Notes On Mechanics of Solids

MECHANICS OF SOLIDS CHAPTER# 3 STRESSES IN BEAMS
BY IRFAN SALAH & THOR KHAN BS(civil 3

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Beam:
A beam is a horizontal structural member used to
support loads. Beams are zused to support the roofs and
floors in buildings.
Beam may be defined as a structural
member whose length is relatively
large in comparison to its thickness
and depth and which is loaded that produce significant bending effect as oppose to twisting
or axial effects.
Classification of beams:
Beams are generally classified according to their geometry and the manner in which they are
supported.


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Beams used in Buildings and Bridges:
Girders:
Girder is the main horizontal support of the structure which supports smaller
beams. Usually these are most important beams, which are, frequently used t
wide spacing.

Joists:
Usually less important beams, which are closely spaced, frequently with truss
type webs.


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Stringers:
Longitudinal bridge beams spanning b/w floor beams.

Purlins:
Roof beams spanning b/w trusses.

Girts:
Horizontal wall beams serving principally to resist bending due to wind on the
side of an industrial building.


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Lintels:
Members supporting a wall over a window or door openings.

Introduction To Beams:
The parallel portions on an I-beam or H-beam are referred to as
the flanges. The portion that connects the flanges is referred to as the web.

o An important variable in beam design is the moment of inertia of the cross section,
denoted by I. Inertia is a measure of a bodys ability to resist rotation. As I increases,
bending and deflection will decrease.
Moment of inertia is a measure of the stiffness of the beam w.r.t the cross
section and the ability of the beam to resist bending.
Its units are
) (
4
LENGTH
, E.G.
cm
ft
in
4
4
4
, , .

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The area moment of inertia is the secod
moment of the area around a given axis. For
example given, the axis
o o
and the shaded
area shown, one calculates;

}
= dA l I
2

Moment of inertia about x-axis
}
= dA y I
2

Moment of inertia about y-axis
}
= dA x I
2

Moment of inertia about z-axis
}
= dA r I
2

Moment of inertia as an important value to
determine
The state of stress in a cross section
R
E
y I
M
= =
o

Resistance to buckling
Le
EI
P
2
2
t
=

The amount of deflection in a beam
EI
PL
48
3
= A

Radius of Gyration
A
I
r =

Example:
If a designer is given a certain set of constraints on a structural problem
(i.e. loads, spans, end conditions), a required value of the moment of
inertia can be determined. Ten, any other structural element which has at
least that specific moment of inertia will be able to be utilized in the
design.

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If the inverse of the above problem in design i.e. if a specific element is
given in a design. Then the load bearing capacity of the element could be
determined.
I can be different for any common area using calculus. However, moment of inertia
equation for common cross section (e.g rectangular, circular, triangular ) are readily available
in math and engineering.
For a rectangular cross section,

12
3
bh
I x
=

Here b is the dimension parallel to the bending axis. h is the dimension perpendicular to the
bending axis.
Where
I x
is known as 2
nd
moment of Area about x-axis which is also centroidal axis.
- Parallel axis theorem:
The parallel axis theorem is a relation b/w the moment of inertia
about an axis passing through the centroid and the moment of
inertia about any parallel axis.
d A I I
d A I I
d A I I
d A
Y YP
x xP
C P
2
2
2
2
axis centroidal axis parallel I I
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =

Where
A= Area of Cross Section
d=Distance of axis from centroidal axis

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in general the parallel axis theorem for any two parallel axes as long as one [asses
through the centroid.
d A I I C P
2
+ =

Parallel axis theorem proof:

3
12
3
3
bh
I
bh
I
p
x
=
=

( )
I d A I P x
bh bh bh h
h b
bh
= = + =
|
.
|
\
|
+ = +
3 4 12 2 12
3 3 3
2
3
2

Problem no.1:
Calculate the moment of inertia
about the X-axis and Y-axis for a yardstick that
is 20mm high and 5mm thick.
Solution:
For X-axis
( )
4
4
3
3
33 . 3333
12
40000
12
20 5
12
mm
mm
I
mm mm
I
bh
I
x
x
x
= =
=
=


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For Y-axis

( )
4
4 3
3
3
33 . 208
12
2500
12
125 20
12
5 20
12
mm
mm mm mm mm mm bh
I
y
= =
= = =

These calculations are very simple for a solid, symmetric cross section.
Now consider slightly more complex symmetric cross sections, e.g.
hollow box beams. Calculating the moment of inertia takes a little more effort
Consider a hollow box beam;
the same equation for moment of inertia,
12
3
bh
I =
,can
be used.
Treat the outer dimensions as a positive area and the
inner dimension as a negative area, at the centroids of
the both are about the same axis i.e. X-axis.
Problem no 2;
Calculate the
moment of inertia about the X-axis for the positive area and
the negative area using
12
3
bh I =
. The outer dimensions will be
denoted with O and the inner dimensions will be denoted
with I.

Solution: for
I positive
,
( )( )
4
4 3
3
3
72
12
864
12
216 4
12
6 4
12
in
in in in in in h b
o o
ive I
= =
= = =
+

X-axis

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Solution: for
I negative
,
( )( )
. 526 . 48
12
3125 . 582
12
375 . 166 5 . 3
12
5 . 5 5 . 3
12
4
4 3
3
3
in
in in in in in h b
i i
ive I
= =
= = =

Thus,
I I I ive ive box +
=

4
4 4
438 . 23
562 . 48 72
in
in in
I
I
box
box
=
=

Moment Of Inertia Of An I-Beam:
The moment of inertia of I-beam can be calculated in a similar
manner.
Identify the positive and negative areas. And calculate the moment of inertia
similar to the box beam (note the negative
area dimensions and that it is multiplied by 2).

12
2
12
3
3
h b
h b
I
i i
o o
Beam I
=
.
Moment Of Inertia Of H-Beam:
The moment of inertia of H-Beam can be
calculated in the similar manner. However the H-Beam
is divided into three positive areas.


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12 12
2
12 12 12
3
2 2
3
1 1
3
1 1
3
2 2
3
1 1
h b h b
h b h b h b
I
I
beam H
beam H
+ =
+ + =

Problem no 3:
calculate the deflection in the I-Beam. The I-Beam is composed of
three ' ' 4 ' '
2
1
steel plates welded together.

Solution:
First, calculate the moment of inertia for an I-Beam as we know i.e. divide the cross section
of the beam into positive and negative areas.

As,
12
2
12
3
3
h b
h b
I
i i
o o
Beam I
=
.
( )( ) ( )( )
23
12
276
12
224 500
12
224
12
500
12
64 75 . 1 2
12
125 4
12
4 75 . 1 2
12
5 4
4 4
4 4 4
3 3
3 3
in in
in in in
in in in in in in in in
I
I
Beam I
Beam I
= =
= =

= =


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Now calculating deflection
( ) psi
Esteel
6
10 30 =
.

EI
PL
48
3
= A
,

( )( )
( )
( )( )
( )( )
Ans.. 134 . 0
1335 . 0
10 33120
4423680000
23 10 30 48
884736 5000
23 10 30 48
96 5000
23 10 30 48
96 5000
48
6
2 3
2 6
3
2 4 6
3
4
2
6
3
3
in
in
in
in lb
in lb
in lb
in lb
in
in
lb
in lb
EI
PL
= A
= A

=

= A
=
|
.
|
\
|

= A
= A

Problem no 4:
Calculate the mass and volume and mass of the beam if the density of
the steel is 490
3
f t
lb
m
.
Solution:

Volume = (Area) (Length)
P.T.O.

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3
2
576
) 96 )( 0 . 2 ( 3
) 8 )( 4 )( 5 . 0 ( 3
in V
in in V
f t in in V
AL V
=
=
=
=

3
3
3
3
3
3
333 . 0
1728
1
576
12
1
576
f t V
in
f t
in V
in
f t
in V
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
=

( )
m
m
lb m
ft
ft
lb
m
V m
3 . 163
333 . 0 490
3
3
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=

Moment of inertia of built-up sections:
Let us take three rectangular cross section and
arrange in different orders.
Its moment of inertia can be calculated by two ways;
1)
428
72 500
12
6 2
2
12
10 6
3 3
=
=
=
I
I
I

196 192 4 4 2 6
12
2 6
12
2 2
3
1
3
= + = +
= + = Ad
bh
I
2)
4
12
6 2
12
3 3
2
=
= =
bh
I

196 192 4 4 2 6
12
2 6
12
2
3
2
3
3
= + = +
= + = Ad
bh
I

428 196 4 196
3 2 1
= + + = + + =
I I I I
BEAM I

Converting into cubic feet
Now Calculating Mass Of The Beam
Mass = Density Volume

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Moment of inertia of built-up section:
Let us take three rectangular cross section and arrange
in same order.
1) first method:

108
12
1296
12
6 6
3
= =
=
I I
I

2nd method:

52 48 4 48
12
48
2 2 6
12
2 6
12
2
3
2
3
1
= + = + = +
= + = Ad
bh
I

4
12
48
12
2 6
12
3 3
2
= =
= =
bh
I

52 48 4 48
12
48
2 2 6
12
2 6
12
2
3
2
3
3
= + = + = +
= + = Ad
bh
I

108 52 4 52
3 2 1
= + + =
+ + =
I
I I I I

Moment of inertia of built-up section:
Let us take three rectangular cross section and arrange in same order.
1) 1
st
method:

108
12
1296
12
6 6
3
= =
=
I I
I

2) 2
nd
method:

36
12
432
12
6 2
12
36
12
432
12
6 2
12
36
12
432
12
6 2
12
3 3
3
3 3
2
3 3
1
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
bh
I
bh
I
bh
I

108 36 36 36
3 2 1
= + + = + + = I I I I I


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Calclution of moment of inertia:
1) 1
st
method:
( )
( )
76
104 180
52 2 180
48 4 2 180
48
12
48
2
12
2160
2 6 2
12
2 6
2
12
6 10
2
3 3
=
=
=
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
I
I
I
I
I
I

2) 2
nd
method:

36
12
432
12
6 2
12
3 3
1
= =
= =
bh
I
4
12
48
12
2 6
12
3 3
2
= =
= =
bh
I
36
12
432
12
6 2
12
3 3
3
= =
= =
bh
I

76
36 4 36
3 2 1
=
+ + =
+ + =
I
I
I I I I

From above we conclude that three rectangular cross section which are
arrange in different order, has same area but different moment of inertia.

Stresses in beams:
Forces and couples acting on the beam cause bending (flexural stresses)
and shearing stresses on any cross section of the beam and deflection perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the beam. If couples are applied to the ends of the beam and no forces act

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on it, the bending is said to be pure bending. If forces produce the bending, the bending is
called ordinary bending.

Centroid:
It is the middle point of a geometrical figure. For two
dimensions the centroid is center of area, and for three
dimension the centroid is the center of volume.
For discrete Areas: For continuous Areas

=
i
i i
i
i i
A
y A
y
A
x A
x

}
}
=
=
A
ydA
y
A
xdA
x

53 . 16
1300
21500
1300
17500 4000
500 800
35 500 5 800
500 10 50
35
2
50
10
800 10 80
5
2
10
2 1
2 2 1 1
2
2
1
1
= =
+
=
+
+
=
+
+
=
=
= =
= + =
= =
= =
x
A A
x A x A
A
x A
x
A
x
A
x
i
i i

P.T.O

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53 . 26
1300
34500
1300
2500 32000
500 800
5 500 40 800
500 10 50
35
2
10
800 10 80
40
2
80
2 1
2 2 1 1
2
2
1
1
= =
+
=
+
+
=
+
+
=
=
= =
= =
= =
= =
y
A A
y A y A
A
y A
y
A
y
A
y
i
i i

30
2000
60000
2000
44000 12000 4000
800 400 800
55 800 30 400 5 800
800 10 80
55
2
50
50
400 10 40
30
2
40
10
800 10 80
5
2
10
3 2 1
3 3 2 2 1 1
3
3
2
2
1
1
= =
+ +
=
+ +
+ +
=
+ +
+ +
=
=
= =
= + =
= =
= + =
= =
= =
x
A A A
x A x A x A
A
x A
x
A
x
A
x
A
x
i
i i

33
2000
66000
2000
32000 2000 32000
800 400 800
40 800 5 400 40 800
800 10 80
40
2
80
400 10 40
5
2
10
800 10 80
40
2
80
3 2 1
3 3 2 2 1 1
3
3
2
2
1
1
= =
+ +
=
+ +
+ +
=
+ +
+ +
=
=
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
y
A A A
y A y A y A
A
y A
y
A
y
A
y
A
y
i
i i


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Neutral axis :
The fibers above the neutral axis are in compression and the fibers below the axis are in
tension. This hypothetical line is call the neutral
axis and upon which the stress value is zero.
radius of Curvature R:

u u u o
u
u
u
y y R R L L
y R L JK
R L DE
r S
= + ' =
= = ' =
= = =
=
) (
) ( bending in length
length original

Change in length o per original.
Length L is called strain
R
y
R
y
L
= = =
u
u o
c

For a linearly elastic material,
R
E
y
R
y
E
E
=
=
=
o
o
c o


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dA E
y dA E
dA
R
y
E F
R
y
E dA F
Area Stress F
=
=
=
= =
=
R
y

R
y

M is force this of Moment

2
dA
dA
M
M
o o

stress Bending
NA of curvature of radius R
elasticity of Modulus E
NA about inertia of Moment I
resistance of moment = M
M
M
M
. y M
R
y
M
M is force this of Moment Total
2
=
=
=
=
= =
=
=
=
=
}
}
o
o
R
E
y I
R
E
I
I
R
E
dA
R
E
y dA E

Problem. No. 5:
A 250mm depth 150mm width rectangular beam is subjected to
bending moment of 750kNm. Determine;
i. The maximum stress in the beam
ii. If the value of E is 200GPa, find the radius of curvature
iii. The value of stress at a distance of 65mm from the top surface of beam.
Solution:
Bending Stress: Moment of inertia
Distance
for neutral
axis
Bending stress value
b = 150mm
d = 250mm
M = 750kNm
E = 200GPa
o = ?
R = ?
I
y M
y I
M
= = o
o

4
3
3
0001953 . 0
12
0023 . 0
12
0156 . 0 15 . 0
12
25 . 0 15 . 0
12
m I
I
I
bd
I
=
=
=
=

125 . 0
2
25 . 0
2
=
=
=
y
y
d
y

MPa
Pa
I
y M
480
10 030722 . 480
480030722
0001953 . 0
93752
0001953 . 0
125 . 0 750000
0001953 . 0
125 . 0 10 750
6
3
=
=
= =
=

=
= o

Bending equation

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Bending stress Value at Y= 0.065 Radius of curvature
MPa
Pa
I
y M
249
10 615975 . 249
4 . 249615975
0001953 . 0
48750
0001953 . 0
065 . 0 750000
0001953 . 0
065 . 0 10 750
6
3
=
=
= =
=

=
= o

m
M
I E
R
R
E
I
M
08 . 52
10 00005208 . 0
0 1 750
10 03906 . 0
10 750
0001953 . 0 10 200
6
3
9
3
9
=
=
/

=
= =

Problem. No. 6:
An I-section girder, 200mm wide by 300mm deep, with flange and web
of thickness 20mm is used as a simply supported beam over a span of 7m. The girder carries
a distributed load of 5 kN/m and the concentration load of 20kN at mid-span. Determine:
(a) The second moment of area of the cross-section of the girder,
(b) The maximum stress set-up.
I I I ion shadedport gle rec girder
=
tan

( )
( )
( )
4 4
12
12 4 4
12 4 8
12
4 8
12
3
12
3
3
10 86 . 1
000186 . 0
10 186360000
10 10 26364 10 45000
10 10 13182 2 10 5 . 4
10
12
10 158184
2
12
10 54
10
12
260 90
2 10
12
300 200
12
m I
I
I
I
I
I
I
bd
I

=
=
=
=
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=


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m kN M
M
M
WL WL
M
/ 63 . 65
10 ) 630 . 30 0 . 35 (
8
7 10 5
4
7 10 20
8 4
3
2 3 3
2
=
+ =

+

=
+ =

2
2 6
2
4
3 2
4
3
4
3
/ 92 . 52
/ 10 92 . 52
/ 10 74 . 5292
10 86 . 1
10 5 . 9844
10 86 . 1
10 150 63 . 65
10 86 . 1
10
2
300
63 . 65
m MN
m N
m kN
kNm
I
y M
y I
M
R
E
y I
M
=
=
=
|
.
|
\
|

=
=
=
= =
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Problem. No. 7:
A symmetrical section 200mm deep has a moment of inertia of
4 5
10 26 . 2 m

about its neutral axis. determine the longest span over which, when simply supported, the
beam would carry a uniformly distributed load of 4kN/m run without the stress due to
bending exceeding
2
/ 125 m MN


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Data;
kNm M
I
y
M
y I
M
R
E
y I
M
25 . 28
10 26 . 2 10 1250 10 26 . 2
2 . 0
10 125 2
10 26 . 2
2 . 0
10 125 2
10 26 . 2
2
2 . 0
10 125
5 6 5
6
5
6
5
6
=
=

=

=
=
= =
= =

o o
o

m L
L kNm
m kN
L m kN
kNm
wL
M
5 . 7
25 . 28
/ 4
8
8
/ 4
25 . 28
8
2
2
2
2
=
=
=
=

?
?
/ 125
/ 4
10 26 . 2
200
2
4 5
=
=
=
=
=
=
L
M
m MN
m kN w
m I
mm h
o

Section Modulus:
The section modulus of a beam is the ratio of a Moment of inertia to the distance of the
extreme compressive fiber from the neutral axis. Section modulus of the cross sectional shape
is of significant importance in designing beams. It is a direct measure of the strength of the
beam. A beam with larger section modulus will be stronger.
o
o
o
o
=
= =
=
=
S
M
M
I
y M
y I
M
y
I

Y
I
S As

Rectangular section:

6
6
2
12
2
2
3
bd
S
bd
d
bd
S
Y
I
S
=
= =
=

S = section modulus
I = Moment of inertia about NA
Y = distance from NA
D = depth of beam
B = thickness of beam

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Hollow Rectangular section:
D
bd BD
Z
D
bd BD
y
I
Z
6
2
12 12
3 3
3 3
= =


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Twin Beam;
Consider the case of two rectangular- sectioned
beams lying one on top of the other and
supported on simple supports. If some form of
vertical loading is applied the beams and with
negligible friction b/w the mating surfaces of the
beams each beam will bend independently of the
other and as a result the lower surface of the
top beam will slide relative to the upper surface
of the lower beam.
If the beams are replaced by a single solid bar of depth equal to the combined depth of the
initial two beams. Then there must be stresses, set up at the central fibers within the beam to
prevent the sliding as bending takes place.
Stress and forces at N.A. of Beam:
The portion of a beam of length dx and
an element AB distance y from the N.A.

moment bending = M
beam of thickness = b
N.A. from distance = y
element an = AB
length beam of portion = dx

Under any loading system the B.M.
across the beam will change from M at B to (M + dM). at A. now as a result of bending.
Bending moment at B = M
Bending moment at A = M + dM


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Longitudinal stress at A
( )
I
y dM M +
= o
Longitudinal force at A
( )
bdy
I
y dM M
F
A

+
=

Longitudinal stress at B
I
y M
= o

Longitudinal force at B
bdy
I
y M
F
B

=
Net force at NA
( )
bdy
I
y dM
F F
bdy
I
y M
bdy
I
y dM
bdy
I
y M
F F
bdy
I
y M
bdy
I
y dM M
F F
B A
B A
B A

+
=

Therefore total out of balance shear force from all sections above height y
} }

=
h
y
h
y
ybdy
I
dM
bdy
I
y dM
shearf orce
Therefore total out of balance shear force from all sections above height y. thus if the shear
stress is
t
, then
} }
=
h
y
h
y
ydA ybdy
= Q
= first moment of area of shaded portion about the N.A.
= y A
= where A is the area of shaded portion and y is the
distance of its centroid from the N.A.
dx
dM
= rate of change of the B.M.
= shear force
= V
Therefore equation 1 become

}
}
=
=
h
y
h
y
ydA
Ib dx
dM
ybdy
I
dM
bdx
1
t
t


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Ib
VQ
Q
Ib
V
ydA
Ib
V
ydA
Ib
V
h
y
h
y
=
=
=
=
}
}
t
t
t
t
1

Where
t
= Shear Stress
V = Shear force
I = moment of inertia
Q = 1
st
moment of area
b = thickness

Neutral axis, Shear Plane and
y

Shear flow:
Shear flow q is the horizontal shear force per unit distance along the longitudinal
axis of the beam
I
VQ
q
b
Ib
VQ
q
b q
=
=
= t


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Problem. No. 8:
Three board each of size 38 90mm rectangular cross section and nailed
together to form a beam that is subjected to vertical shear of 1 kN. Knowing that the
spacing between each nail is 60 mm. determine the shearing force in each nail.

Moment of
inertia
1
st
moment of area Shear flow
Shear force at 60mm of
each nail
4
3
3
11111580
12
144 90
12
114
38 38 38
90
mm I
I
bh
I
h
h
b
=
=
=
=
+ + =
=

3
129960
38 3420
3
38 38 38
38 90
mm Q
Q
mm mm mm Q
y A Q
=
=
+ +
=
=

mm N q
mm
Nmm
q
mm
mm N
q
mm
mm kN
q
I
VQ
q
/ 695 . 11
11111580
12996000
11111580
129960 1000
11111580
129960 1
4
3
4
3
4
3
=
=
=
=

N
mm
nail f orce
mm
N
877 . 350
2
754 . 701
2
60 695 . 11
? /
=
=
=
=

Problem. No. 9:
A beam is made of three planks, nailed together. Knowing that the spacing
between nails is 25mm and that the vertical shear in the beam is V = 500N. determine the
shear force in each nail.

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Moment of inertia 1
st
moment of area Shear flow

4 6
6
3 3
3
10 46 . 0
12
10 6 . 5
12
0000056 . 0
12
00028 . 0
12
0002744 . 0
12
00014 . 0
2
12
0002744 . 0
12
100 . 0 140 . 0
2
12
140 . 0 100 . 0
12
m I
I
I
I
I
bh
I
= =
=
=
=

( )( )
3 6
10 120
06 . 0 100 . 0 020 . 0
m Q
m m m Q
y A Q
=
=
=

m N q
m
Nm
q
m
m
q
I
VQ
q
/ 3704
20 . 16
60000
10 20 . 16
10 120 500
4
3
4 6
3 6
=
=

=
=
/
/

Shear force at 25mm of each nail
( )( )
N F
m N m q m F
nail force
6 . 92
/ 3704 025 . 0 ) 025 . 0 (
? /
=
= =
=

Problem. No. 10:
A square box beam is constructed from four
planks. Knowing that the space b/w nails is 1.5in and the
beam is subjected to a vertical shear of magnitude V =
600lb, determine the shearing force in each nail.


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Moment of inertia:
( ) ( )
4
3 3
343 . 5
12
125 . 64
12
27 125 . 91
12
3
12
5 . 4
in I
I
I
= =
=
=

1
st
Moment of area:
( )( )( )
3
22 . 4
875 . 1 3 75 . 0
in Q
in in in y A Q
=
= =

Shear Flow:
( )( )
in
lb
in
in lb
I
VQ
q 3 . 92
42 . 27
22 . 4 600
4
3
= = =
Edge force per unit length:
in
lb
in
lb
q
f 15 . 46
2
3 . 92
2
= = =
Shear force at 25mm of each nail
( )( )
lb F
in
in
lb
f l F
8 . 80
75 . 1 15 . 46
=
= =


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Chapter 4:
CIRCULAR CHAFT:
Torsion:
Torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque.
When subjected to torsion, every cross-section of a circular shaft remains plane and
undistorted.

The parallel lines with the axis of the shaft distort (bend) into helixes. Line perpendicular
to the axis of the shaft remains perpendicular. Therefore, plane section remains undistorted.

Plain section warps (Non circular sections):
Cross section of noncircular
shaft are distorted when
subjected to torsion


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Angle of Twist:
The quantity is the rate of change of the angle of twist w.r.t. the distance x measured
along the axis of the bar. It is denoted by u and this refers as the angle of twist per unit
length or the rate of twist.

Shear strain in Torsion:
L
r
L
acrAB
u
=
=
=
length Original
length Original Twist in Length in Change

Shear stress in Torsion:
If the material is elastic, and has modulus of rigidity G then the
circumferential shearing stress is given as
L
G
r
L
r
G
G
u t
u
t
t
=
=
=


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J or polar moment of inertia:
Polar moment of inertia or polar 2nd moment of area is an object's ability to resist torsion.
}
= dA r J
2

}
= dA y I
xx
2

}
= dA x I
yy
2

Where
xx
I
is the moment of inertia about x axis
yy
I
Is the moment of inertia about y axis
zz
I
or J is the polar moment of inertia about z axis
The larger the Polar Moment of Inertia the less the beam
will twist.

Solid Shaft:
If the shaft has a solid circular cross section, the polar moment of inertia can be
determined using an area element in the form of a differential ring.
2
.
4
2
2
. 2
. 2
. 2
. 2
4
4
3
3
2
r
J
r
J
dr r J
dr r J
rdr r J
rdr dA
r nce circumf ere
dr thickness
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
}
}
}

Hollow Shaft:
If the shaft has a solid circular cross section, the polar moment of inertia can
be determined using an area element in the form of a differential ring.
( )
4
4
.
4
.
4 4
0
4 4
0
i
i
r r
J
r r
J
=
=
t
t t


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Twisting moment:
Let the cross section of the shaft be considered as divided into elements
of radius r and thickness dr as shown in following figure each subjected to a shear
stress t
rdr Force
Area stress Force
rdr dA
r nce circumf ere
dr thickness
. 2
. 2
. 2
t t
t
t
=
=
=
=
=

This force will produce moment about the central axis of the shaft providing the contribution
to the torque.
( ) r rdr T = . 2t t
L
G
J
T u
=

Torsion Formula for Solid and Hollow Circular Shaft.
t = Shear Stress
r = radius of circular shaft
T = Torque or Twisting moment
J = Polar moment of inertia
G = Modulus of rigidity
u = Angle of twist
L = length of circular shaft

L
G
J
T
r
u t
= =

Problem. No. 11:
A shaft is made of a steel alloy having an allowable shear stress of ksi
allowable
12 =
t
.If
the diameter of the shaft is 1.5 in.
(a) Determine the maximum torque T that can be transmitted.
(b) What would be the maximum torque if a 1-in.-diameter hole is bored through the
shaft?
(c) Sketch the shear-stress distribution along a radial line in each case.


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Data:

Shaft material = Alloy steel
Allowable stress = ksi
allowable
12 =
t

Diameter of shaft = 15 in
Determine:
Maximum torque for solid shaft = T = ?
Maximum torque for hollow shaft = T' = ?
Shear Stress distribution for Solid shaft = ?
Shear Stress distribution for Hollow shaft =?
J
Tr
= t

T = torque
t = Shear stress
J = Polar Moment of Inertia


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Problem 12:
The copper pipe has an outer diameter of 40mm and an inner diameter of 37mm. If it
is tightly secured to the wall at A and three torques are applied to it as shown, determine the
absolute maximum shear stress developed in the pipe.


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Problem 12:
What torque, applied to a hollow circular shaft of 25 cm outside diameter and 17.5 cm
inside diameter will produce a maximum shearing stress of 75 MN/m2 in the material.

Problem 13:
Ship's propeller shaft has external and internal diameters of 25 cm and 15 cm.
What power can be transmitted at 110 rev/minute with a maximum shearing stress of
75 MN/m2, and what will then be the twist in degrees of a 10 m length of the
shaft? G = 80 GN/m2.


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Chapter 5:
SPRINGS / STRAIN ENERGY:

Spring:
Springs are
energy-absorbing
units whose
function it is to
store energy and
to release it
slowly or rapidly
depending on the particular
application.


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Classification of springs:

Helical Spring :
It is made of wire coiled in the form of helix. Type of
spring formed by winding strips of metal around a cylinder. The
helical spring is the most common spring.
Material of spring:
Carbon steels
Alloy steels
Corrosion resisting steels
Phosphor bronze
Spring brass
Beryllium copper
Nickel alloy steels
Titanium alloy steels


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Standards of specifications
UNS: Unified Numbering System
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
AISI: Stands for American Iron and Steel Institute
AMS: SAE / Aerospace Materials Standards
SAE: Society Of Automotive Engineers
Federal, MIL. Sp.: Federal and Military specifications
JIS: Japanese Standards Association
BS: British standards
Compression Helical Spring:
A helical spring is a spiral wound wire with a
constant coil diameter and uniform pitch. The most
common form of helical spring is the compression spring
but tension springs are also widely used. . The
strength of the steel used is one of the most
important criteria to consider in designing springs.
Specifications:


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Problem 14:
A close coil helical spring is to carry a load of 500 N. Its mean diameter is to
be 10 times that of a wire diameter. Calculate the dia if the maximum shear stress in the
material of the spring is to be 80 Mpa.

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Problem 15:
A close-coiled helical spring is required to absorb 2.25 x l03 joules of energy. Determine the
diameter of the wire, the mean diameter of the spring and the number of coils necessary if
(a) The maximum stress is not to exceed 400 MN/m2;
(b) The maximum compression of the spring is limited to 250 mm;
(c) The mean diameter of the spring can be assumed to be eight times that of the wire. For
the spring material G = 70 GN/mZ.

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Problem 16:
A leaf spring of steel 1 m long is to support a central load of 5.8 kN of a
Carriage. If the maximum deflection of spring is not to exceed 45 mm and maximum stress should
not exceed 300 Mpa, calculate thickness of each plate and number of plates. Take E = 200 Gpa.

Notes On Mechanics of Solids

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MECHANICS OF SOLIDS CHAPTER# 3 STRESSES IN BEAMS

BY IRFAN SALAH & THOR KHAN BS(civil 3

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