VSA GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, SALEM

DEPARTMENT OF ECE

ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION (FOR III-SEM-CSE STUDENTS) UNIT-II DIGITAL COMMUNICATION PREPARED BY Ms.V.Ezhilya

HOD

PRINCIPAL

ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF ANALOG COMMUNICATION

Principles of amplitude modulation, AM envelope, Frequency spectrum and bandwidth, Modulation index and percent modulation, AM voltage distribution, AM power distribution, Angle Modulation-FM and PM waveforms, phase deviation and modulation index, Frequency deviation and percent modulation, Frequency analysis of angle modulated wave, Bandwidth requirements for angle modulated waves. UNIT II DIGITAL COMMUNICATION Introduction, Shannon limit for information capacity, Digital amplitude modulation, Frequency shift keying, FSK bit rate and baud, FSK transmitter, BW consideration of FSK, FSK receiver, Phase shift keying- Binary phase shift keying QPSK, Quadrature amplitude modulation, Bandwidth efficiency, Carrier recovery Squaring loop, Costas loop, DPSK. UNIT III DIGITAL TRANSMISSION Introduction, Pulse Modulation, PCM PCM sampling, Sampling rate, Signal to quantization noise rate, Companding Analog and Digital Percentage error, Delta modulation, Adaptive delta modulation, differential pulse code modulation, Pulse transmission Intersymbol interference, eye patterns. UNIT IV DATA COMMUNICATIONS Introduction, History of Data Communications, Standards Organizations for data communicaton, Data communication circuits, Data communication codes, Error control, Error detection, Error correction, Data communication hardware, Serial and parallel interfaces, Data modems, Asynchronous modem, Synchronous modem, Low speed modem, Medium and high speed modem, Modem control. UNIT V SPREAD SPECTRUM AND MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES Introduction, Pseudo-noise sequences, DS spread spectrum with coherent binary PSK, Processing gain, FH spread spectrum, Multiple access techniques Wireless communication, TDMA and CDMA in wireless communication systems, Sourse coding of speech for wireless communication.

Unit II DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

S. No

Topic UNIT II

Reference

Teaching Aids

No of hours

DIGITAL COMMUNICATION CB CB CB CB CB CB CB CB CB 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Introduction to Digital T 1, Ch 2 Communication Shannon limit for information T 1, Ch - 2 capacity Digital amplitude modulation Frequency shift keying, FSK bit rate and baud FSK transmitter and FSK receiver, BW consideration of FSK Phase shift keying, Binary phase shift keying QPSK, Quadrature amplitude modulation Bandwidth efficiency, Carrier recovery , Squaring loop Costas loop, DPSK T 1, Ch - 2 T 1, Ch - 2 T -1 , Ch - 2 T -1 , Ch - 2 T -1 , Ch - 2 T -1 , Ch - 2 T -1 , Ch - 2

Total Hours= 12

Block diagram of Basic digital communications system :

Shannons limit for Information Capacity and Shannon Hartley Theorem: Shannons limit for Information Capacity Transmission channel is a medium over which the electrical signals from a transmitter travel to the receiver. Two important characteristics of a transmission channel are 1. Signal to Noise ratio(SNR) 2. Bandwidth These two characteristics will ultimately decide the maximum capacity of a channel to carry information. Nyquist and Shannon worked on finding the maximum channel capacity of a band limited channel. Nyquist theorem It states that if the bandwidth of a transmission channel is B which carries a signal having L number of levels, then the maximum data rate R on this channel is given by R = 2 B log2 L The number of levels L can be two or more.

Shannons Theorem : If (S/N) is the signal to noise ratio then the maximum data rate is given by R = B log2 [1 + (S/N)] Shannon extended Nyquist work. He included the effect of noise present on the transmission channel. Shannons theorem puts a limit on the maximum number of levels for a given (S/N) ratio and bandwidth. Shannon Hartley Theorem : This theorem is complementary to the Shannons theorem. It applies to a channel in which the noise is Gaussian. Information Capacity : The information capacity of a communication system represents the number of independent symbols that can be carried through that system in a given unit of time. It is expressed in bits/sec. Statement of the Theorem : The information capacity of a white, band limited Gaussian channel is given by I = B log2 [1 + (S/N)] bits/ sec Where, B = Channel Bandwidth S = Signal Power N = Noise within the Channel Bandwidth Effect of S/N on I If the communication channel is noiseless then N = 0. Therefore (S/N) tends to infinity and so I also will tend to infinity. Thus the noiseless chann el will have an infinite capacity. Effect of Bandwidth on Information Capacity: If the bandwidth approaches infinity the channel capacity does not become infinite since N = N0 B will also increase with the bandwidth B. This will reduce the value of (S/N) with increase in B, assuming the signal power S to be constant. Thus we conclude that an ideal system with infinite bandwidth has a finite channel capacity. It is denoted by I (Infinity) and given by I (Infinity) = 1.44 (S/N0)

Shannons Information rate The maximum rate of transmission is equal to the information capacity Rmax = Imax = 1.44 (S/N0) It is very difficult to achieve it practically because to achieve this rate the channel bandwidth needs to be equal to infinity, and practically it is extremely difficult to have a transmission channel with an infinite bandwidth. Digital Modulation: It is the process of varying the angle of a wave in a carrier in order to transmit analog or digital data. For digital signals, phase modulation (PM) is widely used in conjunction with amplitude modulation (AM). For example, quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) uses both phase and amplitude modulation to create different binary states for transmission (see QAM). See modulation and carrier.

Fig : Digital modulated wave In PM modulation, the angle of the carrier wave is varied by the incoming 6

signal. In this example, the modulating wave implies an analog signal.

Fig:Digital Phase Shift Keying (PSK) For digital signals, phase shift keying (PSK) uses two phases for 0 and 1 as in this example. See DPSK. There are three major classes of digital modulation techniques used for transmission of digitally represented data: Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) Frequency-shift keying (FSK) Phase-shift keying (PSK) All convey data by changing some aspect of a base signal, the carrier wave, (usually a sinusoid) in response to a data signal. In the case of PSK, the phase is changed to represent the data signal. There are two fundamental ways of utilizing the phase of a signal in this way: By viewing the phase itself as conveying the information, in which case the demodulator must have a reference signal to compare the received signal's phase against; or 7

By viewing the change in the phase as conveying information differential schemes, some of which do not need a reference carrier (to a certain extent). A convenient way to represent PSK schemes is on a constellation diagram. This shows the points in the Argand plane where, in this context, the real and imaginary axes are termed the in-phase and quadrature axes respectively due to their 90 separation. Such a representation on perpendicular axes lends itself to straightforward implementation. The amplitude of each point along the in-phase axis is used to modulate a cosine (or sine) wave and the amplitude along the quadrature axis to modulate a sine (or cosine) wave. In PSK, the constellation points chosen are usually positioned with uniform angular spacing around a circle. This gives maximum phase-separation between adjacent points and thus the best immunity to corruption. They are positioned on a circle so that they can all be transmitted with the same energy. In this way, the moduli of the complex numbers they represent will be the same and thus so will the amplitudes needed for the cosine and sine waves. Two common examples are "binary phase-shift keying" (BPSK) which uses two phases, and "quadrature phase-shift keying" (QPSK) which uses four phases, although any number of phases may be used. Since the data to be conveyed are usually binary, the PSK scheme is usually designed with the number of constellation points being a power of 2. PSK system: Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation scheme that conveys data by changing, or modulating, the phase of a reference signal (the carrier wave). Any digital modulation scheme uses a finite number of distinct signals to represent digital data. PSK uses a finite number of phases, each assigned a unique pattern of binary bits. Usually, each phase encodes an equal number of bits. Each pattern of bits forms the symbol that is represented by the particular phase. The demodulator, which is designed specifically for the symbol-set used by the modulator, determines the phase of the received signal and maps it back to the symbol it represents, thus recovering the original data. This requires the receiver to be able to compare the phase of the received signal to a reference signal such a system is termed coherent. Alternatively, instead of using the bit patterns to set the phase of the wave, it can instead be used to change it by a specified amount. The demodulator then determines the changes in the phase of the received signal rather than the phase itself. Since this scheme depends on the difference between successive phases, it is termed differential phase-shift keying (DPSK). DPSK can be significantly 8

simpler to implement than ordinary PSK since there is no need for the demodulator to have a copy of the reference signal to determine the exact phase of the received signal (it is a non-coherent scheme). In exchange, it produces more erroneous demodulations. The exact requirements of the particular scenario under consideration determine which scheme is used. Binary phase-shift keying (BPSK)

Fig : Constellation diagram for BPSK BPSK is the simplest form of PSK. It uses two phases which are separated by 180 and so can also be termed 2-PSK. It does not particularly matter exactly where the constellation points are positioned, and in this figure they are shown on the real axis, at 0 and 180. This modulation is the most robust of all the PSKs since it takes serious distortion to make the demodulator reach an incorrect decision. It is, however, only able to modulate at 1 bit/symbol (as seen in the figure) and so is unsuitable for high data-rate applications when bandwidth is limited. The bit error rate (BER) of BPSK in AWGN can be calculated as:

Since there is only one bit per symbol, this is also the symbol error rate. In the presence of an arbitrary phase-shift introduced by the communications channel, the demodulator is unable to tell which constellation point is which. As a result, the data is often differentially encoded prior to modulation.

Implementation Binary data is often conveyed with the following signals:

for binary "0" for binary "1" where fc is the frequency of the carrier-wave. Hence, the signal-space can be represented by the single basis function

where 1 is represented by assignment is, of course, arbitrary.

and 0 is represented by

. This

The use of this basis function is shown at the end of the next section in a signal timing diagram. The topmost signal shows PSK modulating a cosine wave, and is the signal that the BPSK modulator would produce. The bit-stream that causes this output is shown above the signal (the other parts of this figure are relevant only to QPSK). QPSK system with the help of transmitter and receiver: Quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK)

Constellation diagram for QPSK with Gray coding

10

Each adjacent symbol only differs by one bit. Sometimes known as quaternary or quadriphase PSK or 4-PSK, QPSK uses four points on the constellation diagram, equispaced around a circle. With four phases, QPSK can encode two bits per symbol, shown in the diagram with Gray coding to minimize the BER twice the rate of BPSK. Analysis shows that this may be used either to double the data rate compared to a BPSK system while maintaining the bandwidth of the signal or to maintain the data-rate of BPSK but halve the bandwidth needed. Although QPSK can be viewed as a quaternary modulation, it is easier to see it as two independently modulated quadrature carriers. With this interpretation, the even (or odd) bits are used to modulate the in-phase component of the carrier, while the odd (or even) bits are used to modulate the quadrature-phase component of the carrier. BPSK is used on both carriers and they can be independently demodulated. As a result, the probability of bit-error for QPSK is the same as for BPSK:

. However, with two bits per symbol, the symbol error rate is increased:

. If the signal-to-noise ratio is high (as is necessary for practical QPSK systems) the probability of symbol error may be approximated:

As with BPSK, there are phase ambiguity problems at the receiver and differentially encoded QPSK is more normally used in practice. Implementation The implementation of QPSK is more general than that of BPSK and also indicates the implementation of higher-order PSK. Writing the symbols in the

11

constellation diagram in terms of the sine and cosine waves used to transmit them:

. This yields the four phases / 4, 3 / 4, 5 / 4 and 7 / 4 as needed. This results in a two-dimensional signal space with unit basis functions

The first basis function is used as the in-phase component of the signal and the second as the quadrature component of the signal. Hence, the signal constellation consists of the signal-space 4 points

. The factors of 1 / 2 indicate that the total power is split equally between the two carriers. Comparing these basis functions with that for BPSK shows clearly how QPSK can be viewed as two independent BPSK signals. Note that the signalspace points for BPSK do not need to split the symbol (bit) energy over the two carriers in the scheme shown in the BPSK constellation diagram. QPSK systems can be implemented in a number of ways. An illustration of the major components of the transmitter and receiver structure are shown below.

12

Fig : Conceptual transmitter structure for QPSK The binary data stream is split into the in-phase and quadrature-phase components. These are then separately modulated onto two orthogonal basis functions. In this implementation, two sinusoids are used. Afterwards, the two signals are superimposed, and the resulting signal is the QPSK signal. Note the use of polar non-return-to-zero encoding. These encoders can be placed before for binary data source, but have been placed after to illustrate the conceptual difference between digital and analog signals involved with digital modulation.

Fig : Receiver structure for QPSK The matched filters can be replaced with correlators. Each detection device uses a reference threshold value to determine whether a 1 or 0 is detected. QPSK signal in the time domain The modulated signal is shown below for a short segment of a random binary data-stream. The two carrier waves are a cosine wave and a sine wave, as indicated by the signal-space analysis above. Here, the odd-numbered bits have been assigned to the in-phase component and the even-numbered bits to the quadrature component (taking the first bit as number 1). The total signal the sum of the two components is shown at the bottom. Jumps in phase can be seen as the PSK changes the phase on each component at the start of each bitperiod. The topmost waveform alone matches the description given for BPSK above.

13

Timing diagram for QPSK The binary data stream is shown beneath the time axis. The two signal components with their bit assignments are shown the top and the total, combined signal at the bottom. Note the abrupt changes in phase at some of the bit-period boundaries. The binary data that is conveyed by this waveform is: 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0. The odd bits, highlighted here, contribute to the in-phase component: 1 1 0 00110 The even bits, highlighted here, contribute to the quadrature-phase component: 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 Offset QPSK (OQPSK) : Offset quadrature phase-shift keying (OQPSK) is a variant of phase-shift keying modulation using 4 different values of the phase to transmit. It is sometimes called Staggered quadrature phase-shift keying (SQPSK). Taking four values of the phase (two bits) at a time to construct a QPSK symbol can allow the phase of the signal to jump by as much as 180 at a time. When the signal is lowpass filtered (as is typical in a transmitter), these phase-shifts result in large amplitude fluctuations, an undesirable quality in communication systems.

14

Difference of the phase between QPSK and OQPSK By offsetting the timing of the odd and even bits by one bit-period, or half a symbol-period, the in-phase and quadrature components will never change at the same time. In the constellation diagram shown on the left, it can be seen that this will limit the phase-shift to no more than 90 at a time. This yields much lower amplitude fluctuations than non-offset QPSK and is sometimes preferred in practice. The picture on the right shows the difference in the behavior of the phase between ordinary QPSK and OQPSK. It can be seen that in the first plot the phase can change by 180 at once, while in OQPSK the changes are never greater than 90. The modulated signal is shown below for a short segment of a random binary data-stream. Note the half symbol-period offset between the two component waves. The sudden phase-shifts occur about twice as often as for QPSK (since the signals no longer change together), but they are less severe. In other words, the magnitude of jumps is smaller in OQPSK when compared to QPSK.

15

Timing diagram for offset-QPSK The binary data stream is shown beneath the time axis. The two signal components with their bit assignments are shown the top and the total, combined signal at the bottom. Note the half-period offset between the two signal components. / 4QPSK:

Fig : Dual constellation diagram for /4-QPSK This shows the two separate constellations with identical Gray coding but rotated by 45 with respect to each other. This final variant of QPSK uses two identical constellations which are rotated by 45 ( / 4 radians, hence the name) with respect to one another. Usually, either the even or odd data bits are used to select points from one of the constellations and the other bits select points from the other constellation. This also reduces the phase-shifts from a maximum of 180, but only to a maximum of 135 and so the amplitude fluctuations of / 4QPSK are between OQPSK and non-offset QPSK. One property this modulation scheme possesses is that if the modulated signal is represented in the complex domain, it does not have any paths through the origin. In other words, the signal does not pass through the origin. This lowers the dynamical range of fluctuations in the signal which is desirable when engineering communications signals. On the other hand, / 4QPSK lends itself to easy demodulation and has been adopted for use in, for example, TDMA cellular telephone systems.

16

Fig : Timing diagram for /4-QPSK The modulated signal is shown below for a short segment of a random binary data-stream. The construction is the same as above for ordinary QPSK. Successive symbols are taken from the two constellations shown in the diagram. Thus, the first symbol (1 1) is taken from the 'blue' constellation and the second symbol (0 0) is taken from the 'green' constellation. Note that magnitudes of the two component waves change as they switch between constellations, but the total signal's magnitude remains constant. The phase-shifts are between those of the two previous timing-diagrams. The binary data stream is shown beneath the time axis. The two signal components with their bit assignments are shown the top and the total, combined signal at the bottom. Note that successive symbols are taken alternately from the two constellations, starting with the 'blue' one. Higher-order PSK :

Fig : Constellation diagram for 8-PSK with Gray coding

17

Any number of phases may be used to construct a PSK constellation but 8PSK is usually the highest order PSK constellation deployed. With more than 8 phases, the error-rate becomes too high and there are better, though more complex, modulations available such as quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). Although any number of phases may be used, the fact that the constellation must usually deal with binary data means that the number of symbols is usually a power of 2 this allows an equal number of bits-persymbol. For the general M-PSK there is no simple expression for the symbol-error probability if M > 4. Unfortunately, it can only be obtained from:

where

, , ,

and random variables.

are

jointly-Gaussian

Fig : Bit-error rate curves for BPSK, QPSK, 8-PSK and 16-PSK

18

This may be approximated for high M and high Eb / N0 by:

. The bit-error probability for M-PSK can only be determined exactly once the bitmapping is known. However, when Gray coding is used, the most probable error from one symbol to the next produces only a single bit-error and

. The graph on the left compares the bit-error rates of BPSK, QPSK (which are the same, as noted above), 8-PSK and 16-PSK. It is seen that higher-order modulations exhibit higher error-rates; in exchange however they deliver a higher raw data-rate. Bounds on the error rates of various digital modulation schemes can be computed with application of the union bound to the signal constellation. Differential phase-shift keying : Differential encoding There is an ambiguity of phase if the constellation is rotated by some effect in the communications channel the signal passes through. This problem can be overcome by using the data to change rather than set the phase. For example, in differentially-encoded BPSK a binary '1' may be transmitted by adding 180 to the current phase and a binary '0' by adding 0 to the current phase. In differentially-encoded QPSK, the phase-shifts are 0, 90, 180, -90 corresponding to data '00', '01', '11', '10'. This kind of encoding may be demodulated in the same way as for non-differential PSK but the phase ambiguities can be ignored. Thus, each received symbol is demodulated to one of the M points in the constellation and a comparator then computes the difference in phase between this received signal and the preceding one. The difference encodes the data as described above. The modulated signal is shown below for both DBPSK and DQPSK as described above. It is assumed that the signal starts with zero phase, and so there is a phase shift in both signals at t = 0.

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Fig : Timing diagram for DBPSK and DQPSK The binary data stream is above the DBPSK signal. The individual bits of the DBPSK signal are grouped into pairs for the DQPSK signal, which only changes every Ts = 2Tb. Analysis shows that differential encoding approximately doubles the error rate compared to ordinary M-PSK but this may be overcome by only a small increase in Eb / N0. Furthermore, this analysis (and the graphical results below) are based on a system in which the only corruption is additive white Gaussian noise. However, there will also be a physical channel between the transmitter and receiver in the communication system. This channel will, in general, introduce an unknown phase-shift to the PSK signal; in these cases the differential schemes can yield a better error-rate than the ordinary schemes which rely on precise phase information.

Example: Differentially-encoded BPSK

Fig : Differential encoding/decoding system diagram. At the kth time-slot call the bit to be modulated bk, the differentially-encoded bit ek and the resulting modulated signal mk(t). Assume that the constellation diagram positions the symbols at 1 (which is BPSK). The differential encoder produces:

where

indicates binary or modulo-2 addition.

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Fig : BER comparison between BPSK and differentially-encoded BPSK with gray-coding operating in white noise So ek only changes state (from binary '0' to binary '1' or from binary '1' to binary '0') if bk is a binary '1'. Otherwise it remains in its previous state. This is the description of differentially-encoded BPSK given above. The received signal is demodulated to yield ek = 1 and then the differential decoder reverses the encoding procedure and produces: since binary subtraction is the same as binary addition. Therefore, bk = 1 if ek and ek - 1 differ and bk = 0 if they are the same. Hence, if both ek and ek - 1 are inverted, bk will still be decoded correctly. Thus, the 180 phase ambiguity does not matter. Differential schemes for other PSK modulations may be devised along similar lines. The waveforms for DPSK are the same as for differentially-encoded PSK given above since the only change between the two schemes is at the receiver. The BER curve for this example is compared to ordinary BPSK on the right. As mentioned above, whilst the error-rate is approximately doubled, the increase needed in Eb / N0 to overcome this is small. The performance degradation is a result of noncoherent transmission - in this case it refers to the fact that tracking of the phase is completely ignored.

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Fig : BER comparison between DBPSK, DQPSK and their non-differential forms using gray-coding and operating in white noise. For a signal that has been differentially encoded, there is an obvious alternative method of demodulation. Instead of demodulating as usual and ignoring carrier-phase ambiguity, the phase between two successive received symbols is compared and used to determine what the data must have been. When differential encoding is used in this manner, the scheme is known as differential phase-shift keying (DPSK). Note that this is subtly different to just differentially-encoded PSK since, upon reception, the received symbols are not decoded one-by-one to constellation points but are instead compared directly to one another. Call the received symbol in the kth timeslot rk and let it have phase k. Assume without loss of generality that the phase of the carrier wave is zero. Denote the AWGN term as nk. Then . The decision variable for the k - 1th symbol and the kth symbol is the phase difference between rk and rk - 1. That is, if rk is projected onto rk - 1, the decision is taken on the phase of the resultant complex number:

where superscript * denotes complex conjugation. In the absence of noise, the phase of this is k - k - 1, the phase-shift between the two received signals which can be used to determine the data transmitted. The probability of error for DPSK is difficult to calculate in general, but, in the case of DBPSK it is: 22

, which, when numerically evaluated, is only slightly worse than ordinary BPSK, particularly at higher Eb / N0 values. Using DPSK avoids the need for possibly complex carrier-recovery schemes to provide an accurate phase estimate and can be an attractive alternative to ordinary PSK. In optical communications, the data can be modulated onto the phase of a laser in a differential way. The modulation is a laser which emits a continuous wave, and a Mach-Zehnder modulator which receives electrical binary data. For the case of BPSK for example, the laser transmits the field unchanged for binary '1', and with reverse polarity for '0'. The demodulator consists of a delay line interferometer which delays one bit, so two bits can be compared at one time. In further processing, a photo diode is used to transform the optical field into an electric current, so the information is changed back into its original state. The bit-error rates of DBPSK and DQPSK are compared to their nondifferential counterparts in the graph to the right. The loss for using DBPSK is small enough compared to the complexity reduction that it is often used in communications systems that would otherwise use BPSK. For DQPSK though, the loss in performance compared to ordinary QPSK is larger and the system designer must balance this against the reduction in complexity. FSK system with the help of transmitter and receiver : Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a modulation scheme in which digital information is transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a carrier wave. The most common form of frequency shift keying is 2-FSK. As suggested by the name, 2-FSK uses two discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0's and 1's) information. With this scheme, the "1" is called the mark frequency and the "0" is called the space frequency. The time domain of an FSK modulated carrier is illustrated in the figures at right.

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Fig : An example of binary FSK

Comparison of AM and ASK signals : S. No Parameter AM Variable characteristics of 1 Amplitude the carrier Nature of the modulating 2 Analog signal Continuous variation Variation in the carrier in accordance with the 3 amplitude amplitude of modulating signal Number of sidebands 4 Two produced 5 Bandwidth 2fm 6 Noise Immunity Poor 7 8 Application Detection method Radio Broadcasting Envelope ASK Amplitude Digital Carrier ON or OFF depending on whether a 1 or 0 is to be transmitted Two (1+r)R Poor Data Transmission in low bit rate Envelope

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Comparison of various digital modulation systems: S. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Parameter Variable characteristic Bandwidth Noise Immunity Error probability Performance in presence of noise Complexity Bit rate Binary ASK Amplitude 2R Low High Poor Simple Suitable up to 100 bits/sec Envelope Binary FSK Frequency f1 f0 + (1+r)R High Low Better than ASK Moderately complex Suitable up to about 1200 bits/sec Envelope Binary PSK Phase (1+r)R High Low Better than FSK Very complex Suitable for high bit rates coherent

Detection method

Comparison BPSK and DPSK, BPSK and QPSK and QPSK and QAM : S. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Modulation Method Variable characteristic Bandwidth Effect of noise Error probability Need of synchronous carrier Complexity Detection method Bit determination at the receiver Transmission rate Phase fb Low Low Needed Lower than DPSK Synchronous Based on single bit interval Minimum Bandwidth Phase Fb Higher than BPSK Higher than BPSK Not needed Higher than BPSK Synchronous Based on signal received in two successive bit intervals QPSK Phase Four Level A group of two binary bits is represented by one phase state Bit rate = 2 Baud rate Coherent Very Complex

S. No 1 2 3

Parameters Variable characteristic Type of modulation Type of representation

BPSK Phase Two Level(binary) A binary bit is represented by one phase state Bit rate = Baud rate Coherent Complex

4 5 6

Bit rate / Baud rate Detection method Complexity

25

S.No 1 2

Parameters Type of modulation Location of signal points

QPSK Quadrature phase modulation On the circumference of a circle d = 2 (Eb)1/2 for N = 2 Better than QASK Less than QASK Synchronous Less complex than QASK

QAM Quadrature amplitude and phase modulation Equally spaced and placed symmetrically about origin d = 2 (0.4 Eb)1/2 for N = 2 or M= 16 Poorer than QPSK More than QPSK Synchronous More complex than QPSK

3 4 5 6 7

Distance between the signal points Noise Immunity Probability of error Type of demodulation System complexity

Comparison of bit transmission and symbol transmission. S. No Bit Transmission 1 Each bit is treated as a separate symbol Symbol Transmission N Successive bits are clubbed together to form a symbol M number of symbols can be transmitted where M = 2N QPSK , M ary PSK, QAM etc. Are symbol transmission systems. They are also called as multilevel modulation system The channel bandwidth requirement is dependent on the symbol rate of transmission For PSK systems, bandwidth reduces with increase in M. But for the FSK systems the bandwidth increases with increase in M

Only two different symbols can be transmitted i.e. 0 or 1 Binary systems such as BPSK, BFSK are bit transmitting systems

The channel bandwidth requirement is dependent on the bit rate of transmission

Large bandwidth is required

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Comparison of Orthogonal BFSK and Non orthogonal BFSK and Coherent BFSK reception and Non Coherent BFSK reception. S. No 1 Orthogonal BFSK The frequencies fH and fL are the integral multiples of fb The signals SH(t) and SL(t) lie on the axes u1(t) and u2(t) in the signal space representation Non - Orthogonal BFSK The frequencies fH and fL are not the integral multiples of fb The signals SH(t) and SL(t) do not lie on the axes u1(t) and u2(t) in the signal space representation The Euclidean distance d is less than that for orthogonal BFSK Error probability Pe is higher than that for the orthogonal BFSK system

The Euclidean distance d is more than that for non orthogonal BFSK Error probability Pe is less than that for the non orthogonal BFSK system

S. No 1

Coherent BFSK reception It uses a regenerated carrier, multiplier and integrator to recover the original binary signal

2 3

The receiver is more complicated Reception process will not work unless the regenerated carrier of exactly the same frequency is generated at the receiver Error Probability is low Less effect of noise

Non Coherent BFSK reception It uses two band pass filters, envelope detectors, and comparator to recover the original signal The receiver is less complicated Regenerated carrier is not required for the reception Error Probability is high Effect of noise is more

4 5

27

Symbol duratio n

8 Minimum Euclidean distance Detection method Number of bits per symbol N=1 ASK Expression for transmitted signal Paramet er (Eb)1/2 Coherent Number of possible symbols M=2N Two Informatio n is transmitte d by change in Amplitude 2(Eb)1/2 Coherent Two N= 1 (2Ps)1/2 cos wc t for symbol 1, 0 for symbol 0 (2Ps)1/2 cos wc t , b(t) = 1 for 1 , b(t) = -1 for 0 Phase (2Ps)1/2 cos [wc t + (2m + 1) / 4] M= 0, 1, 2, 3 K1(0.2Ps)1/2 cos wc t + k2ii Phase BPSK Comparison of the digital CW systems: 2(Eb)1/2 Coherent Four N= 2 QPSK (0.4Es)1/2 For M = 16 Coherent M = 2N N Amplitude and phase QAM 2 (Es)1/2 Sin ( / M) Coherent N (2Eb)1/2 Non Coherent Non Coherent Coherent Two M = 2N Phase M ary PSK N=1 Frequency BFSK (2 N Eb)1/2 (2Eb)1/2 M = 2N Four N N=2 Frequency Frequency M- ary FSK MSK

Minimum bandwidth

S. N o

Tb

2 fb

Tb

2 fb

2Tb

fb

NTb

2 fb / N

NTb

2 fb / N

Tb

4 fb

NTb

(2N + 1 fb) / N

28

2Tb

1. 5 fb

TWO MARKS 1. What does Digital Communication mean? The digital communication is type of communication in which the digital data is transmitted directly or modulates some carrier. It covers a broad area of communications techniques, including digital transmission and digital radio. 2. What are the advantages of digital communication? Digital transmission has better noise immunity than analog transmission. The digital communication systems are more flexible and adaptable. Multiplexing and processing becomes easier due to digital communication. Error correction and decoding becomes more effective in digital communication. 3. What are the two types of digital communication? Digital Transmission There is no modulation. Digital data is transmitted directly over a pair of wires, co-axial cable or fiber optic cable. Digital radio The digital data modulates some high frequency carrier. And then the signal is transmitted in free space. 4. What do you mean by transmission channel and what are the two important parameters of a transmission channel? Transmission channel is a medium over which the electrical signals from a transmitter travel to the receiver. Two important characteristics of a transmission channel are 1.Signal to Noise ratio(SNR) 2.Bandwidth 5. Define band pass transmission and base band transmission. Band pass transmission uses modulated carrier along with its sideband. Base band transmission, the data is transmitted without any modulation. There is no carrier used. 6. Define Nyquist theorem. It states that if the bandwidth of a transmissi on channel is B which carries a signal having L number of levels, then the maximum data rate R on this channel is given by R = 2 B log2 L The number of levels L can be two or more.

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7. State Shannon limit for information capacity (or) State Shannons Theorem. If (S/N) is the signal to noise ratio then the maximum data rate is given by R = B log2 [1 + (S/N)] where B = bandwidth (Hz) S/N = signal to noise ratio (unit less) Shannon extended Nyquist work. He included the effect of noise present on the transmission channel. Shannons theorem puts a limit on the maximum number of levels for a given (S/N) ratio and bandwidth. 8. Define Shannon Hartley Theorem. The information capacity of a white, band limited Gaussian channel is given by I = B log2 [1 + (S/N)] bits/ sec Where, B = Channel Bandwidth S = Signal Power N = Noise within the Channel Bandwidth 9. What is Information Capacity? The information capacity of a communication system represents the number of independent symbols that can be carried through that system in a given unit of time. It is expressed in bits/sec. 10. What is the Effect of S/N on I? If the communication channel is noiseless then N = 0. Therefore (S/N) tends to infinity and so I also will tend to infinity. Thus the noiseless channel will have an infinite capacity. 11. What is the effect of Bandwidth on Information Capacity? If the bandwidth approaches infinity the channel capacity does not become infinite since N = N0 B will also increase with the bandwidth B. This will reduce the value of (S/N) with increase in B, assuming the signal power S to be constant. Thus we conclude that an ideal system with infinite bandwidth has a finite channel capacity. It is denoted by I (Infinity) and given by I (Infinity) = 1.44 (S/N0) 12. What is Shannons Information rate? The maximum rate of transmission is equal to the information capacity Rmax = Imax = 1.44 (S/N0) It is very difficult to achieve it practically because to achieve this rate the channel bandwidth needs to be equal to infinity, and practically it is extremely difficult to have a transmission channel with an infinite bandwidth.

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13. What is meant by Digital Amplitude Modulation (DAM) or Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)? The digital amplitude modulation is simply double sideband, full carrier amplitude modulation where the input-modulating signal is a binary waveform. The ASK output will be present only when a binary 1 is to be transmitted. The ASK output corresponding to a binary 0 is zero. 14. What is the Baud rate in ASK? In ASK we use 1 bit (0 or 1) to represent one symbol. So the rate of symbol transmission is the baud rate. Nb is same as bit rate R Baud rate = Bit rate 15. What is the Transmission bandwidth of the ASK signal? The bandwidth of the ASK signal is dependant on the bit rate R. R = 1/ Tb Bandwidth (Max) = R HZ The frequency spectrum shows that the spectrum consists of the carrier signal of frequency fc with upper and lower sidebands. 16. How will you restrict the transmission bandwidth? The transmission bandwidth BW of the ASK signal can be restricted by using a filter. The restricted value of bandwidth is given as: BW = (1 + r) R Where r is a factor related to the filter characteristics and its value lies between 0 and 1. Fc is the carrier frequency i.e. frequency of the sine wave being transmitted. 17. Derive the bandwidth of ASK in terms of Baud Rate? The bandwidth in terms of bit rate is given by BW = fc +(R/2)-(fc-(R/2)) Where R = 1/Tb = bit rate and Tb = one bit interval Since bit rate = baud rate for ASK, the expression for bandwidth is given by BW = fc + Nb/2 (fc-Nb/2) = Nb/2 + Nb/2 = Nb Practically the bandwidth requirement of ASK is given by BW = (1 + d)* Nb 18. What is the use of sample and hold circuit in Coherent reception of ASK? The integrator output is sampled at a particular instant corresponding to the maximum possible value of output and the sampled value is held by the sample and hold circuit.

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19. What is meant by Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)? Frequency Shift Keying is the relatively simple, low performance type of digital modulation. Binary FSK is a form of constant amplitude angle modulation similar to conventional frequency modulation except that the modulating signal is a binary signal that varies between two discrete voltage levels rather than a continuously changing analog waveform. 20. What are all the types of FSK systems & explain them? There are two types of FSK system. 1) Non coherent FSK 2) Coherent FSK With non-coherent FSK, the transmitter and receiver are not frequency or phase synchronized. With coherent FSK, local receiver reference signals are in frequency and phase lock with the transmitted signals. 21. Derive the Bandwidth for FSK Signals. The bandwidth of FSK signal is dependant on the pulse width Tb or bit rate R = 1/ Tb and the separation between the frequencies f0 and f1. The maximum bandwidth is given as: Bmax= (f1 + R/2) (f0 R/2) = (f1 f0 + R) The separation between f1 and f0 is kept at least 2R/ 3. Then Bmax= 2R /3 + R = 5R/3 The FSK requires larger bandwidth than ASK and PSK. 22. What is the Bandwidth of FSK Signals in terms of Baud rate? In FSK Bit rate = Baud rate = Nb The FSK spectrum can be considered to be as combination of two ASK spectrums centered at frequencies fH and FL. The expression for bandwidth can be given as BW= Nb/2 + (f1-f0) +Nb/2 = (f1 f0) + Nb The minimum bandwidth will correspond to the situation in which (f1 f0) = Nb BW (min) = Nb + Nb = 2 Nb 23. How will you restrict the bandwidth requirement in FSK? The bandwidth can be restricted by using a band pass filter. The restricted bandwidth is given as B = (f1 f0) + ((1 + r) R/2)

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24. Define FSK bite rate & baud. The rate of change at the input to the modulator is called the bit rate and has the unit of bits per second. The rate of change at the output of the modulator is called baud. 25. Compare Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) & Frequency Shift Keying (FSK). S. no ASK FSK 1 2 3 Amplitude of the signal modulated as per digital data Minimum BW = 2b Transmitted power changing keeps is Frequency of the signal is modulated as per digital data Minimum BW = 4b on Transmitted power constant remains

26. Give the truth table of the diode ring modulator. Binary Input Logic 0 Logic 1 Binary Output 0 Degree 180 Degree

27. What do you meant by M-ary encoding? M-ary is a term derived from the word binary. M is simply a digit that represents the number of conditions or combinations possible for a given number of binary variables. 28. Give the formula for the error distance of the PSK. The error distance of the PSK is given by, d = (2 sin 180/M)*D Where, d error distance M number of phases D Peak signal amplitude. 29. Derive the Bandwidth of BPSK. Bandwidth= Highest frequency Lowest frequency = (fc + fb) (fc - fb) = 2fb Where fb= 1/Tb Thus the minimum bandwidth of BPSK signal is equal to twice the highest frequency contained in the base band signal. 30. What are the applications of BPSK? 1. Phase Shift Keying is the most efficient of the three modulation methods and it is used for high bit rates even higher than 1800 bits/sec.

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2. Due to low bandwidth requirement the BPSK modems are preferred over the FSK modems, at higher operating speeds. 31. What is the probability of error in BPSK? 1. The expression for error probability is as follows: Pe = erfc (E/N0)1/2 2. The expression indicates that the error probability is dependant only on the energy contents of the signal i.e. E. 3. As the energy increases, value of complementary error function erfc decreases and the value of Pe will reduce 32. What is meant by DPSK? Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK) is an alternative form of digital modulation where the binary input information is contained in the difference between two successive signaling elements rather than the absolute phase. 33. What are the basic operations of DPSK? There are two basic operations and they are 1. The differential encoding 2. Phase Shift Keying 34. Derive the bandwidth for DPSK signal. The phase shift of DPSK signal is dependant on the existing bit and one previous bit. Thus in DPSK two bits form a symbol. Symbol duration Ts = 2 Tb The bandwidth is given by BW = 2 / Ts = 2/2 Tb = 1/ Tb = fb Thus the bandwidth is half the bandwidth of BPSK. 35. What is the probability of error in DPSK? 1. The symbol duration in DPSK is equal to two bit duration i.e. = T s =2 Tb. 2. The energy associated with each symbol is 2 E b. 3. Hence the error probability is given by Pe = e (Eb/N0) 4. The error probability is same as that of the non coherent BFSK 36. What does QPSK mean? Quaternary Phase Shift Keying (QPSK), or quadrature PSK as it is sometimes called, is another form of angle modulated, constant amplitude digital modulation. QPSK is an M-ary encoding technique where M=4. IN QPSK, two successive bits are taken together. Two bits are taken from four distinct symbols. When the symbol is changed to next symbol, the phase of the carrier is changed

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by 45 degree. Since QPSK transmits two bits at a time, its bandwidth requirement is reduced. The phase changes in QPSK are not as abrupt as BPSK. 37. What is meant by offset QPSK? Offset QPSK is a modified form of QPSK where the bit waveforms on the I and Q channels are offset or shifted in phase from each other by one half a bit time. 38. What is the symbol transmission rate in QPSK? In QPSK two bits are grouped together to form a symbol. Therefore when the symbols are transmitted, the signal changes occur at the symbol rate which is half the bit rate. The symbol time Ts = 2 Tb 39. Derive the Bandwidth of QPSK signal. The Bandwidth of QPSK signal is one half of the Bandwidth of BPSK signal. BW = 2fb / 2 = fb Thus the advantage of multilevel modulation is reduction in required bandwidth. 40. Why QPSK is better than PSK? 1. Due to multilevel modulation used in QPSK, it is possible to increase the bit rate to double the bit rate of PSK without increasing the bandwidth. 2. The noise immunity of QPSK is same as that of PSK system. 3. Available channel bandwidth is utilized in a better way by the QPSK system than PSK system. 41. What is a 8 PSK system? If three bits are brought together to form a message or symbol, then there willl be 23 = 8 messages. A PSK system that uses eight different phase shifts to transmit 8 symbols is known as 8 PSK system. The baud rate is one third of bit rate for 8 PSK system. The messages and the corresponding phases are given in the following table: Symbol 000 Phase 0 001 45 010 090 011 135 100 180 101 225 110 270 111 315

42. What does QAM stands for? Quadrature amplitude Modulation (QAM) is a form of digital modulation where the digital information is contained in both the amplitude and phase of the transmitted carrier.

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43. What are the types of QAM? Depending on the types of bits per message follows: Name Bits per Symbol 4 QAM 2 8 QAM 3 16 QAM 4 32 QAM 5 64 QAM 6

the QAM signals are classified as Number of Symbols 4(22) 8(23) 16(24) 32(25) 64(26)

44. What is the Bandwidth of QAM? The minimum bandwidth required for QAM transmission is same as that for ASK or PSK. 45. Define Bandwidth efficiency. It is defined as the ratio of the transmission bit rate to the minimum bandwidth required for a particular modulation scheme. BW efficiency = transmission rate (bps) / minimum BW (Hz) bits/cycle. 46. Define carrier recovery & what are all the methods used for this? Carrier recovery is the process of extracting a phase coherent reference carrier from a receiver signal. This is sometimes called phase referencing. There are two carrier recovery circuits. 1. Squaring loop 2. Costas loop 47. What is meant by Probability of error & Bit Error Rate? Probability of error P (e) & Bit Error Rate (BER) are often used interchangeably, although in practice they do have slightly different meanings. P (e) is a theoretical expectation of the bit error rate for a given system. BER is an empirical record of a systems actual bit error performance. 48. What is meant by antipodal signaling? The phase relationship between signaling elements for BPSK (i.e., 180 degree out of phase) is the optimum-signaling format, referred to as antipodal signaling, and occurs only when two binary signal levels are allowed and when one signal is the exact negative of the other.

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