Aquaculrural Engineering 3 ~1984) [ 59- [ 76

Comparative Removal of Gas Supersaturation by Plunges, Screens and Packed Columns

Gerald R. Bouck
Division of Fish and Wildlife, Bonneville Power Administration. PO Box 3621. Portland. Oregon 97208, USA

Robert E. King
Padre Island National Seashore, US Park Service, 9405 South Padre Island Drive. Corpus Christi, Texas 78418. USA

and Georgia Bouck-Schmidt

Department of Chemical Engineering, Washington State University. Pullman, Washington 99163, USA

ABSTRACT Degassing tests were conducted by using plunges, screens and columns packed with Glitch Ballast rings (1.58, 2.54 and 3.81 cm outsMe diameter), Tri-pac spheres (4.6 cm outsMe diameter), or Olin 12-gauge shotcups. Plunges and screens provided biologically it,adequate degassing when hyperbaric pressure (AP) exceeded about 50 mm Hg (about 106% barometric pressure). Ballast rings o f 2.54 cm size proved more effective than the other sizes or the Tri-pac spheres or shotcups. The effluent gas levels were a function o f incoming level of supersaturation, column height, packing type and size, water )low rate and flow rate per em 2 eohlmn. We concluded that packed columns can generally produce biologically acceptable levels o f dissolved gases {Ap <<.15 mm Hg) when they are adequately designed, properly operated and regularly monitored. However, a single-pass column may not be adequate to protect ultra-sensitive species or life stages offish and other organisms in shallow water. 159 Aquacultural Engineering 0144-8609/84/S03.00 Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd, England, 1984. Printed in Great Britain

160

G. R. Bouck, R. E. King. G. L. Bouck-Schrnidt

INTRODUCTION Water from lakes, streams, springs and wells is commonly supersaturated with dissolved gases for at least part of the year (Bouck, 1980a; Weitkamp and Katz, 1980). Recognition of this problem has been slow, in part because analyses of total dissolved gases were difficult and because the impacts of low level supersaturation can be subtle, variable and confused with other problems (Bouck. 1980b). Frequently, supersaturation is recognized only after conditions have become serious enough to produce morbidity or catastrophic mortality. As one result, there is a widespread need to degas water before it is used in fish hatcheries and fishery research labs. In many cases, degassing must be accomplished by treatment that is non-centralized, inexpensive and reliable. Therefore, we investigated several methods of degassing water by aeration, evaluated their effectiveness at different tlows and gas levels and reported tile data in mm Hg hyperbaric gas pressure (AP). Several methods of degassing have been reported in the literature: (1) an aeration cascade (Rucker and Tuttle, 1948); (2) airblowers (Dennison and Marchyshyn, 1973): (3) siphons (Monk et al., 1980); (4) vacuums (Mount, 1961): (5) vacuum U-tubes (Speece, 1981); (6) surface agitators (Wold, 1973); and (7) packed-columns (Owsley, 1981). Of these methods, packed columns have achieved considerable popularity because they can be operated effectively and inexpensively by gravity. Hackney and Colt (1982) concluded that packed columns were technically feasible for reoxygenating water. McLean and Boreham (1980) who investigated various aeration towers tbr increasing dissolved oxygen and removing excess nitrogen, reported that packed columns seemed most desirable. However, we are aware that both packed columns and vacuum degassers have been considered unsuccessful at some locations (Marking et al., 1983). Hence, we agree with McLean and Boreman (1980) that packed columns (and other degassers) have limitations that need to be evaluated in a broader array of water qualities, gas mixtures and other circumstances. Aeration-type or isobaric degassers all operate on tile same general principles, although they differ widely in appearance and efficiency. Each method exposes a large amount of air-water surface area at ambient air pressure; this passively allows the dissolved hyperbaric gases to diffuse into and approach equilibrium with their individual pressures in air. For each gas, the driving force is the diffusion pressure

Removal of gas supersaturation by plunges, screens and packed columns

161

differential between the dissolved phase and the gaseous phase. At high levels of supersaturation, the hyperbaric gas pressure (.SP) represents considerable diffusion pressure, which facilitates the exit of gases from water. However, as the supersaturation declines, the amount of hyperbaric gas pressure also declines and the pressure to drive diffusion decreases proportionally. Therefore, one must always expect a typical packed column to degas water incompletely, i.e. the product water will be slightly supersaturated. Operating conditions can have a considerable effect on the product of aeration-type degassers. Contact area between air and water should be relatively large and this area can be enlarged by dispersing small air bubbles in the water or by dispersing water droplets in air. Non-wettable contact surfaces may help lower the energy needed to overcome the surface tension of water. Effective water depth or pressure should be low: preferably the pressure in the bubbles should be nearly equal to the ambient air pressure. Contact time with air should be as long as possible to facilitate the attainment o f equilibrium but, obviously, long contact is a luxury that must be tempered by operational limitations. Aeration degassing at isobaric conditions can greatly decrease the level o f supersaturation in water. Large packed columns can reduce gas levels from over 130% barometric pressure to nearly 100% in a sin~e pass, given a high-pressure water supply (Owsley, 1981). However, personal communications from colleagues and our own experience indicate that such high performance is not achieved routinely and the differences can be critical to fishes. If operating conditions become suboptimal, the residual supersaturation worsens and may reach biologically unacceptable levels. Inappropriate efforts to aerate can be counterproductive (Colt and Westers. 1982) and result in supersaturated gases. The m a x i m u m gas level allowable is uncertain for many sensitive species, but it appears to be very close to the limit of treatment that packed columns can achieve. Therefore, it is critically important to understand how various operational conditions of packed columns can affect the resultant gas levels, and hence the health of fish. MATERIALS AND METHODS Water for these experiments was drawn from Lake Washington (Seattle, Washington) and processed through the Seattle National Fishery

162

G. R. Bouck. R. E. King, G. L. Bouck-Schmidt

II

Ii

!.44
> [:

121
[[:. ~-[ __

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\'6 Fig. 1. Schematic representation of water supply, supersaturating system, and degassing evaluation system. Components are as follows: (I) lake water supply system; (2) aeration column packed with 2.54-cm o.d. Ballast rings to stabilize dissolved gas levels; (3) 1000-liter reservoir; (4) 1.5-h.p. centrifugal pump; (5) water pressure gauge and flowmeter; (6) regulated compressed air supply; (7) 33-m coil of 2-54-cm i.d. polyethylene pipe; (8) bubble decanting column with gas venting valve; (9) water pressure gauge and flowmeter; (I 0) in-line Gasometer with pressure gauge and flowmeter; (11) by-pass return to aeration column; (12) test column, size and packing as required; (13) degassed water reservoir with portable Gasometer and drain. Column (12) was removed for tests requiring screens or plunges. Research Center's l a b o r a t o r y water supply system (Fig. 1). Gas levels were stabilized initially by passing t h e water t h r o u g h a packed c o l u m n (120 cm high filled with 2-54-cm ballast rings (Glitch Co., Dallas, Texas*)) and into a 1000-liter reservoir. The water was t h e n super* Reference to trade names is for identification only and does not imply US Government endorsement of commercial products.

Removal o f gas supersaturation by plunges, screens and packed coi.umns

163

saturated as described by Bouck and King {11983), by pumping water at a pressure of about 200 kPa and mixing in metered amounts of compressed air. Undissolved bubbles were decanted with a gas venting value. Hyperbaric gas levels (&P) in the resulting water supply were monitored before and after treatment as described by Bouck (1982). Air pressure was read from a mercury barometer. Dissolved oxygen concentration (mg liter -~) was determined by the azide modification of Winkler's method (American Public Health Association er al., 1971), except that phenylarsine oxide was substituted for 0-025 N thiosulfate and this was standardized weekly. Oxygen pressure was computed from the method described by Bouck (1982). Water temperature was measured with hand-held mercury-filled thermometers. Water flows were determined with in-line flowmeters and water pressure dropped to about 20 kPa about 60 cm from the single outlet which supplied the column. Collateral tests established that degassing with a packed column was equally effective when supplied by gravity tlow or under pressure. (In a personal communication, David Owsley indicated that gravity supply systems to large-scale packed columns do not accomplish as much degassing as high pressure supply systems. The causes are uncertain, and therefore this point warrants caution.) Degassing methods tested were a simple 120-cm plunge into a 16-liter container about 30 cm deep, a plunge through 12 screens (about 4-mm mesh) suspended about 2 cm above each other (above the 16-liter container) and a packed column 10 cm inside diameter (i.d.) of wlrious h e g h t s and packing materials which also spilled into the 16-liter container. Packing material (Fig. 2) included polypropylene Ballast rings, 1.58, 2.54 and 3.81 cm outside diameter (o.d.) as described in Table 1 ; p o l y p r o p y l e n e Tri-pac spheres, 2.54 cm o.d. (Jaeger Co.. Costa Mesa, California); Globeflux packing (Milano, Italy) and polyethylene 12 gauge WAA12R shotcups (Wincester-Western Division of Olin. New Haven, Connecticut). Columns and screens were positioned about 5 cm above the surface o f a 16-liter tank (about 30 cm deep). A submersible pump therein (model 4E-34NR, Little Giant Corp.) supplied water to a device tbr measuring dissolved gas (Gasometer) described by Bouck (1982). Columns were also tested as 30 cm segments of variable sidewall height. Flow rates through all packed columns were expressed as titersmin -~ cm -2. Flow rates through screens or in a plunge were expressed only as liters rain -~ and did not lend themselves to expressing in terms o f area.

~c

[:ig.2. Coluum packing materials used ill various tests. (A) Globetlux packiJlg, tested aud rejected for further study; B) T,i-pac sphere" (C) Ballast rings, 3.81 cm; (D) Ballast rings, 2.54 cm; (E) Ballast rillgs, 1.58 cm, (F) 12-gauge shotcups.

Removal of gas supersaturation by plunges, screens and paCked columns

TABLE 1

165

Physical Characteristics of Plastic Ballast Ringsa

Characteristic 1.59 Packing size (cm, o.d.) 2.54 3.81 5.18

Packing variable Unit surface area tcm 2) Space occupied (cm 3) Area/volume ratio Free space t%) Square meters surface per lOcm i.d. column 60cm high 120cm high

13-8 3.2 4.3 86 53.2 106.4

39-0 12.6 3.2 90 33.3 66.5

87.5 43.1 2-0 91 20.5 40.9

147.8 98.2 1.5 92 16.4 32-8

a Variot, s manufacturers have similar products with other names.

The testing procedure began by adjusting the equipment to achieve the desired water flow and gas level. The gas levels were then read 1 h later at points immediately before and after treatment. Collateral testing was conducted over longer periods, but gas levels were read at hourly intervals. The longer tests provided insight into possible variability (which proved to be negligible). Gas changes within the packed column were investigated by comparing the levels of individual gases in water after it passed through vented packed columns 30, 60, 90 and 120 cm high packed with 2.54-cm Ballast rings. Statistical analyses of the data were performed according to Zarr (1974) and included regression analysis, comparison of slopes and intercepts, and analyses of variance. Using information in the literature, we arbitrarily established ~ P = 25 mm Hg (about 103% 760 mm Hg) as a theoretical maximum allowable level of gas for salmonids; degassing that failed to achieve this or a lower level, was judged unacceptable. However, in as much as recent data by Cornacchnia and Colt (1984) demonstrated that a .XP of 22 mm Hg produced clinical signs of gas bubble disease in larval striped bass M o r o n e saxatilis, the maximum allowable A p level of 25 mm Hg should be considered provisional until tested for the species o f concern.

166

G. R. Bouck. R. E. King. G. L. Bouck-Schmidt

RESULTS

Simple plunge degassing

Roughly 50% o f the AP (200 mm Hg) was degassed by a simple plunge at flow rates varying from 8 to 64 liters rain -l ~Fig. 3). The posttreatment total gas level was about 112% of atmospheric pressure - a level not considered safe for fish in shallow water. Regression analyses showed that the slopes and elevations were not significantly different across a flow range from 8 to 64 liters m i n - ' : hence the rate ofdegassing was independent o f these flow rates. This method is not satisfactory for removing excess dissolved gas.

t32

250

128 200
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75 /',-P mmHg
I

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!/6

125

150
i

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104

108 tl2 % TOTAL SATURATION 0UTFLOW WATER

120

Fig. 3.

Comparison of degassing capacities by a plunge, screens and various packed columns.

Removal of gas supersaturation by plunges, screens and packed columns

167

Degassing with screens Passage through the 12 screens converted some water into a spray or otherwise broke and aerated the water column. Although the result was visually impressive, degassing by this method was only slightly more effective than that effected by a simple plunge (Fig. 3). Degassing appeared to be flow dependent: ,.xp dropped 55% at 16 liters rain -t and 70% at 64 liters min -t. However. the slopes were not significantly different over the range o f flows tested. More important, tile screens failed to remove sufficient gas to render the water safe tbr sensitive aquatic life when the water supply has a ZIP of 100 mm Hg or higher, albeit the use of more screens might accomplish the desired end. Degassing with packed columns The initial use of a 120-cm packed column proved to be a more effective method of degassing than screens or simple plunge (Fig. 3). The gas level in treated water was dependent on the gas level in untreated water (Table 2), indicating that treatment needed could be predicted and designed. The extrapolated regression line meets the vertical axis at about the value o f water vapor pressure at these temperatures. Equally important, it was obvious from these results that the gas removed by a packed column was related to various operational characteristics including the column height, the packing material size, the flow rate through the column and the ZIP of the water supply. Column packing height influences a complex interaction between several factors including treatment time, surface area and probably others. Figure 4 depicts the general relation, showing a large loss of ziP in each of the first two 30-cm segments; treatment thereafter becomes progressively less beneficial with progressively greater column height. The change in ZIP with passage through the column was a log function generally described by the equation: in z i P h = a + b h wherein the initial A p = 210 mm Hg, ziPh = AP at height h in cm, a = 5.2494 (intercept value), b = - - 0 - 0 6 2 6 (slope) and r a = 0.9728. In general, we see little reason to extend column height much beyond

168

G. R. Bouck, R. E. King, G. L. Bouck-Schmidr TABLE 2

Summary of Regression Analyses for Inlet (x) on Outlet ~v) Pressures of Total Hyperbaric Gas (&P) Removal by Plunge. Screens and Packed Columns
Treatment Y intercept {a) Slope (b) Correlation coefficient, r n

Simple plunge Twelve screens

Packed column, 60 cm high

17.83 20-00

1.70 2."5

0-99a
0.95 a

12
12

Packing size (cm, o.d.) 1-59 2 '54 3"81

Packed cohtmn, 120 cm high

22.06 9-44 13'50

2.55 b

3 "81 3"01

0.96 a 0'94 a 0-96 a

16 16 16

Packing size (cm, o.d.) 1.59 2.54 3.81

3.22 16.70 33-58

4.34 8.73 3.82 t'

0-86a 0.91 a 0.88 a

16 16 16

a Significant correlation at 0.975 level. b These values were significantly different between different flows in their category.

120 cm, which represents a practical balance between head loss. overhead clearance, column supports and treatment needed. This height was judged adequate to render water with a AP o f 210 mm Hg (over 125% saturation, depending on elevation/air pressure) relatively safe for general fish culture (~< 25 mm Hg). The impact of colunm sidewall height was investigated by comparing the degassing in solid sidewall columns with that it,. columns segmented at 30-cm intervals. Segmented columns had slightly better degassing performance but presented structural support problems and were not studied further. As an untested alternative, we s u r e s t vents in the sidewalls o f packed columns. Three column packing materials were tested for degassing capability at different flow rates (Fig. 5). At the lowest flow rates tested (0-I liter min -~ cm-2), shotcups reduced AP from 200 to 3 0 m m Hg. This performance was judged highly beneficial, but inadequate; shotcups were dropped from further study. The performance of Ballast rings depended both on flow (considered later under flow e f f e c t s ) a n d

Removal of gas supersaturation b.v plunges, screens and packed columns

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30

60

90

120

150

COLUMN PACKING HEIGHT

(cm.)

Fig. 4.

Effect of column height on degassing.

on ring size. As judged from data in Fig. 5, the 2.54-cm rings were much more efficient than either the small or larger rings (see slope values, Table 2). Th e degassing ability o f Tri-Pac spheres were compared with that o f the 2.54-cm Ballast rings as tested in a column o f 10 cm i.d. Usage in such a small diameter column was not r e c o m m e n d e d by the supplier, but as can be seen in Fig. 5. its degassing was good and only slightly less than by the 2,54-cm rings. F l o w has a variable effect on degassing, as shown in bot h Figs 5 and 6. When input gas levels were A P = 200 mm Hg and flows were between 0.1 and 1.0 liter min -I cm -2, o u t p u t .~as levels were at or below AP = 25 mm Hg and i ndependent o f flow rates. Above this flow rate, o u t p u t gas levels were d e p e n d e n t on flow and AP rose from 3 0 m m H g at 1.5 litersmin - ~ c m -2 to 7 0 m m H g at 2.3 litersmin -1 cm - 2 - b o t h levels biologically unacceptable. When input gas levels were low ( AP = 75 mm Hg) a definite o p t i m u m flow existed between 1-0 and 1.5 liters min -t cm -~- which produced a & P o f about 10 mm Hg. Above this flow. o u t p u t gas levels rose, but still remained below zXP= 25 mm Hg - even at 2.3 liters min -~ c m - :

170 I00 9O
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G. R. Bouck, R. E. King, G. L. Bouck-Schmidt

I 12 gauge shotcups
2..54 cm. dia. Ballast rings

5.08crn. dio. Tri-poc spheres

O ~ 70

5o

.o

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.5

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1.5

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FLOW

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Fig. 5.

Comparison of degassing by three types of column packing at different flow rates. Flow rate is in liters rain -I cm -2.

Supersaturation level influenced the degassing capacity o f the packed column at 1 liter min -~ cm -~ (Figs 3 and 6), but this capacity may differ between columns of different designs; hence we recommend due consideration o f this variable. Gas changes within packed column The levels o f oxygen and nitrogen changed during the downward passage of water through a packed column (Table 3). Performance depended in part on flow rate. which in this example was 0-4 liter rain -Ecm -2 and degassed the water in a single pass from A P " 212 mm Hg to A P " - 2 5 mm Hg. In different tests at higher flows, we

Removal of gas supersaturation by plunges, screens and packed columns

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70

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1.5 RATE

2.0

2.5

Fig. 6. Effect of water flow and input gas level on the output gas level in packedcolumn degassing. Input gas levels: (A) 75 mm Hg; (e) 205 mm Hg. The column flow rate is in liters rain -~ cm -2.

achieved even better degassing and reached a Ap as low as 12-14 mm Hg with a vented, 120-cm column and a single passage. Individual gases were removed at different rates, with oxygen nearly achieving air equilibrium while dissolved nitrogen remained 14% above air equilibrium values. Regression analyses were prepared for predicting the resulting levels o f nitrogen and oxygen after listed treatments of air supersaturated water with A p values ranging from 20 to 200 mm Hg (Table 4). We cannot account for the wide range of correlation coefficients and believe further study is needed at a wider range of barometric pressures and operational conditions.

DISCUSSION Degassing by simple plunge, or passage t h r o u g h 12 layers o f screens, did n o t achieve a final A P b e l o w 25 m m Hg w h e n the A P o f the i n c o m i n g

TABLE 3

Changcs in l)issolved Gases While Air-supersaturated Water Passes Througl~ a Packed Colunm. ('olumns Were 10.16 cm i.d., Packed With 2.54 cm o.d. Ballast Rings and Supplied With Water at 0.4 liter rain -I cm -2 at I I( ', Which I lad Been Supcrsalurated With Air trader Pressure. The A P Value Represents Both the Diffusion Pressure alld I lypcrbaric COllll)t)lll211l

~:~

Cohtnm height (era)

Hyperbaric gas pressure (ram Hg)

Oxygen

(ram Hg)I~
Water supply Po, APo 2 Po~ APo, %loss Cohtmn outlet

Nitrogen (ram ttg)c Watersupply PN, Cohtnnt outlet APN~ PN2 APN~ % lOSS

Total a gas pressure (ran1 Hg) Outlet % sat.

e~

Inlet

Ap

% sat.

Ap

C3

30 60 90 120

975 977 976 983

210 212 210 218

127.4 127-7 127-4 128.5

120 60 38 25

115.7 107-8 105.0 103-3

199 199 199 199

41 41 41 41

179 172 165 159

21 14 6 1

49 66 85 98

757 759 757 764

167 169 168 175

688 635 621 614

98 46 31 25

41 72 81 86

r~

a Total gas pressure = ambient barometric pressure + ambient hyperbaric gas pressure, or 765 mm IIg + 210 mm I Ig = t~75. b Ambient oxygen pressure in air (Po2) was calculated to be about 156 nun Hg. e Ambient nitrogen prcssure in air (PN2) was calculated to be about 589 mm IIg.

Removal of gas supersaturation by plunges, screens and packed columns

TABLE 4

173

Regression Analysis of Inlet (x) on Outlet (y) Pressures tbr Po,. and Py: After Three Methods of Degassing Air Supersaturated Water. ~ P Ranged from 20 to 200 mm Hg, Flows Ranged From 8 to 64 liters min -I Treatment Y intercept (a) Slope (b) Correlation coefficient (r) Number o f observations

Simple plunge Po: PN 2 Twelve screens Po: PN:

-0"04 1.67 1-780 2-18

181'46 --381.43 -115.83 --677.11

--0"04 0-99 a 0-91 a 0.94 a

12 12 12 12

Cohtmn 120 era, packed with rings Rings 1-59 cm o.d. Po: 2.045 --153-70 PN: 3-00 --1 122.72 Rings 2-54cm o.d. PO: 1.62 --83.88 PN, 5-97 12 930-00 Rings 3.81 cm o.d. Po: 1.07 2.24 PN: 2.98 --1 125.21 a Significant at 0-975 level.

0-61 a 0-85 a 0.35 0.76 a 0-36 0-87 a

16 16 16 16 16 16

w a t e r e q u a l e d or e x c e e d e d 50 m m Hg. Conversely, a c o l u m n 120 cm high with 2.54-cm packing r e d u c e d the exP f r o m 200 to 25 m m Hg or less in a single pass. Thus, p a c k e d c o l u m n s can n o t o n l y degas w a t e r to levels a c c e p t a b l e for most a q u a c u l t u r a l applications, but can also provide reserve c a p a c i t y to handle u n f o r e s e e n rises in exp. Such reserve c a p a c i t y m a y be needed w h e n supply systems malt'unction o r w h e n seasonal variations in exP occur. A n o t h e r application o f a p a c k e d c o l u m n is as p r e t r e a t m e n t for w a t e r entering a v a c u u m degasser; this c o u l d r e d u c e b o t h the loss in w a t e r pressure and o p e r a t i o n a l costs. Certain o p e r a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s in p a c k e d c o l u m n s are clearly superior to others. F o r e x a m p l e , the 2-54-cm Ballast rings degassed w a t e r m o r e

174

G. R. Bouck, R. E. King, G. L. Bouck-Schmidt

TABLE 5

Degassing Capacity of Different Diameter Columns When Packed With 2.54 cm Ballast Rings
Column i.d. in cm Crosssectional area, cm 2 Degassing capacity a liters mitt -t cm-: gallons rain-'

3 4 6 8 12 24

7.6 10.2 15-2 20-3 30-5 60.9

45.6 81.1 182.5 324.3 729.7 2 918-6

45-6 81.1 182.5 324.3 729.7 2 918.6

12 21 47 84 190 758

a At 1 liter min -l cm-:.

efficiently than the other packings we tested. Segmented or vented sidewalls were slightly better than their solid counterparts. Water flows can have a significant impact on degassing and about 1 liter rain -t cm -2 provided o p t i m u m degassing (Table 5), but this o p t i m u m also depended on the A p of the water supply. Taller columns removed more A p than did shorter columns, but the required column height depends on the interactions of m a x i m u m A P , flow rates and column packing. Therefore, columns in series may be necessary to achieve the required degree o f treatment. Differences in operating conditions can make relatively small but biologically significant differences in resulting dissolved gas levels. For example, if a packed column produces a A p above 25 mm Hg, gas bubbles could form in freshwater as deep as 34 cm; at /xp = 15 mm, bubbles could form to a freshwater depth o f 20 cm. This condition may be unacceptable for incubating eggs and fry (larvae) in typical hatchery troughs or in shallow water niches in rivers or lakes. Allowing for deeper submersion can give an additional protection, provided the fish elect to use it. In the long run, it appears wise to regard the operation of a packed column degasser as having maintenance and monitoring requirements, like other equipment. If designed and operated properly, packed columns can usually achieve gas levels which are safe for most life stages

Removal of gas supersaturation by plunges, screens and packed columns

175

o f fish. However, changes in water flow, incoming 2xP, or other unidentified factors can decrease degassing efficiency and raise the o u t p u t Ap, which in turn may create biolo~cally unsafe conditions. Therefore, packed columns must be monitored regularly to ensure that they are operating properly and providing the level of safety assumed.

AC KNOWLEDGEMENT This research was funded in part by the US Fish and Wildlife Service.

REFERENCES American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association & Water Pollution Control Federation (1971). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. APHA, New York, USA. Bouck, G. R. (1980a). Air supersaturation in surface water: a continuing engineering and biological problem. Proc. Syrup. Surface Water Impoundments, June 2-5, 1980, ASCE, Minneapolis, pp. 1542-51. Bouck, G. R. (1980b). Etiology of gas bubble disease, Trans. American Fisheries Sot., 109,703-7. Bouck, G. R. (1982). Gasometer: an inexpensive device for continuous monitoring of dissolved gases and supersaturation, Trans. American Fisheries Soc., 111, 505-16. Bouck, G. R. & King, R. E. (1983). Tolerance to gas supersaturation in fresh water and sea water by steelhead trout Sahno gairdneri Richardson, J. Fish Biology, 23,293-300. Colt, J. & Westers, H. (1982). Production of gas supersaturation by aeration, Trans. American Fisheries Soc., 111,342-60. Cornacchia, J. W. & Colt, J. E. (1984). The effect of dissolved gas supersaturation on larval striped bass (Morone saxatilis),J. Fish Diseases, 7, 15-27. Dennison, B. A. & Marchyshyn, M. J. (1973). Device for alleviating supersaturation of gases in hatchery water supplies, Progressive Fish-Culturist, 35, 55-8. Hackney, G. E. & Colt, J. E. (1982). The performance and design of packed column aeration systems for aquaculture, Aquacultural Engineering, 1,275-95. McLean, W. F. & Boreham, A. L. (1980). The design and assessment of aeration towers, Pro~cotReport, Canada Department of Fisheries and Oceans. Marking, g. L., Dawson, V. K. & Crowther, J. R. (1983). Comparison of column aerators and vacuum degasser for treating supersaturated culture water, Progressive Fish-Culturist, 45, 81-3.

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