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Computer networking

Experiment no. 1
INTRODUCTION:A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware components and computers interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. Where at least one process in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at least one process residing in a remote device, then the two devices are said to be in a network. Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics such as the medium used to transport the data, communications protocol used, scale, topology, and organizational scope. Communications protocols define the rules and data formats for exchanging information in a computer network, and provide the basis for network. Well-known communications protocols are Ethernet, a hardware and link layer standard that is ubiquitous in local area networks, and the internet protocol suite, which defines a set of protocols for internetworking, i.e. for data communication between multiple networks, as well as host-to-host data transfer, and application-specific data transmission formats. Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of electrical engineering, telecommunications, computer science, information technology or computer engineering, since it relies upon the theoretical and practical application of these disciplines.

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Computer networking

Experiment no. 2
How Do Computer Networks Work?
A computer network is typically made up of a server, or client workstation, an operating system (like Windows NT), some sort of cabling and a network interface card (NIC). The network interface card--also known as an expansion board--is what allows the computer to be part of a network of other computers. It contains the communication circuits needed for the computer to function on a network. Once connected to a network, computers can share and exchange information as well as resources. For most small business networks there is one or more server computers coordinating the network's activities. Some servers do require a specific type of operating system, though the larger servers can typically work with most operating systems.

Access to: Internet content & learning resources, Scoilnet etc Email communication

File and Print Server CD or Multimedia Servers Printers , Scanners etc

Users computers

Cache, Proxy, Filtering, Firewall Server

Modem or Router

Collage Local Area Network (LAN)


Other users, computers

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Computer networking

TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS:There are three primary types of computer networks. Peer-to-peer networks don't necessarily require a server computer. Rather, each computer, or station, serves a different purpose with some "serving" data while others receive data. Oftentimes a local area network (LAN) will be set up as peer-to-peer. These are small networks like one you would set up in your home, or in a small business.

Peer to Peer Network

Client server networks are made up of one computer that acts as the main information hub. It sends and receives information to other computers (clients) in the network. Servers act as storage areas for files and databases, and are equipped with larger disk drives, more memory capacity, and more powerful central processors than the client stations. These are large networks, but can also function as LANs as well.

File Server

Other equipment

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Wide area networks (WAN) are made up of computers spread across a large geographic area. The Internet is a WAN, made up of smaller local area networks. The equipment needed to run a wide area network is extensive, and costly.

FUNCTION:Today's computer networks transmit through either cable or wireless connections. Cable transmissions run along cable or fiber-optic wires, whereas wireless transmissions use radio and/or microwave frequencies. Wireless networks are the most popular. Though cable networks have physical limitations in terms of connecting cables, and fixed areas, they are more stable and reliable overall. Wireless networks are more prone to radio interferences, interference from other wireless devices, and physical obstructions such as buildings, or walls can disrupt their signal.

FEATURES:Computer networks all follow certain rules of communication when sending information back and forth. These are called network protocols. Information is sent in bundles, or in packet form. Different network protocols utilize specific packet transmissions, or packet switching. Network protocols also provide the means by which computers can identify each other on a network. The size and purpose of the network will determine what type of network protocol is used. Network protocols are used by servers as well as the computers they manage. Certain software applications, like web browsers, are designed to accommodate these protocols.

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Computer networking

Experiment No.3
NETWORKING CABLES
Networking cables are used to connect one network device to other or to connect two or more computers to share printer, scanner etc. Different types of network cables like Coaxial, Optical fiber cable, Twisted Pair cables are used depending on the network's topology, protocol and size. The devices can be separated by a few meters (e.g. via Ethernet) or nearly unlimited distances (e.g. via the interconnections of the Internet).

TWISTED PAIR:Twisted pair cabling is a form of wiring in which two conductors (the forward and return conductors of a single circuit) are twisted together for the purposes of canceling out electromagnetic (EMI) from external sources. This type of cable is used for home and corporate Ethernet networks. Twisted pair cables consist of two insulated copper wires. There are three types of twisted pair cables: Shielded, Unshielded and Foiled.

OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE:An 'optical fiber cable' is a cable containing one or more optical fibers. The optical fiber elements are typically individually coated with plastic layers and contained in a protective tube suitable for the environment where the cable will be deployed. It carries light impulses. It is expensive but has higher bandwidth and transmits data over longer distance.
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Computer networking

COAXIAL CABLE:Coaxial lines confine the electromagnetic wave to the area inside the cable, between the center conductor and the shield. The transmission of energy in the line occurs totally through the dielectric inside the cable between the conductors. Coaxial lines can therefore be bent and twisted (subject to limits) without negative effects, and they can be strapped to conductive supports without inducing unwanted currents in them. The most common use for coaxial cables is for television and other signals with bandwidth of multiple megahertz. Although in most homes coaxial cables have been installed for transmission of TV signals, new technologies (such as the ITU-T GHz standard) open the possibility of using home coaxial cable for high-speed home networking applications (Ethernet over coax).

PATCH CABLE:A patch cable is an electrical or optical cable used to connect one electronic or optical device to another for signal routing. Devices of different types (i.e. a switch connected to a computer, or a switch connected to a router) are connected with patch cords. It is a very fast connection speed. Patch cords are usually produced in many different colors so as to be easily distinguishable, and are relatively short, perhaps no longer than two meters.

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Computer networking

Experiment no.4
ETHERNET:Ethernet is a family of computer networking technologies for local area networks (LANs) commercially introduced in 1980. Ethernet has largely replaced competing wired LAN technologies. In the OSI reference system, Ethernet is at the Data Link layer. Systems communicating over Ethernet divide a stream of data into individual packets called frames. Each frame contains source and destination addresses and errorchecking data so that damaged data can be detected and re-transmitted. The standards comprise several wiring and signaling variants of the OSI physical layer in use with Ethernet. The original 10BASE5Ethernet used coaxial cable as a shared medium. Later the coaxial cables were replaced by twisted pair and fiber optic links in conjunction with hubs or switches. Data rates were periodically increased from the original 10 megabits per second, to 100 gigabits per second. Since its commercial release, Ethernet has retained a good degree of compatibility. Features such as the 48-bit MAC address and Ethernet format have influenced other networking protocols.

EVOLUTION:Ethernet evolved to include higher bandwidth, improved media access control methods, and different physical media. The coaxial cable was replaced with point-to-point links connected by Ethernet repeaters or switches to reduce installation costs, increase reliability, and
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improve management and troubleshooting. Many variants of Ethernet remain in common use. Ethernet stations communicate by sending each other data packets: blocks of data individually sent and delivered. As with other IEEE 802 LANs, each Ethernet station is given a 48-bit MAC address. The MAC addresses are used to specify both the destination and the source of each data packet. Ethernet establishes link level connections, which can be defined using both the destination and source addresses. On reception of a transmission, the receiver uses the destination address to determine whether the transmission is relevant to the station or should be ignored. Network interfaces normally do not accept packets addressed to other Ethernet stations. Adapters come programmed with a globally unique address. An Ether type field in each frame is used by the operating system on the receiving station to select the appropriate protocol module (i.e. the protocol module). Ethernet frames are said to be self-identifying, because of the frame type. Self-identifying frames make it possible to intermix multiple protocols on the same physical network and allow a single computer to use multiple protocols together. Despite the evolution of Ethernet technology, all generations of Ethernet (excluding early experimental versions) use the same frame formats (and hence the same interface for higher layers), and can be readily interconnected through bridging.

SHARED MEDIA:Ethernet was originally based on the idea of computers communicating over a shared coaxial cable acting as a broadcast transmission medium. The methods used were similar to those used in radio systems, with the common cable providing the communication channel likened to the luminiferous ether in 19th century physics, and it was from this reference that the name "Ethernet" was derived.

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Original Ethernet's shared coaxial cable (the shared medium) traversed a building or campus to every attached machine. A scheme known as carrier sense multiple accesses with collision detection (CSMA/CD) governed the way the computers shared the channel. This scheme was simpler than the competing token ring or token bus technologies. Computers were connected to an Attachment Unit Interface (AUI) transceiver, which was in turn connected to the cable (later with thin Ethernet the transceiver was integrated into the network adapter). While a simple passive wire was highly reliable for small networks, it was not reliable for large extended networks, where damage to the wire in a single place, or a single bad connector, could make the whole Ethernet segment unusable.

ADVANCED NETWORKING:Simple switched Ethernet networks, while a great improvement over repeater-based Ethernet, suffer from single points of failure, attacks that trick switches or hosts into sending data to a machine even if it is not intended for it, scalability and security issues with regard to broadcast and multicast traffic, and bandwidth choke points where a lot of traffic is forced down a single link.

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Computer networking

Experiment No.5
LAN (local area network):A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers in a limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or office building using network media. The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to wide area networks (WANs), include their usually higher data-transfer rates, smaller geographic area, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines. ARCNET, Token Ring and other technology standards have been used in the past, but Ethernet over twisted pair cabling, and Wi-Fi are the two most common technologies currently used to build LANs.

CABLING:Early LAN cabling had always been based on various grades of coaxial cable. However shielded twisted pair was used in IBM's Token Ring implementation, and in 1984 Star LAN showed the potential of simple unshielded twisted pair by using Cat3the same simple cable used for telephone systems. This led to the development of 10BaseT (and its successors) and structured cabling which is still the basis of most commercial LANs today. In addition, fiber-optic cabling is increasingly used in commercial applications. As cabling is not always possible, wireless Wi-Fi is now the most common technology in residential premises], as the cabling required is minimal and it is well suited to mobile laptops and smart phones.

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Computer networking

Experiment No.6
WAN (Wide area network):A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a telecommunication network that covers a broad area (i.e., any network that links across metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries). Business and government entities utilize WANs to relay data among employees, clients, buyers, and suppliers from various geographical locations. In essence this mode of telecommunication allows a business to effectively carry out its daily function regardless of location. This is in contrast with personal area networks (PANs), local area networks (LANs), campus area networks (CANs), or metropolitan (MANs) which are usually limited to a room, building, campus or specific metropolitan area (e.g., a city) respectively.

CONNECTION OPTIONS:-

Option:

Description Advantages

DisBandwidth advantages range

Sample protocols used

Point-toPoint connection between two Most Leased line computers secure or Local Area Networks (LANs)

Expensive

PPP,HDLC,SDL C,HNAS

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Computer networking

Circuit switching

A dedicated circuit path is created between Less 28 - 144 Call Setup PPP,ISDN end points. Expensive kbit/s Best example is dialup co nnections Devices transport packets via a shared single point-topoint or point-tomultipoint link across a carrier internet work. Variable length packets are transmitted over Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVC) or Switched Virtual Circuits

Packet switching

Shared media across link

X.25FrameRelay

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(SVC) Similar to packet switching, but uses fixed length cells instead of variable length packets. Data is divided into fixedlength cells and then transported across virtual circuits

Cell relay

Best for simultaneo us use of voice and data

Overhead c an be considerab le

ATM

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Computer networking

Experiment No.7
MAN (Metropolitan area network):A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus. A MAN usually interconnects a number of local area networks (LANs) using a high-capacity backbone technology, such as fiber-optical links, and provides up-link services to wide area networks (or WAN) and the Internet. A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings to entire cities. MANs can also depend on communications channels of moderate-to-high data rates. A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be used by many individuals and organizations. MANs might also be owned and operated as public utilities. They will often provide means for internetworking of local networks. A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a large computer network that spans a metropolitan area or campus. Its geographic scope falls between a WAN and LAN. MANs provide Internet connectivity for LANs in a metropolitan region, and connect them to wider area networks like the Internet.

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Computer networking

Experiment No.8
INTRANET:An intranet is a computer network that uses Internet Protocol technology to share information, operational systems, or computing services within an organization. The term is used in contrast to internet, a network between organizations, and instead refers to a network within an organization. Sometimes, the term refers only to the organization's internal website, but may be a more extensive part of the organization's information technology infrastructure, and may be composed of multiple local area networks. An intranet may host multiple private websites and constitute an important component and focal point of internal communication and collaboration. Any of the well known Internet protocols may be found in an intranet, such as HTTP (web services), SMTP (e-mail), and FTP (file transfer protocol). Internet technologies are often deployed to provide modern interfaces to legacy information systems hosting corporate data. An intranet can be understood as a private analog of the Internet, or as a private extension of the Internet confined to an organization. The first intranet websites and home pages began to appear in organizations in 1996-1997. Although not officially noted, the term intranet first became common-place among early adopters, such as universities and technology corporations, in 1992. Intranets are sometimes contrasted to extranets. While intranets are generally restricted to employees of the organization, extranets may also be accessed by customers, suppliers, or other approved parties. Extranets
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Computer networking
extend a private network onto the Internet with special provisions for authentication, authorization and accounting (AAA protocol). In many organizations, intranets are protected from unauthorized external access by means of a network gateway and firewall. For smaller companies, intranets may be created simply by using private IP address ranges, such as 192.168.0.0/16. In these cases, the intranet can only be directly accessed from a computer in the local network; however, companies may provide access to off-site employees by using a virtual private network, or by other access methods, requiring user authentication and encryption.

USES:Increasingly, intranets are being used to deliver tools and applications, e.g., collaboration (to facilitate working in groups and teleconferencing) or sophisticated corporate directories, sales and customer relationship management tools, project management etc., to advance productivity. Intranets are also being used as corporate culture-change platforms. For example, large numbers of employees discussing key issues in an intranet forum application could lead to new ideas in management, productivity, quality, and other corporate issues. In large intranets, website traffic is often similar to public website traffic and can be better understood by using web metrics software to track overall activity. User surveys also improve intranet website effectiveness. Larger businesses allow users within their intranet to access public internet through firewall servers. They have the ability to screen messages coming and going keeping security intact. When part of an intranet is made accessible to customers and others outside the business, that part becomes part of an extranet. Businesses can send private messages through the public network, using special encryption/decryption and other security safeguards to connect one part of their intranet to another. Intranet user-experience, editorial, and technology teams work together to produce in-house sites. Most commonly, intranets are managed by the communications, HR or CIO departments of large organizations, or some combination of these.
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BENEFITS: Workforce productivity: Intranets can help users to locate and view information faster and use applications relevant to their roles and responsibilities. With the help of a web browser interface, users can access data held in any database the organization wants to make available, anytime and subject to security provisions from anywhere within the company workstations, increasing employees' ability to perform their jobs faster, more accurately, and with confidence that they have the right information. It also helps to improve the services provided to the users. Time: Intranets allow organizations to distribute information to employees on an as-needed basis; Employees may link to relevant information at their convenience, rather than being distracted indiscriminately by electronic mail. Communication: Intranets can serve as powerful tools for communication within an organization, vertically and horizontally. From a communications standpoint, intranets are useful to communicate strategic initiatives that have a global reach throughout the organization. The type of information that can easily be conveyed is the purpose of the initiative and what the initiative is aiming to achieve, who is driving the initiative, results achieved to date, and who to speak to for more information. By providing this information on the intranet, staff has the opportunity to keep up-to-date with the strategic focus of the organization. Some examples of communication would be chat, email, and or blogs. A great real world example of where an intranet helped a company communicate is when Nestle had a number of food processing plants in Scandinavia. Their central support system had to deal with a number of queries every day. When Nestle decided to invest in an intranet, they quickly realized the savings. McGovern says the savings from the reduction in query calls was substantially greater than the investment in the intranet.
Web publishing allows cumbersome corporate knowledge to be

maintained and easily accessed throughout the company using hypermedia and Web technologies. Examples include: employee manuals, benefits documents, company policies, business standards, news feeds, and even training.
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NETWORK SECURITY:Network security consists of the provisions and policies adopted by a network administrator to prevent and monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of computer and network-accessible resources. Network security involves the authorization of access to data in a network, which is controlled by the network administrator. Users choose or are assigned an ID and password or other authenticating information that allows them access to information and programs within their authority. Network security covers a variety of computer networks, both public and private, that are used in everyday jobs conducting transactions and communications among businesses, government agencies and individuals. Networks can be private, such as within a company, and others which might be open to public access. Network security is involved in organizations, enterprises, and other types of institutions. It does as its title explains: It secures the network, as well as protecting and overseeing operations being done. The most common and simple way of protecting a network resource is by assigning it a unique name and a corresponding password.

SECURITY MANAGEMENT:Security management for networks is different for all kinds of situations. A home or small office may only require basic security while large businesses may require high-maintenance and advanced software and hardware to prevent malicious attacks from hacking and spamming.

Homes & Small Businesses


A basic firewall or a unified threat management system.

For Windows users, basic Antivirus software. An anti-spy ware program would also be a good idea. There are many other types of antivirus or anti-spy ware programs out there to be considered. When using a wireless connection, use a robust password. Also try to use the strongest security supported by your wireless devices, such as WPA2 with AES encryption. If using Wireless: Change the default SSID network name, also disable SSID Broadcast; as this function is unnecessary for home
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use. (However, many security experts consider this to be relatively useless). Enable MAC Address filtering to keep track of all home network MAC devices connecting to your router. Assign STATIC IP addresses to network devices. Disable ICMP ping on router. Review router or firewall logs to help identify abnormal network connections or traffic to the Internet. Use passwords for all accounts. For Windows users, Have multiple accounts per family member and use non-administrative accounts for day-to-day activities. Raise awareness about information security to children.

Medium businesses
A fairly strong firewall or Unified Threat Management System Strong Antivirus software and Internet Security Software. For authentication, use strong passwords and change it on a biweekly/monthly basis. When using a wireless connection, use a robust password. Raise awareness about physical security to employees. Use an optional network analyzer or network monitor. An enlightened administrator or manager. Use a VPN, or Virtual Private Network, to communicate between a main office and satellite offices using the Internet as a connectivity medium. A VPN offers a solution to the expense of leasing a data line while providing a secure network for the offices to communicate. A VPN provides the business with a way to communicate between two in a way mimics a private leased line. Although the Internet is used, it is private because the link is encrypted and convenient to use. A medium sized business needing a secure way to connect several offices will find this a good choice. Clear employee guidelines should be implemented for using the Internet, including access to non-work related websites, sending and receiving information.

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Individual accounts to log on and access company intranet and Internet with monitoring for accountability. Have a back-up policy to recover data in the event of a hardware failure or a security breach that changes, damages or deletes data. Disable Messenger. Assign several employees to monitor a group like CERT which studies Internet security vulnerabilities and develops training to help improve security.

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Computer networking

Experiment No.9
ROUTING:Routing is the process of selecting paths in a network along which to send network traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including the telephone network (Circuit switching), electronic data networks (such as the Internet), and transportation networks. This article is concerned primarily with routing in electronic data networks using packet switching technology. In packet switching networks, routing directs packet forwarding, the transit of logically addressed packets from their source toward their ultimate destination through intermediate nodes, typically hardware devices called routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. Generalpurpose computers can also forward packets and perform routing, though they are not specialized hardware and may suffer from limited performance. The routing process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Thus, constructing routing tables, which are held in the router's memory, is very important for efficient routing. Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time, but multipart routing techniques enable the use of multiple alternative paths. Routing, in a more narrow sense of the term, is often contrasted with bridging in its assumption that network addresses are structured and that similar addresses imply proximity within the network. Because structured addresses allow a single routing table entry to represent the route to a group of devices, structured addressing (routing, in the narrow
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sense) outperforms unstructured addressing (bridging) in large networks, and has become the dominant form of addressing on the Internet, though bridging is still widely used within localized environments.

ROUTING ALGORITHMS:DISTANCE VECTOR ALGORITHMS:Distance vector algorithms use the Bellman-Ford algorithm. This approach assigns a number, the cost, to each of the links between each node in the network. Nodes will send information from point A to point B via the path that results in the lowest total cost (i.e. the sum of the costs of the links between the nodes used). The algorithm operates in a very simple manner. When a node first starts, it only knows of its immediate neighbours, and the direct cost involved in reaching them. (This information, the list of destinations, the total cost to each, and the next hop to send data to get there, makes up the routing table, or distance table.) Each node, on a regular basis, sends to each neighbour its own current idea of the total cost to get to all the destinations it knows of. The neighbouring node(s) examine this information, and compare it to what they already 'know'; anything which represents an improvement on what they already have, they insert in their own routing table(s). Over time, all the nodes in the network will discover the best next hop for all destinations, and the best total cost.

LINK STATE ALGORITHMS:When applying link-state algorithms, each node uses as its fundamental data a map of the network in the form of a graph. To produce this, each node floods the entire network with information about what other nodes it can connect to, and each node then independently assembles this information into a map. Using this map, each router then independently determines the least-cost path from itself to every other node using a standard shortest paths algorithm such as Dijkstra's algorithm. The result is a tree rooted at the current node such that the path through the tree from the root to any other node is the least-cost path to that node.

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