Notes by Prof.K.R.

Sudhindra, BMS College of Engineering, Bangalore

BASIC ELECTRONICS
Subject Code: ELN-15/25 Hours per week : 04 Total Hrs: 52 IA marks: 25 Exam Hours 03 Exam Marks: 100

CHAPTER 3

TRANSISTORS

A transistor is a sandwich of one type of semiconductor (P-type or n-type) between two layers of other types. Transistors are classified into two types; 1. pnp transistor pnp transistor is obtained when a n-type layer of silicon is sandwiched between two p-type silicon material. 2. npn transisitor npn transistor is obtained when a p-type layer of silicon is sandwiched between two n-type silicon materials. Figure3.1 below shows the schematic representations of a transistor which is equivalent of two diodes connected back to back.
JE JC JE JC

E p n p

E n p n

B Fig 3.1: Symbolic representation

pnp

npn

Fig 3.2: Schematic representation The three portions of transistors are named as emitter, base and collector. The junction between emitter and base is called emitter-base junction while the junction between the collector and base is called collector-base junction. The base is thin and tightly doped, the emitter is heavily doped and it is wider when compared to base, the width of the collector is more when compared to both base and emitter. In order to distinguish the emitter and collector an arrow is included in the emitter. The direction of the arrow depends on the conventional flow of current when emitter base junction is forward biased. In a pnp transistor when the emitter junction is forward biased the flow of current is from emitter to base hence, the arrow in the emitter of pnp points towards the base. 3.1 Operating regions of a transistor A transistor can be operated in three different regions as a) active region b) saturation region c) cut-off region Active region E p
JE

B JC C p

VEB VCB Fig 3.3: pnp transistor operated in active region The transistor is said to be operated in active region when the emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector base junction is reverse biased. The collector current is said to have two current components one is due to the forward biasing of EB junction and the other is due to reverse biasing of CB junction. The collector current component due to the reverse biasing of the collector junction is called reverse saturation current (ICO or ICBO) and it is very small in magnitude. Saturation region E p
JE

B JC C p 2

VEB VCB Fig 3.4: pnp transistor operated in Saturation region Transistor is said to be operated in saturation region when both EB junction and CB junction are forward biased as shown. When transistor is operated in saturation region IC increases rapidly for a very small change in VC.

Cut-off region E JE B JC C p n p

VEB VCB Fig 3.5: pnp transistor operated in Cut-off region

When both EB junction and CB junction are reverse biased, the transistor is said to be operated in cut-off region. In this region, the current in the transistor is very small and thus when a transistor in this region it is assumed to be in off state. 3.2 Working of a transistor (pnp)

E IE IE p

JE

B JC C IC p
ICO

IC

n IB

VEB

VCB

Fig 3.6 Transistor in active region Consider a pnp transistor operated in active region as shown in Figure 3.6 Since the EB junction is forward biased large number of holes present in the emitter as majority carriers are repelled by the +ve potential of the supply voltage VEB and they move towards the base region causing emitter current IE. Since the base is thin and lightly doped very few of the holes coming from the emitter recombine with the electrons causing base current IB and all the remaining holes move towards the collector. Since the CB junction is reverse biased all the holes are immediately attracted by the ve potential of the supply VCB. Thereby giving rise to collector current IC.

Thus we see that IE = IB + IC -----------------(1) (By KVL) Since the CB junction is reverse biased a small minority carrier current ICO flows from base to collector.

3.3 Current components of a transistor JE IPE (hole current) IE INE (e- current) IB VEB Fig 3.7:Current components of a transistor VCB
IPB

JC IPC (hole current) ICO IC

Fig 3.7 above shows a transistor operated in active region. It can be noted from the diagram the battery VEB forward biases the EB junction while the battery VCB reverse biases the CB junction. As the EB junction is forward biased the holes from emitter region flow towards the base causing a hole current IPE. At the same time, the electrons from base region flow towards the emitter causing an electron current INE. Sum of these two currents constitute an emitter current IE = IPE +INE.

The ratio of hole current IPE to electron current INE is directly proportional to the ratio of the conductivity of the p-type material to that of n-type material. Since, emitter is highly doped when compared to base; the emitter current consists almost entirely of holes. Not all the holes, crossing EB junction reach the CB junction because some of the them combine with the electrons in the n-type base. If IPC is the hole current at (Jc) CB junction. There will be a recombination current IPE - IPC leaving the base as shown in figure 3.7. If emitter is open circuited, no charge carriers are injected from emitter into the base and hence emitter current IE =o. Under this condition CB junction acts a a reverse biased diode and therefore the collector current ( IC = ICO) will be equal to te reverse saturation current. Therefore when EB junction is forward biased and collector base junction is reverse biased the total collector current IC = IPC +ICO. 3.4 Transistor configuration We know that, transistor can be used as an amplifier. For an amplifier, two terminals are required to supply the weak signal and two terminals to collect the amplified signal. Thus four terminals are required but a transistor is said to have only three terminals Therefore, one terminal is used common for both input and output. This gives rise to three different combinations. 1. Common base configuration (CB) 2. Common emitter configuration (CE) 3. Common collector configuration (CC) 1. CB configuration A simple circuit arrangement of CB configuration for pnp transistor is shown below. IE Vi IB IC RL Vout

VEB VCB Fig 3.8:CB configuration In this configuration, base is used as common to both input and output. It can be noted that the i/p section has an a.c. source Vi along with the d.c. source VEB. The purpose of including VEB is to keep EB junction always forward biased (because if there is no VEB then the EB junction is forward biased only during the +ve half-cycle of the i/p and reverse biased during the ve half cycle). In CB configuration, IE i/p current, IC o/p current.

Current relations 1.current amplification factor () It is defined as the ratio of d.c. collector current to d.c. emitter current =

IO IE

2. Total o/p current We know that CB junction is reverse biased and because of minority charge carriers a small reverse saturation current ICO flows from base to collector. IC = IE + ICO Since a portion of emitter current IE flows through the base ,let remaining emitter current be IE . IC = IE + ICo Characteristics 1. Input characteristics IE VCB=10V VCB=5V

VEB Fig 3.9: Input characteristics I/p characteristics is a curve between IE and emitter base voltage VEB keeping VCB constant. IE is taken along y-axis and VEB is taken along x-axis. From the graph following points can be noted. 1. For small changes of VEB there will be a large change in IE. Therefore input resistance is very small. 2. IE is almost independent of VCB 3. I/P resistance , Ri = VEB / IE VCB =constant 2. Output characteristics IC

Active region IE=3 mA IE =2 mA IE = 1 mA IE = 0

Saturation region

Cut-off region VCB Fig 3.10:Output characteristics o/p characteristics is the curve between IC and VCB at constant IE. The collector current IC is taken along y-axis and VCB is taken along x-axis. It is clear from the graph that the o/p current IC remains almost constant even when the voltage VCB is increased. i.e. , a very large change in VCB produces a small change in IC. Therefore, output resistance is very high. O/p resistance Ro = VEB / IC IE = constant

Region below the curve IE =0 is known as cut-off region where IC is nearly zero. The region to the left of VCB =0 is known as saturation region and to the right of VCB =0 is known as active region. 2. CE configuration

IC RL Vout IB Vi IE VEB VCE Fig 3.11:CE configuration In this configuration the input is connected between the base and emitter while the output is taken between collector and emitter. For this configuration IB is input current and IC is the output current. 1. Current amplification factor () It is the ratio of d.c. collector current to d.c. base current. i.e., = IC / IB

2. Relationship between and We know that =

IC IE
IC IB IC

divide both numerator and denominator of RHS by IC, we get

1 IB 1 IC

1 1

( IC / IB = )

Also we have

(1 ) (1 ) 1
Derivation of Total output current IC We have I C I E I CBO

IC

1 B

I E I CBO

IC

I E (1 ) I CBO 1

Ic = I B (1 ) I CBO

Transistor Characteristics 1. i/p characteristics IB VCE=10V VCE=5V

VEB Fig 3.11: i/p characteristics Input characteristics is a curve between EB voltage (VEB ) and base current (IB ) at constant VCE. From the graph following can be noted. 1. The input characteristic resembles the forward characteristics of a p-n junction diode. 2. For small changes of VEB there will be a large change in base current IB. i.e., input resistance is very small. 3. The base current is almost independent of VCE. 4. Input resistance , Ri = VEB / IB V CE = constant 2. Output characteristics IC (mA) Active region 30 A 20 A 10 A IB =0A Cut-off region

V CE(volts) Fig 3.12: Output characteristics It is the curve between VCE and IC at constant IB. From the graph we can see that, 1. Very large changes of VCE produces a small change in IC i.e output resistance is very high. 2. output resistance Ro = VCE / IC IB = constant Region between the curve IB =0 is called cut-off region where IB is nearly zero. Similarly the active region and saturation region is shown on the graph. 3. CC configuration

IE RL Vout IB Vi VCB IC VCE

Fig 3.13: CC configuration

In this configuration the input is connected between the base and collector while the output is taken between emitter and collector. Here IB is the input current and IE is the output current. Current relations 1. Current amplification factor () 2. Relationship between and

IE IB

I B IC IB

divide both Numerator and denominator by IB

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IC 1

IB

1
1

( = IC / IB)

1 1

-------------------------------------

Derivation of total output current IE We know that IC = I E I CBO IE = IB + IC IE = IB + IE + ICBO IE(1- ) = IB + ICBO IE =
I IB CBO 1 1

IE = IB + ICBO IE = (IB + ICBO) -----------------------------

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3.5 Comparison between CB, CC and CE configuration Characteristics 1. Input reistance (Ri) 2. Output resistance (Ro) 3. Current amplification factor 4. Total output current 5. Phase relationship between input and output CB low high CE low high CC high low

1 1

I C I E I CBO
In-phase

Ic = I B (1 ) I CBO

IE = IB + ICBO in-phase

Out-of phase

6. Applications

For high frequency applications

For audio frequency applications

For impedance matching

7. Current gain 8. Voltage gain

Less than unity Very high

Greater than unity Grater than unity

Very high Less than unity

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3.6 Transistor as an amplifier

IC RL Vout IB Vi
`

IE VEB VCB

Fig 3.13: Transistor as an amplifier

Consider a npn transistor in CE configuration as shown above along with its input characteristics. A transistor raises the strength of a weak input signal and thus acts as an amplifier. The weak signal to be amplified is applied between emitter and base and the output is taken across the load resistor RC connected in the collector circuit. In order to use a transistor as an amplifier it should be operated in active region i.e. emitter junction should be always FB and collector junction should be RB. Therefore in addition to the a.c. input source Vi two d.c. voltages VEB and VCE are applied as shown. This d.c. voltage is called bias voltage. As the input circuit has low resistance, a small change in te signal voltage Vi causes a large change in the base current thereby causing the same change in collector current (because IC = IB). The collector current flowing through a high load resistance RC produces a large voltage across it. Thus a weak signal applied at the input circuit appears in the amplified form at the output. In this way transistor acts as an amplifier. Example: Let RC = 5K, Vin =1V, IC =1mA then output V=ICRC =5V

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3.7 Bias stabilization The process of making operating point independent of temperature changes or variation in transistor parameters is called the stabilization. We know that for transistor to operate it should be properly biased so that we can have a fixed operating point. To avoid any distortions, the Q-point should be at the center of the load line. But in practice this Q-point may shift to any operating region (saturation or cur-off region) making the transistor unstable. Therefore in order to avoid this, biasing stability should be maintained. 3.8 Causes for Bias instability Bias instability occurs mainly due to two reasons. 1. Temperature 2. Current gain 1. Temperature (T) The temperature at the junctions of a transistor depends on the amount of current flowing through it. Due to increase in temperature following parameters of a transistor will change. (a)base-emitter voltage (VBE) VBE increases at a rate of 2.4mV/0C. With increase in temperature the base current IB will increase and since IC= IB, IC is also increased hence, changing the Q-point. (b) Reverse saturation current ( ICBO) We know that IC = IB + (1+) ICBO where ICBO is the reverse saturation current. As the temperature increases ICBO increases there by increase in IC and hence changing the Qpoint. 2. Current gain () In the process of manufacturing the transistors different transistors of same type may have different parameters ( i.e. if we take two transistor units of same type and use them in the circuit there is a change in the value in actual practice ). The biasing circuit will be designed according to the required value but due to the change in from unit to unit the operating point may shift.

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3.9 Cascading transistor amplifiers When the amplification provided by a single stage amplifier is not suffiecient for a particular purpose or when the input and output impedance is not of the correct magnituded for the required application then two or more amplifiers are connected in cascade as shown below.

Fig 3.14:Cascading transistor amplifiers Here the output of amplifier 1 is connected as the input of amplifier 2. Example: The gain of a single amplifier is not sufficient to amplify a signal from a weak source such as microphone to a level which is suitablefor the operation of another circuit as loud speaker. In such cases, amplifiers are used. When amplifiers are cascaded, individual amplifiers provides required amplification and input and output provide impedance matching. Decibel (dB) Many a times it is convenient to represent the gain of an amplifier on a log scale instead of a linear scale. The unit of this log scale is called decibel. Power gain =loge( Pout /Pin ) bel Power gain in dB =10 log10( Pout /Pin ) dB Voltage gain =20log10( Vout /Vin ) dB Current gain = 20log10(Iout / Iin ) dB Note: For a multistage amplifier if AV1, AV2, and AV3 are the voltage gains of amplifier 1,2, and 3 respectively then the overall voltage gain AV = AV1 x AV2 x AV3. If it is expressed in dB the AV(dB) = AV1(dB) + AV2(dB) +AV3(dB) Similarly for four or more stages.

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3.10 Single stage RC coupled Amplifier VCC Vo R1 RC CC Vo RS R2 Vi RE RL t

Fig 3.15:single stage RC-coupled amplifier Figure above shows a practical circuit of a single stage RC coupled amplifier.The different circuit components and their functions are as described below. a. Input capacitor(Cin)- This capacitor is used to couple the input signal to the base of the transistor if it is not used, the signal source resistance RS gets in parallel with R2 thus changing the bias. The capacitor Cin blocks any d.c. component present in the signal and passes only a.c. signal for amplification. b. Biasing circuit The resistances R1, R2 and RE forms the biasing and stabilization circuit for the CE amplifier. It sets the proper operating point for the amplifier. c. Emitter bypass capacitor (CE)-This capacitor is connected in parallel with the emitter resistance RE to provide low reactance path to the amplified a.c. signal. If it is not used, the amplified a.c. signal passing through RE will cause voltage drop across itthereby reducing the output voltage of the amplifier. d. Coupling capacitor(Cc)- This capacitor couples the output of the amplifier to the load or to the next stage of the amplifier. If it is not used, the biasing conditions of the next stage will change due to the parallel effect of collector resistor RC. i.e. RC will come in parallel with the resistance R1 of the biasing network of the next stage thus changing the biasing conditions of the next stage amplifier.

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3.11 Two stage RC coupled amplifier

VCC R1 RC CC R11 RC1

CC1

RS R2 Vi RE CE

R21 RE

CE 1

RL

Stage-1

Stage-2

Fig 3.16: Two stage RC coupled Amplifier

Figure above shows the circuit diagram of a two stage RC coupled amplifier . The coupling capacitor CC connects the output of the first stage to the input of the second stage. Since the coupling from one stage to the next stage is achieved by coupling capacitor along with a shunt resistor the amplifier is called RC coupled amplifier.. The input signal is first applied to the transistor T1 and output is taken at the collector of T1. The signal at the output will be 1800 out of phase when compared to the input. The output is taken across RC with the help of a coupling capacitor. This signal is fed as input to the next stage i.e transistor T2. The signal is amplified further and the amplified output is taken across Rc1 of T2. The phase of the signal is reversed again. The output is amplified twice and its is amplified replica of the input signal. 3.12 Frequency response in amplifer Frequency response is the curve between the gain of the amplifier (A = V o / Vi ) verses the frequency of the input signal. The frequency response of a typical RC-coupled amplifier is shown below. Frequency response has 3 regions. 1. Low frequency range 2. Mid frequency range 3. High frequency range

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Gain in dB

LFR

MFR

HFR

f1

f2

freq(Hz)

Fig 3.16: Frequency response in amplifer Low frequency range (< 50 Hz) We have 1 Xc = 2RC

where XC ----- reactance of capacitor.;

f-----frequency Since frequency is inversely proportional to the reactance, the reactance of the coupling capacitor CC will be quite high at low frequencies. Hence very small amount of signal will pass through one stage to the next stage. Moreover CE cannot shunt the emitter resistance RE effectively because of its large reactance at low frequency. These two factors causes the fall of voltage gain at low frequencies. Mid frequency range (50Hz 20KHz) In this range of frequencies, voltage gain of the amplifier is constant. The effect of coupling capacitor in this range is as such to maintain a uniform voltage gain. High frequency range (> 20 KHz) In this range of frequency, the reactance of the coupling capacitor CC is very small and it behaves as a short circuit. This increases the loading effect of next stage ( RC will comes in parallel with R1) and reduces the voltage gain. This reduces the current amplification there by the voltage drops at high frequencies. Advantages of RC coupled amplifer 1. Low cost-Because only resistors and capacitors are used for biasing and coupling which are cheap. 2. Compact-Because modern resistor and capacitors are small and light 3. Good frequency response- The gain is constant over the audio frequency range and hence suitable for audio frequency amplification.

3.13 DC Load Line and Operating point selection

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IC RB VCE IB RC

VBB VCC Fig 3.17:npn transistor in CE configuration

IC (mA) A

Q-point 30 A 20 A 10 A IB =0A B V CE(volts

Fig.3.18: output characteristics

Consisder a CE amplifier along with the output characteristics as shown in figure 3.18 above. A straight line drawn on the output characteristic of a transistor which gives the various zero signal values (ie. When no signal applied) of VCE and IC is called DC load line. Construction of DC load line Applying KVL to the collector circuit we get, VCC ICRC VCE =0-------------------1 VCE = VCC ICRC ----------------------2 The above equation is the first degree equation and can be represented by a straight line. This straight line is DC load line.

To draw the load line we require two end points which can be found as follows.

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1. If IC =0, equn 2 becomes VCE = VCC 2. if VCE = 0, equn 2 becomes VCC = ICRC ie. IC = VCC /RC

3.14 Operating point (Q) A point on the d.c. load line which represent the zero signal values of VCE and IC in a transistor is called as operating point or silent point or quiescent point or Q-point. The Q-point is selected where the DC load line intersects the curve of output characteristics for particular value of zero signal current.

i.e. Q-point = (VCE ,IC)

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