1.

THE ARTICLE 1) THE DEFINITE ARTICLE (,,the) We use the definite article: a) To refer to something which has already been mentioned: Take a cake. Put the cake on the table. b) To create an individualization: Shaw wanted to be the Shakespeare of his time. c) In Geography: With plural states and countries: They went to the Netherlands and the U.S.A. Exception: The Tyrol, the Congo, the Sudan, the Hague, the Argentine. With mountain ranges (siruri de munti)/ hills/ plains/ valleys/ gorges/ canyons/ bays/ oceans/ seas/ rivers/ deserts/ islands (when theres more than one island): We saw the Carpathians/ the Cheviot Hills/ the Great Plains/ the Willamette Valley/ the Bicaz Gorges/ the Grand Canyon/ the Bay of Biscay/ the Pacific Ocean/ the Black Sea/ the Mississippi River/ the Sahara/ the Hebrides. With cardinal points: the North, the South, the East, the West. d) Before: Family names: ,,The Simpsons are on the TV. The name of a ship, boat, craft: ,,The Transylvania was an old ship. Paper names: ,,The Times is a well-known paper. A unique noun: the Sun, the Moon, the Earth. An adjective, transformed into a noun: the rich, the poor, the blind, the young, the old, the sick. A noun which depicts an abstract notion: the good, the beautiful. Parts of the day: She arrived in the morning/ afternoon/ evening. Musical instruments: She plays the piano. Adjectives in the superlative: She is the most intelligent girl in our class. Ordinal numerals: Give me the first book on the desk. Names of important buildings (hotels/ cinemas/ opera houses/ theatres/ museums/ atheneums): He saw a play at the Nottara (theatre).

2) THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE (,,a/ an) We use ,,a when the noun begins with a consonant: a book, a desk, a boy, a cat. We use ,,an when the noun begins with a vowel: an apple, an elephant, an egg, an orange. ,,A/an has no plural, so we dont use it when we have a plural noun in a sentence. It is wrong to say: # A children want to go home. Exceptions of usage: - we use ,,a (instead of ,,an) before ,,u when we pronounce the ,,u like an ,,y: a uniform (not an uniform) - we use ,,an (instead of ,,a) before ,,h when ,,h is a silent consonant: an hour (not a hour) We use the Indefinite Article: a) When the noun is mentioned for the first time: Take a pen. b) When we want to emphasize that a person is unknown: A Mr. Jones called while you were out. c)In expressions of ratio (price, speed, frequency etc.): six pence a box; six miles an hour, once/ twice a day. d) Before: Nationalities: I am a Romanian. Jobs, professions: I am a teacher. Titles: ,,An American-Spanish Dictionary Certain numbers and expressions of quantity: a dozen, a hundred, a thousand, a lot of, a few, a little (with a positive meaning: Ive got a little ink. I can give you some.) e) After: ,,What: What a lovely day! ,,Such: You are such a lazy person! ,,Without: Do your exercise without a mistake! ,,Quite: This is quite a nice novel. ,,Rather: It was rather an expensive lunch for our pockets.

3) THE ZERO ARTICLE We use no article with: a) The preposition ,,by (especially when we speak about forms of transport): by bus/ train/ car/ coach/ boat/ plane/ tram etc. b) Meals: They had breakfast/ lunch/ dinner/ tea. c) Time divisions (seasons, months, days of the week): Spring, March, Monday. d) Subjects (materii) and languages: She is studying Maths. English is easy. e) Uncountable nouns: Do you like sugar? f) Abstract notions: Knowledge of languages is important. g) Proper names (nume proprii): Sarah, you look wonderful today! h) Titles, followed by proper names: Queen Elizabeth was an extraordinary personality. i) Materials, substances, colors: Chalk is white. Black is my favorite color. j) ,,Man/ woman, mankind in general: Man is unable to understand the universe. k) Common nouns associated with numerals: Lesson 5, Chapter 6, Room 22.

2. THE NOUN 1) ITS GENDER a) Masculine: men (and their names), boys, animals (when we know their sex); b) Feminine: women (and their names), girls, animals (when we know their sex), ships, car; c) Neuter: things, animals (when we dont know their sex), professions. In English language we have 3 noun categories: To the first category, we add some specific terminations (like ,,-ess, ,,-ine) for the feminine gender: actor/ actress, duke/ duchess, emperor/ empress, god/ goddess, heir/ heiress, master/ mistress, negro/ negress, tiger/ tigress, steward/ stewardess, prince/ princess, waiter/ waitress, hero/ heroine, administrator/ administratrix, widower/ widow. Observation: We must mention that this category refers especially to professions. It has no neuter gender, only masculine and feminine. To the second category, we add an auxiliary word to create the masculine or the feminine gender: doctor/ lady-doctor, bride/ bridegroom, grandfather/ grandmother, landlord/ landlady, policeman/ policewoman, jackass/ jenny ass,/ he-bear/ she-bear, cock-bird/ hen-bird, male camel/ female camel, bull-calf/ cow-calf, male dog/ female dog(bitch, slut), tom-cat/ tib-cat, he-elephant/ sheelephant, he-goat/ she-goat, he-mule/ she-mule, he-parrot/ she-parrot, he-swallow/ she-swallow, hesparrow/ she-sparrow, turkey-cock/ turkey-hen, he-wolf/ she-wolf. Observation: For the nouns that describe an animal, we can have the neuter gender if we dont know its gender. Eg.: jackass(masculine)/ jenny ass(feminine)/ ass(neuter). In the case of the third category, the masculine noun is totally different than the feminine noun: boy/ girl, brother/ sister, father/ mother, gentleman/ lady, husband/ wife, king/ queen, monk/ nun, nephew/ niece, son/ daughter, uncle/ aunt, man/ woman, Sir/ Madam, wizard/ witch, tailor/ seamstress, boar(hog)/ sow, buck/ doe, bull(ox)/ cow, colt/ filly, dog(hound)/ bitch, drake/ duck, drone/ bee, gander/ goose, ram/ ewe. Observation: For the nouns that describe an animal, we can have the neuter gender if we dont know its gender. Eg.: boar(hog)(masculine)/ sow(feminine)/ pig (swine)(neuter).

2) THE PLURAL OF THE SIMPLE NOUN a) Nouns are made plural by adding ,,-s to the noun: chair-chairs, roof-roofs, book-books, mapmaps, hat-hats, moth-moths, month-months. b) Nouns are made plural by adding ,,-es, if: They are ending in s, -ss, -x, -ch, -sh and -zz : bus-buses, class-classes, box-boxes, benchbenches, brush-brushes, buzz-buzzes. They are ending in ,,-o: tomato-tomatoes, potato-potatoes [ Exception: If the nouns have foreign origins, we add ,,-s instead of ,,-es: piano(it.)-pianos, photo(gr.)-photos, radio(lat.) radios]. Observation1: There are some nouns ending in ,,-o that can take either ,,-es or ,,-s: buffalo-buffalos/buffaloes; mosquito-mosquitos/mosquitoes; volcano-volcanos/volcanoes. Observation2: Words preceded by a consonant + y ,,ies: baby- babies, hobby-hobbies, fly-flies, lady-ladies, family-families, factory-factories. c) Nouns are made plural by adding ,,-ves if the words are ending in ,,-f/ -fe: leaf-leaves, wifewives, wolf-wolves, knife-knives, life-lives. Exception: The rule above does not apply for: chef-chefs, roof-roofs, cliff-cliffs, handkerchief-handkerchiefs. BUT scarf-scarfs/scarves. d) The plural of the foreign nouns has different endings: - ,,-es: analysis analyses; basis bases; crisis crises; - ,,-a or ,,-ae: criterion criteria, phenomenon phenomena, datum data, larva larvae. - ,,-i : stimulus stimuli, nucleus nuclei. C) THE PLURAL OF THE COMPOUND NOUN Compound nouns form their plural by adding ,,-s/es: a) To the second noun if the compound noun consists of two nouns : shopkeeper-shopkeepers, bedroom-bedrooms, goods-train goods-trains. b) To the first noun if the compound noun consists of two nouns connected with a preposition : sister-in-law/ sisters-in-law. c) To the noun if the compound consists of adjective and a noun: frying pan- frying pans. d) At the end of the compound if this is not made up of any nouns: breakdown-breakdowns. 5

D) SOME NOUNS HAVE AN IRREGULAR PLURAL FORM - man-men, woman-women, foot-feet, tooth-teeth, louse-lice, mouse-mice, child-children, goosegeese, ox-oxen, die-dice. Words composed by ,,man or ,,woman at the plural will become ,,men or ,,women + add ,,s at the other word: man-servant men servants, woman-clerk women-clerks. E) SOME NOUNS CAN TAKE ONLY A SINGULAR VERB a) Mass nouns: bread, tea, sugar. (The tea is very hot) b) Abstract nouns: advice, love, death, strength, work, knowledge, information. (,,Knowledge is power) c) Words ending in ,,ics (its the case of sciences, subjects): athletics, mathematics, physics. (Mathematics is my favorite subject) d) Games ending in ,,-s: billiards, cards, marbles, ninepins. (Biliards is my favorite sport) e) Diseas ending in ,,-s: mumps, measles. (Mumps gives you an awful pain in the neck) e) Nouns such as: weather, luggage, furniture, money, news. (Money is an important stuff) F) SOME NOUNS CAN TAKE ONLY A PLURAL VERB a) Objects which consist of two parts: - garments: trousers, pajamas, shorts, jeans (My trousers are on the chair) - tools: scissors, compasses, pincers, scales (The scissors are in your purse) - instruments: binoculars, spectacles. (My spectacles are on my nose) b) Nouns which have a plural meaning: clothes, goods, people, police, stairs, riches, earrings,, thanks. (The police are arriving) G) SOME NOUNS (that is the case of collective nouns which refer to a group of people) CAN TAKE EITHER A SINGULAR OR A PLURAL VERB, DEPENDING ON WEATHER WE SEE THE GROUP AS A WHOLE OR AS INDIVIDUALS: Such group nouns are: army, audience, class, police, club, committee, company, council, crew, family, government, press, public, staff, team. Eg.: The team was the best in the country. (=the team as a group) The team were all given medals. (= each member separately as individuals)

H) SOME NOUNS HAVE A DIFFERENT MEANING (or MEANINGS) IN THE PLURAL - compass (busola) vs. compasses (compas), effect (efect) vs. effects (efecte /bunuri), spectacle (spectacol) vs. spectacles (spectacole/ ochelari), colour (culoare) vs. colours (culori/ steag), custom (obicei) vs. customs (obiceiuri/ vama), glass (pahar, sticla) vs. glasses (pahare/ ochelari), hair (par) vs. hairs (fire de par), wood (lemn) vs. woods (padure), experience(experienta) vs. experiences (aventuri), work(munca) vs. works(lucrari, scrieri, opere), fish (peste) vs. fishes (soiuri de peste), fruit (fructe) vs. fruits (soiuri de fructe), advice (sfat) vs. advices (informatii), air(aer) vs. airs (figuri), ash (scrum) vs. ashes (cenusa), domino (costum de bal) vs. dominoes (joc de domino), sand (nisip) vs. sands (plaja) I) SOME NOUNS HAVE TWO DIFFERENT PLURAL FORMS, EACH OF THEM WITH A DIFFERENT MEANING - brother brothers(frati), brethren (frati de ideal, frati de cruce); cloth cloths(panzeturi), clothes(haine); staff staffs(toiege), staves(portative) I) SOME NOUNS HAVE THE SAME FORM AT THE PLURAL AND SINGULAR - series series, species species, cod cod, deer deer, salmon salmon, trout trout, sheep sheep, swine swine. J) COUNTABLE/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS Countable nouns are nouns that can be counted: one bag-two bags-three bags etc. Uncountable nouns are nouns that cant be counted. It is very important to mention that uncountable nouns take only a singular verb (There is some sugar left) and are not used with a/ an (It is wrong to say ,,I need a money). Many uncountable nouns can be made countable by means of partitives: - a piece of cake/ information/ advice/ news/ furniture/ chalk/ paper; - an item of information/ news; - a sheet of paper; - a bit of chalk; - a glass/ bottle of water; - a bottle of vinegar; - a jar of jam; - a rasher of bacon; 7

- a box of chocolates; -a bar of chocolate/ soap; - a packet of biscuits/ tea; - a cup of tea; - a slice/ loaf of bread; - a pot of yogurt/ tea; - a kilo/ pound of meat; - a drop/ can of oil/ Coke; - a carton of milk; - a tube of toothpaste; - an ice cube; - a lump of sugar; - a bag of flour; - a pair of trousers; 3) THE GENITIVE a) The Saxon Genitive: it is the case when we add an s to the singular noun and a simple to the plural noun. The Saxon Genitive is is used especially for persons and livings (animals, birds etc.) Eg.: The girls book = Cartea fetei. The girls books = Cartile fetelor. Observation: If the plural of the noun has an irregular form, we add s: The child s book = Cartea copilului. The childrens books = Cartile copiilor. If two nouns are connected by ,,and, we have two different situations: - when we add s after the second noun, it means that we are speaking about a single possession: Mary and Davids friends = Prietenii Mariei si ai lui David (deci au prieteni comuni) - when we add s after each noun, it means that we have different possessions: Marys and Davids friends = Prietenii lui Mary si prietenii lui David (deci au prieteni diferiti) The Saxon Genitive may also suggest a place: florists = florarie, grocers = bacanie. b) The Prepositional Genitive: it is constructed with the preposition ,,of. It is used especially for things, rarely for persons and livings. The colour of the grass = Culoarea ierbii. The entrance of the cave = Intrarea din pestera 8

The heat of the sun = Caldura soarelui. 3) THE PRONOUN A) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS a) this/ these (acesta, aceasta/ acestia, acestea): - for people or things near us: This is my pen and these are my pencils. - for present or future situations: Hes leaving for London this month. - when the speaker is in the place he is referring to: This room is very large. b) that/ those (acela, aceea/ aceia, acelea): -for people or things not near us: I dont like that picture but those on the left are nice. - for past situations: They enjoyed that summer very much. c) the same (acelasi, aceeasi, aceiasi, aceleasi): it is used when we want to speak again about a person. B) PERSONAL PRONOUNS I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they go before verbs as subjects Me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them go after verbs as objects. Eg.: They gave me a beautiful painting but I didnt like it. Observation: We dont use a noun and a pronoun together: # My cat its under the chair (wrong!) = My cat is under the chair (correct) C) POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS Mine, yours, his, hers, -, ours, yours, theirs. Possessive pronouns do not go before nouns: This is her jacket. Its hers. Sometimes possessive pronouns go at the beginning of a sentence: Yours is more beautiful. D) REFLEXIVE/ EMPHATIC PRONOUNS Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves Reflexive pronouns are used after certain verbs (behave, burn, cut, enjoy, hurt, kill, look, laugh at, introduce, dry, teach etc.) when the subject and the object of the verb are the same: He cut himself. They enjoy themselves at the party.

Reflexive pronouns can be used after be, feel, look, seem to describe emotions or states: She doesnt look herself these days. Emphatic pronouns have the same form as reflexive pronouns but a different meaning. They emphasise the noun or the fact that one person, and not another, performs an action: He himself did the whole job. He did the whole job himself. They go after nouns, pronouns, at the end of a sentence, or after but and than: You should count on no one but yourself. 4) THE ADJECTIVE Adjectives describe nouns. They have the same form in both singular and the plural form. Eg.: The red pencil is on the table. The red pencils are on the table. a) Order of adjectives: Adjectives normally go before nouns: I have a white cat. Observation: Adjectives can also be used without a noun after certain verbs (appear, be, become, feel, seem, smell, taste, look etc.): He felt nervous. She looks happy. The cake smells good. The adjectives: afraid, alone, alive, awake, asleep, glad etc. are NEVER followed by a noun: The girl was afraid. Some nouns can be used as adjectives if they go before another noun. They have no plural form in this case: the garden gate, a three-week holiday (not: a three-weeks holiday) When there are two or more fact adjectives, they normally go in the following order: OPINION nice Fact adjectives SIZE big Fact adjectives MATERIAL wooden AGE new SHAPE square

Thats a

COLOUR brown

ORIGIN German

PURPOSE linen

NOUN chest

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Adjectives Of one syllable add (e)r/ -(e)st to form their comparative and superlative forms. Of two syllables

Positive short big large heavy shallow special attractive

Comparative shorter (than) bigger (than) larger (than) heavier (than) shallower (than) more special (than) more attractive (than)

Superlative the shortest (of/in) the biggest (of/in) the largest (of/in) the heaviest (of/in) the shallowest (of/in) the most special (of/in) the most attractive (of/in)

ending in er, -ly, -y, -w, also add er/-est. Of two or more syllables take more/ most.

Observation: Certain adjectives form their comparative and superlative in both ways, either by adding er/-est or taking more/most: clever, common, cruel, friendly, gentle, narrow, pleasant, polite, quiet, simple, stupid etc.: Clever-cleverer-the cleverest OR clever more clever the most clever. When a short adjective (one or two syllables) ends in a consonant + ,,y (eg.: dry, happy) ,,i and add ,,-er/-est: dry drier the driest; happy happier the happiest. When a one syllable adjective ends in a consonant, we double the final consonant: hot hotter the hottest; big bigger the biggest; fat fatter the fattest. Observation: We can use the intensifiers much, a lot, far to make the comparative stronger: much more important

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5) THE ADVERB

Adverbs normally describe verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. They say how (adverbs of manner), where (adverbs of place), when (adverbs of time), how much/ to what extent (adverbs of degree), or how often (adverbs of frequency) something happens. Observation: There are also sentence adverbs (certainly, surely, probably, possibly etc.) and relative adverbs (where, why, when) Formation of Adverbs from Adjectives a) Most adverbs are formed by adding ly to an adjective: quick-quickly b) Adjectives ending in ic add ally to form their adverbs: dramatic dramatically c) Adjectives ending in le drop le and add ly to form their adverbs: terrible terribly d) Adjectives ending in consonant+y drop y and add ily to form their adverbs: happy happily e) Adjectives ending in ly (friendly, lonely, lovely, fatherly, motherly, silly, lively, ugly etc.) form their adverbs with in a way: in a friendly way f) Adjectives ending in e form their adverbs adding ly, without dropping e: rare rarely Exceptions: whole wholly, true truly. Observation: The adverb of ,,good is ,,well. Observation: Some adverbs are the same as their adjectives:daily, early, fast, hard, late, monthly, easy, low etc.: Eg.: He works hard.(=adverb) This is a hard job. (=adjective) Observation: In spoken English the adverbs loud, quick, slow, cheap are the same as their adjectives. In formal/ grammatical English we use loudly, quickly, slowly, cheaply: Eg.: He speaks loud. (=spoken) He speaks loudly. (=formal) SOME PAIRS OF ADVERBS HAVE DIFFERENT MEANINGS 1. deep= a long way down. 1. deeply= greatly He dug deep into the ground. 2. free= without payment. The scientist was deeply respected. 2. freely= willingly 12

Children travel free on buses. 3. hard= with a lot of effort. He works hard. 4. high= to/at a high level. The pilot flew high above the clouds. 5. last= after all others He got here last. 6. late= after the proper time. They arrived late. 7. near= close to. I live near the school. 8. pretty= fairly. The film was pretty awful. 9. short= suddenly The driver stopped short. 10. wide= far away from the right point. He threw the ball wide.

He spoke freely about his past. 3. hardly= scarcely. I hardly see him. 4. highly= very much. She is highly regarded by her employers. 5. lastly= finally Lastly, read the instructions then do the test. 6. lately= recently I havent seen him lately. 7. nearly= almost I have nearly finished. 8. prettily= in an attractive way She smiled prettily. 9. shortly= soon He will be arriving shortly. 10. widely= to a large extent Its widely believed that the Prime Minister will resign soon.

Order of Adverbs Adverbs can go in front, mid or end position in a sentence. Eg. Finally, he will probably start working here next week. 1. Adverbs of frequency (often, usually, never, ever, regularly, barely, seldom, scarcely, rarely, sometimes etc.) normally go before main verbs but after auxiliary verbs they go in mid position: Eg.: He often drinks coffee. He is always telling lies! Observation: In short answers, the adverbs of frequency go before the auxiliary verb: Yes, he always is. Observation: Used to and have to take the adverb of frequency before them: He always used to drink tea in the morning. Observation: For reasons of emphasis the adverb of frequency can also go at the beginning or at the end of the sentence: Sometimes I play basketball. I make that cake occasionally.

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2. Adverbs of time usually go at the end of the sentence (They went to the hospital yesterday). If we want to put emphasis on the time we use them at the beginning of the sentence (Yesterday they went to hospital). Short time adverbs such as: soon, now, still, then etc. can go in mid position: He is now having a bath. The adverbs already. no longer, normally, hardly, nearly, almost usually go in mid position: They have nearly missed the train. 3. Sentence adverbs: probably, certainly, possibly, clearly, fortunately, luckily, maybe, perhaps, of course etc. go in any position, but the front position is the most usual though.: Probably he believed you. He probably believed you. He believed you probably. Observation: In negation certainly, possibly and probably go before the auxiliary: He probably didnt believe you. 4. Adverbs of degree (absolutely, just, totally, very, completely, extremely, a lot, really, terribly, much, awfully, rather, quite, fairly, pretty, a little, a bit, slightly, enough, too etc.) can go before the adjective or the adverb they modify.: Shes quite good at Maths. Most of these adverbs can also go before a main verb or after an auxiliary verb.: I rather like this film. I cant quite understand it. The adverbs a lot, much, a little, a bit, awfully, terribly, absolutely, completely, totally go in mid or end position. The train was a little delayed. The train was delayed a little. 5. Adverbs of manner (beautifully, badly, eagerly etc.) and place (here, there etc.) go after the verb or the object of the verb if there is one: She looked at me angrily. Adverbs of manner can also go in mid position: She looked angrily at me. Observation: When there is more than one adverb in a sentence, their order is manner-place-time. However, when there is a verb of movement (go, run, leave etc.), the place adverb goes next to the verb of movement,: He spoke well(MANNER) at the meeting (PLACE) yesterday (TIME). She goes to work (PLACE) on foot (MANNER) every day (TIME). Grid 1. Regular Comparative and Superlative Forms 14

ADVERBS Adverbs having the same forms as adjectives, add er/ -est ,,early drops y and adds ier/ -iest Two syllable or compound adverbs take more/most (compound adverbs are adjectives + ly e.g. careful - carefull Grid 2. Irregular Adverbs POSITIVE much well little badly far

POSITIVE fast hard high late early often safely easily

COMPARATIVE faster harder higher later earlier more often more safely more easily

SUPERLATIVE the fastest the hardest the highest the latest the earliest the most often the most safely the most easily

COMPARATIVE more better less worse farther/ further

SUPERLATIVE the most the best the least the worst the farthest/ the furthest

6) THE VERB THE INDICATIVE MOOD

I) The Present Simple

Affirmative: S + V NOTE: 3rd person singular: S + V-s(-es) Negative: S + DO NOT(DONT) + V NOTE: 3rd person singular: S + DOES NOT(DOESNT) + V Interrogative: DO + S + V 15

NOTE: 3rd person singular: DOES + S + V Negative-Interrogative: DO + S + NOT + V or DONT + S + V or DOESNT + S + V NOTE: 3rd person singular: DOES + S + NOT + V Use: 1) To express eternal, general truths: Water freezes at 0 degrees C. Birds fly. 2) To express permanent actions: Jack works in a big factory. 3) To express repeated actions: I go to school every day. 4) To express habitual actions: My father smokes too much. 5) To express an officially planned action (an official schedule): The soap opera starts next Friday. 6) In Direct Speech, to introduce quotations: Hamlet says: ,,To be or not to be 7) In giving the summary of a story (or giving some director indications), being called ,,Narrative/ Historic present: The Prince enters the cave and there he sees an ugly witch. 8) In step-by-step instructions or demonstrations: First, you take the potatoes and slice them in two. 9) In sports commentaries (in quicker actions): Nastase serves! 10) In proverbs, saying: Despair gives courage to a coward. 11) In exclamatory sentences, beginning with HERE or THERE: Here they come! There he goes! 12) With the verbs TO CONTINUE/ TO GO ON/ TO KEEP ON: The pupils continue to write. 13) In making declarations: I hope you will come to my party. I bet he doesnt know the answer. 14) To express a future action: - in a Conditional Clause: If she comes here, well go to the restaurant. - in a Time Clause (whose action is simultanelous with another future action: You will like English when you understand it. Spelling: Verbs ending in ss, -ch, -sh, -x, -o ,,-es Verbs ending in a consonant + ,,-y, it drops the ,,y I kiss He kisses I watch He watches I wash He washes I fix He fixes I go He goes. 16 ,,-ies I study He studies. I buy He buys. Verbs ending in a vowel + ,,-y remain the same

Adverbs: 100% frequency always, every day/ week/ month/ year over 50% frequency as a rule, usually, frequently, seldom, often under 50% frequency sometimes, not often, rarely 0% frequency never

II) The Present Continuous

Affirmative: S + TO BE(present) + V- ing Negative: S + TO BE(present) NOT + V-ing Interrogative: TO BE(present) + S + V-ing Negative- Interrogative: TO BE(present) + S + NOT + V-ing Use: 1) To express an action that takes place at the moment of speaking: I am reading now. 2) To express a temporary action which includes the moment of speaking: We usually go to school by bus, but today we are going on foot. 3) To express a repeated action that suggests annoyance, criticism or irritation (especially with the adverbs ALWAYS, CONTINUALLY, CONSTANTLY, FOREVER): This baby is forever crying! 4) To express a personal arrangement (a personal schedule): Im seeing my dentist tomorrow. 5) To express an action which started before the present moment, which is in progress at the moment of speaking and which will terminate in the future (especially with the adverbs JUST or NOW): The sun is shining in the sky now. He is just writing the exercise. 6) With the verb TO GET, TO GROW, TO BECOME in order to express transition: It is getting dark. The grass is growing bigger and bigger. Its becoming more and more interesting. 7) To express an action that is happening for a short time, but not necessary at the moment of speaking: Dont take that book, Sams reading it! 8) In Conditional Clauses: I will not disturb her if she is watching TV. 17

9) To express a future action (especially with the adverbs of movement like TO COME, TO ARRIVE, TO GO, TO LEAVE): He is going to London on Friday. Spelling: Verbs ending in a stressed vowel, followed by a consonant we double the final consonant swim swimming sit sitting BUT: wait - waiting play playing show showing Verbs ending in one ,,-e drop the ,,-e write writing dive diving smoke smoking BUT: lie lying die dying see - seeing Adverbs: just, now, at the moment, at present, nowadays, today, tonight, always, still, constantly, continually, forever.

III) The Present Perfect Simple

Affirmative: S + HAVE + 3rd FORM NOTE: 3rd person singular: S + HAS + 3rd FORM Negative: S + HAVE NOT (HAVENT) + 3rd FORM NOTE: 3rd person singular: S + HAS NOT (HASNT) + 3rd FORM Interrogative: HAVE + S + 3rd FORM NOTE: 3rd person singular: HAS + S + 3rd FORM Negative-Interrogative: HAVE + S + NOT + 3rd FORM NOTE: 3rd person singular: HAS + S + NOT + 3rd FORM Observation: The 3rd form of the regular verbs has the termination _ED: played, washed, jumped

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Use: 1) To express a past action that is related to the present and, perhaps, it will go on into the future, too (that is called the present perfect of experience): I have been a teacher for 20 years. 2) To express a past action with visible results in the present: The taxi has arrived. (so its outside the house now) I have forgotten my book, so I cant read the lesson. 3) To express completed activities in the immediate past: The train has just left. 4) To express an action which happened in the past and is finished, but we are not interested in when, because only experience matters: Have you ever been in a car crash? 5) To emphasize on number: He has written three stories this month. 6) To describe personal experiences: Ive lost ten kilos! 7) To denote an incomplete period of time: Last week I wrote three letters, but this week I have written only one. 8) In newspaper to introduce an action which will be described in the Past Simple: A terrible accident has happened. A car ran into a boy.. 9) With HOW LONG: How long have you been ill? 10) With adverbs of indefinite time: EVER, NEVER, OFTEN, SELDOM, ALWAYS: We have never visited New York. 11) With the adverbs ALREADY and YET: Have you got up already? Have you got up yet? 12) With SINCE and FOR: They havent seen Alice since Christmas. 13) In Conditional Clauses: Paul will come here at once if Grannie has made a cake. 14) To describe a future action with the adverbs AS SOON AS, AFTER, UNTIL: I shall ring you up as soon as my mother has come back. Adverbs: just, already, never, ever, often, seldom, always, sometimes, generally (in front of the verb), today, this week/ month/ summer/ year, lately, recently, so far, up to now, until now, of late, before (after the verb), yet (in negative and interrogative sentences), since (shows the moment of the beginning of the action), for (shows the length of the action).

IV) The Present Perfect Continuous

Affirmative: S + HAVE + BEEN + V-ing 19

NOTE: 3rd person singular: S+ HAS + BEEN + V-ing Negative: S + HAVE NOT (HAVENT) + BEEN + V-ing NOTE: 3rd person singular: S + HAS NOT (HASNT) + BEEN + V-ing Interrogative: HAVE + S + BEEN + V-ing NOTE: 3rd person singular: HAS + S + BEEN + V-ing Negative-Interrogative: HAVE NOT (HAVENT) + S + BEEN + V-ing NOTE: 3rd person singular: HAS NOT (HASNT) + S + BEEN + V-ing Use: 1) To express an activity which began in the past and is still continuing in the moment of speaking as well: How long have you been playing football? I have been reading for half an hour. 2) To refer to a past action with visible results in the present: Shes been crying. (Her eyes are red.) 3) To express an activity recently finished: Look! Its been snowing. (the ground its all white) 4) To show the number of times a thing has been done: Ive been drinking tea since 5 oclock. 5) To emphasize on duration (usually with FOR and SINCE): Shes been packing since this morning. 6) For actions that express irritation, annoyance: Who has been using my toothbrush? Adverbs: The same as for the Present Perfect Simple!

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