Le 1 Amanda Le Mr. Targgart AP Biology (6) Objectives 2 Chapter 6 1. Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Prokaryotic No nucleus Plasmids Unicellular No membrane-bound nucleus Circular DNA Complex cell walls Typically binary fission Larger cell: 10-100um Eukaryotic Nucleus Multiple chromosomes Multicellular Membrane-bound nucleus Linear DNA Cell walls only in plants, simple Mitosis Smaller cell: 1-10um

2. Explain why there are both upper and lower limits to cell size. Upper limit: cells that are too large become inefficient; assuming the nucleus is in the center of the cell, it will take longer for nutrients etc. to travel in, out, and within the cell. Lower limit: cells that are too small are unable to fit all of the necessary components such as organelles in it. 3. Explain the advantages of compartmentalization in eukaryotic cells. Compartmentalization is the separation of cell components into contained organelles which can function independently of each other. This separation increases the overall efficiency of the cell in a variety of ways. Compartmentalization allows for the existence of different local environments for different processes, none of which interfere with each other. These unique compartments within the cell can then perform specialized functions and increase the efficiency of the cell.

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4. Describe the structure and function of the nucleus and briefly explain how the nucleus controls protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. The nucleus contains the cell's genetic instructions which are used by the ribosomes. Its structure consists of a nuclear envelope, nuclear lamina, chromosomes, chromatin, and nucleolus. Protein synthesis is directed and controlled by the mRNA that is synthesized by the nucleus. This mRNA then reaches the cytoplasm, where ribosomes translate the mRNA's genetic information into a polypeptide. 5. Describe the function and structure of the eukaryotic ribosome. Distinguish between free and bound ribosomes in terms of structure and function. Ribosomes are organelles made of rRNA and carry out protein synthesis. Free ribosomes are those that are suspended in the cytosol, while bound ribosomes are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum or the nuclear envelope. Both types are identical and interchangeable. 6. List the components of the endomembrane system, describe their structures and functions, and summarize the relationships among them. The endomembrane system is composed of many of the different membranes of the cell. It includes the nuclear envelope, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, and the plasma membrane. While these components are connected either directly or through vesicles, they do not necessarily have the same makeup or function. - Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): network of membranes within the cytoplasm that separates the internal compartment/cavity/cisternal space of the ER from the cytosol. The two distinct regions of the ER are the smooth ER (lacks ribosomes on outer surface) and the rough ER (has ribosomes on outer surface). The smooth ER stores calcium ions and contains enzymes that are important to the production of lipids and others that help detoxify poisons. The rough ER is important because of its attached ribosomes, which produce a variety of proteins. It also serves as the membrane factory for the cell, creating its own membrane phospholipids and adding proteins to its own membrane. - Golgi apparatus: made of flattened membrane sacks/cisterns. A Golgi sack has two poles, the cis face and the trans face, which receive and ship respectively. It is where products of the ER are modified and stored before being sent elsewhere. The Golgi apparatus also manufactures certain macromolecules on its own. - Lysosome: membrane sack containing digestive enzymes. Its primary function is to digest macromolecules that enter the cell. It also serves as a waste receptacle in that it breaks down damaged organelles.

Le 3 - Vacuoles: membrane-bound vesicles. Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis and fuse with a lysosome to digest macromolecules. Contractile vacuoles pump excess water out of the cell to maintain a specific ion concentration. Central vacuoles, found in plant cells, store organic compounds and break down metabolic byproducts. 7. Describe three examples of intracellular digestion by lysosomes. Three examples of intracellular digestion by lysosome are 8. Name three types of vacuoles and explain how their functions differ. The three types of vacuoles are food vacuoles, contractile vacuoles, and central vacuoles. Food vacuoles aid in digesting macromolecules by fusing with a lysosome. Contractile vacuoles pump excess water out of the cell. Central vacuoles store organic compounds and break down metabolic byproducts. 9. Explain the role of peroxisomes in eukaryotic cells. The peroxisome is a specialized organelle containing enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various substrates to oxygen, producing hydrogen peroxide as a by-product. Peroxisomes also detoxify poisons and convert fatty acids to sugar. 10. Describe the structure of a mitochondrion and explain the importance of compartmentalization in mitochondrial function. The mitochondrion is made of two membranes with infoldings called cristae. It is divided into two compartments. The first compartment is a narrow space between the inner and outer membranes, The second compartment, the mitochondrial matrix, contains many different enzymes as well as mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes. These enzymes catalyze some steps of cellular respiration. Compartmentalization is important because it increases the surface area of the organelle and thus increases the productivity of cell respiration. 11. Identify the three functional compartments of a chloroplast and explain the importance of compartmentalization in chloroplast function. The three functional compartments of the chloroplast are the intermembrane space, the stroma, and the thylakoid space. Compartmentalization is pivotal in chloroplast function because it increases the surface area of the chloroplast and facilitates the conversion of light energy into chemical energy during photosynthesis. 12. Describe the functions of the cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton is a network if fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm. It has a variety of key functions, including support, motility, and regulation of the cell. The cytoskeleton gives mechanical support to the cell and maintains its shape. It also enables motility, or movement, by interacting with motor proteins which encourage the bending

Le 4 of cilia and flagella. It also helps to regulate biochemical activities of the cell in response to mechanical stimulation. Its transmission of naturally occurring mechanical signals helps regulate and coordinate the cell's response. 13. Compare the structure, monomers, and functions of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. - Microtubules: hollow rods measuring about 25nm in diameter and 200nm-25um in length. The wall of the hollow tube is made of a globular protein called tubulin. Microtubules shape and support the cell and guide the movement of organelles with motor proteins. - Microfilaments: solid rods measuring about 7nm in diameter. Built from a globular protein called actin. Its structure is a twisted double chain of actin subunits. The structural role of microfilaments is to bear tension (pulling forces). In this way it helps to maintain the cell shape. Microfilaments also play a role in motility, making up part of the contractile apparatus of muscle cells. They also make up the core of microvilli. - Intermediate filaments: tension-bearing tubes which measure about 8-12nm in diameter, which is larger than microfilaments but smaller than microtubules. They are constructed from a different molecular subunit different from those of microtubules and microfilaments. Intermediate filaments are important in reinforcing the shape of cells and fixing the position of certain organelles. 14. Explain the structure and role of centrioles and basal bodies. Centrioles are composed of nine sets of triplet microtubules arranged in a ring. They replicate before an animal cell divides. Basal bodies area structures similar to centrioles that anchor cilia and flagella to the cell. 15. Describe the structure and list some of the functions of the extracellular matrix in animal cells. The extracellular matrix (ECM) are the glycoproteins secreted by the cell. These proteins often form strong fibers outside the cell, such as collagen, bind to surface receptors, like fibronectin, or act as receptor proteins like integrins. ECM can regulate the cell's behavior by communicating with the cell via integrins. 16. Describe the structure of intercellular junctions found in plant and animal cells and relate their structure to function. Intracellular junctions are structures that join cells together. In animal cells, these are tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions. Tight junctions exist where the plasma membranes of adjacent cells are very tightly pressed together. Desmosomes act like rivets and fasten cells together into strong sheets. Gap junctions provide channels between cells by which water and small molecules can pass. In plant cells, it is the plasmodesmata,

Le 5 which are channels which perforate the cell wall. These allow cytosol, water, and small molecules to pass through and connect the chemical environments of adjacent cells. Chapter 7 17. Describe how the fluidity of a cell membrane is influenced by temperature and membrane composition. A cell membrane remains fluid until the temperature drops to a point at which the phospholipids pack closely together and the membrane solidifies. The temperature at which a cell membrane solidifies is a variable dependent on the types of lipids it is composed of. The composition of a cell membrane can change as well, as the concentration of phospholipids may increase or decrease depending on the surrounding conditions. 18. List six major functions of membrane proteins. Distinguish between peripheral and integral membrane proteins. The six major functions of membrane proteins are: - Transport - Enzymatic activity - Signal transduction - Cell-cell recognition - Intercellular joining - Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix The two major types of membrane proteins are: - Integral proteins: penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer; embedded in the membrane - Peripheral proteins: not embedded in the lipid bilayer; appendages of the membrane surface 19. Explain the role of membrane carbohydrates in cell-cell recognition. Cells recognize each other by binding to molecules on the surface, such as carbohydrates on the plasma membrane. Membrane carbohydrates are diverse in their makeup and their location on the cell surface, characteristics that make them distinguishing markers. 20. Distinguish between channel proteins and carrier proteins. There are two different types if transport proteins called channel proteins and carrier proteins. Channel proteins have a hydrophilic channel that is used as a tunnel for atomic ions through the membrane. Carrier proteins hold onto their passengers and physically move them to and from different locations, while channel proteins are mostly sedentary.

Le 6 21. Define diffusion and explain what causes it and why it is a spontaneous process. Diffusion is is the movement of molecules from an area of concentration so that they spread evenly into the available space. It is considered a spontaneous process because it does not require any input of energy. 22. Explain what regulates the rate of passive transport. The rate of passive transport is regulated by the selective permeability of a cell membrane. While some substances may be uninhibited in their transport, others may nit be allowed to diffuse as rapidly. 23. Explain why a concentration gradient across a membrane represents potential energy. A concentration gradient is the region along which the density of a chemical substance increases or decreases. Potential energy is the energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure. Therefore, concentration gradients represent potential energy because when there are unequal levels of concentration, the molecules in the area of high concentration have a greater potential to diffuse and move to the areas of lower concentration. 24. Define osmosis and predict the direction of water movement based upon differences in solute concentrations. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. When the pores of the membrane are selectively permeable to water, the water molecules tend to move from the area of lower solute concentration to that of higher solute concentration, because the solute molecules are too large to pass through the pores. 25. Distinguish between solutions that are hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic to cell contents. - Hypertonic: the concentration of the solute is greater than that of the solvent. If a cell is placed in such a solution, the water inside it will leave the cell in order to reach equilibrium. It will lose water, shrivel, and die. - Hypotonic: the concentration of the solute is less than that of the solvent. If a cell is placed in such a solution, water will enter the cell more rapidly than it can exit the cell, so it will swell and burst. - Isotonic: the concentrations of the solute and solvent are equal. In a cell, this means that water will leave and enter the cell at the same rate, resulting in a net movement of water of zero. The volume of the cell will remain stable. 26. Explain how bound water affects the osmotic behavior of dilute biological fluids.

Le 7 Bound water molecules are attached to a hydrophilic solute molecule. In dilute biological fluids, the solute concentration does not affect water concentration significantly. Rather, when solute concentration is higher on one side of the membrane, more water molecules are occupied in that they are bound to the hydrophilic solute molecules. Thus, there are less free water molecules moving across the membrane from that side, and more free water molecules from the side with lower solute concentration moving across to the more concentrated side. 27. Explain how transport proteins facilitate diffusion. Facilitated diffusion is diffusion that is aided by transport proteins. Aquaporins are a type of channel transport protein that facilitates the diffusion that occurs in plant cells. Channel proteins passively facilitate diffusion by allowing the specific solute to pass through the polar-non polar membrane. Carrier proteins facilitate diffusion by transporting the solute molecule across in the process of changing shape. 28. Explain how active transport differs from diffusion. Active transport, which is the movement of molecules against the concentration gradient, requires the input of energy, whereas diffusion, which is the movement of molecules in the same direction of the concentration gradient, occurs without the input of energy. 29. Explain what mechanisms can generate a membrane potential or electrochemical gradient. Membrane potential is the voltage across a membrane. Mechanisms that can generate a membrane potential or electrochemical gradient are called the electrogenic pump, which, in animal cells, is the sodium-potassium pump, and in plants, fungi, and bacteria, is the proton pump. 30. Explain how large molecules are transported across the cell membrane. Large molecules are transported across the cell membrane via exocytosis and endocytosis. Exocytosis is the process in which the cell secretes biological molecules by fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane. Endocytosis is the process in which the cell takes in biological molecules by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane.