highstand systems tracts of isolated platform buildups. Transgressive system tracts are less important because they are not, in many cases, volumetrically large and are not capable of containing major reserve volumes. In all cases where highstand systems contain significant, company making reservoirs (i.e., 100s MMBOE), they have been deposited on shallow shelves in a keepup setting, do not have significant amounts of early marine cement, and retain significant primary porosity. Subsequent diagenesis may rearrange this porosity, and alter permeability, but reservoir quality generally can be related back to lithofacies within these highstands which had excellent primary porosity and permeability. Reservoirprone 3rd-order sequences tend to concentrate within the transgressive and early highstand portions of 2nd-order supersequences. Carbonate platforms tend to backstep across shallow shelves during 2nd-order transgressions providing the opportunity for keep-up deposition to occur during transgression and during the early turnaround portion of the 2nd-order regression. The later regressive portion of supersequences tend to aggrade and prograde into progressively deeper basin areas. Foreslopes and platform margins tend to steepen through time and face deep basins. Platform interior lithofacies

are more restricted and mud-rich, and porosity in platform-margin and foreslope facies tracts is commonly, pervasively occluded by early marine cement. Although significant porosity may be retained in immediate back-shoal, platform-margin grainsupport rock, these late regressive highstand systems tend not to preserve reservoir-quality porosity and permeability. Hydrocarbon traps for major keep-up reservoirs are generally structural, combination structural-stratigraphic configurations, and where isolated platforms provide four-way dip closure (Figure 1). Trapping configurations include anticlinal structures, and reversal of regional dip where nonporous basinal lithofacies that are laterally equivalent to major reservoir lithofacies are put in updip positions. Top seals are provided by 2nd-order transgressive shales or deepwater lime mudstone, or onlapping evaporite wedges deposited during relative lowstands and rises in sea level. Lateral, updip seals in combination traps are facies equivalent evaporites, shaley limestones, or nonporous lime mudstones and wackestones. Open platform interiors that have higher-order cyclicity and contain parasequences that shoal to porous grainsupport rock will not act as effective seal facies. Examples of multi-billion barrel structural traps are abundant in the Middle East and include platform and bank-margin grainsupport reservoirs from: (1) the Jurassic, Upper Kimmerdigian/Tithonian Arab A-D cycles (e.g., Ghawar and Qatif Fields, , Saudi Arabia); (2) the Lower Kimmeridgian Hanifa limestone (e.g., Berri Field, Saudi Arabia); (3) the Neocomian-aged Ratawi oolite (e.g., Wafra and Khafji Fields, Neutral Zone, Saudi Arabia/Kuwait); (4) the Barremian-aged Thamama limestone (e.g., Bab Field, Abu Dhabi); (5) the Aptian Shuaiba Formation rudistid bank (e.g., Bu Hasa Field, Abu Dhabi); and (6) the Albian-aged Mishrif limestones (e.g., Fahud Field, Oman). Examples of combination structural-stratigraphic traps are prominant in the Permian basin of West Texas and New Mexico, USA, and include, from the late Permian San Andres Formation, the Cato-San Andres and Slaughter-Levelland fields of the Northwest Shelf, Delaware basin, and the Seminole and Means fields on the eastern margin of the Central Basin Platform, Midland basin. Reservoirs occur in the transgressive and early highstand or regressive portions of the late Guadalupian second-order supersequence. Major field accumulations occur where porous reservoir lithofacies change facies updip into evaporitic dolomites and evaporites. Basinward closure is provided in many places by structural noses formed as compactional drape over the edges underlying older Paleozoic structures.

Major isolated platform accumulations include: (1) the Late Devonian reefal buildups in the Western Canada basin (e.g., Golden Spike, Redwater, and Swan Hills); (2) the Pennsylvanian-aged Horseshoe Atoll of the Midland basin, Texas (e.g., Salt Creek, Kent County, and Kelly Synder and Diamond M, Scurry County); (3) the Miocene platforms of Southeast Asia (e.g., Arun, and Natuna fields, Indonesia; Luconia F6, Sarawak; Liuhua Field, offshore China); and (4) the Carboniferous platforms in Kazakhstan (e.g., Tengiz, Karachaganak). In all these cases, a major 2nd-order transgressive shale or nonporous deepwater lime mudstone lithofacies provides part or all of the enclosing seal facies. In the Late Devonian (Duvernay limestone), and Horseshoe Atoll (Wolfcamp shale) cases, these sealing facies are also significant hydrocarbon sources. In mature basins, significant reserve adds (i.e. 10s MMBOE) are available in stratigraphic plays (Figures 2, and 3). Porosity pinchouts in lowstand and transgressive systems tract geometries provide potential trapping configurations. These include: (1) onlapping, lowstand or transgressive high-energy nonskeletal and skeletal lime grainstones; (2) toplapping shoalwater grainstones of lowstand prograding complexes and shelf-margin wedges; and (3) onlapping lowstand debris beds and redeposited lime grainstones. If present, draping transgressive deepwater shales and/or shaley lime mudstones provide top seal and laterally equivalent nonporous platform interior facies are lateral seals, especially if these lithofacies are evaporitic. Base seal is provided by underlying deepwater muddy lithofacies. Examples of onlapping porosity pinchouts include the Dogger Limestone (Bathonian/Callovian) of the Paris basin and the Grayburg wedge of the Permian basin. In the case of the Dogger limestone, onlapping lowstand and transgressive systems tracts of early Callovian age contain a major accumulation in the Villeperdue Field (66 MMBO recoverable) in the Paris basin. Porous oolitic grainstones are the reservoir. Traps are developed across subtle structural noses where these grainstones change facies in a shelfward direction into nonporous, muddy tidal flat lithofacies. Top seal is provided by the overlying deepwater Callovian shale, deposited in a 2nd-order transgression. Similarly, the Garyburg lowstand wedge onlaps the top San Andres, GP3 sequence boundary (see Permian case study). Like the Dogger, the Grayburg traps (1-10+ MMBOE) occur as porosity pinchouts over structural noses. The shelfward nonporous lithofacies, in the Grayburg case is an evaporitic peritidal dolomudstone.

An example of a lowstand debris wedge pinchout trap includes the Wolfcamp of the Permian basin (Leary and Feeley, 1991). Debris beds generated from erosion of an early Wolfcamp carbonate platform margin and slope, onlap at the toe-of-slope. If dolomitization occurs early and porosity is retained, traps occur where porous beds onlap and pinchout, and are covered by nonporous deep basin lime mudstones or organic-rich siltstones. Fields include Mescalero Escarpe off the Northwest Shelf of the Delaware basin (northern Lea County, New Mexico) (Saller, 1989); and Dewey Lake, Blalock Lake, and Powell fields around the Glasscock Nose in the eastern Midland basin (Glasscock County, Texas).