Drilling Engineering Fundamentals (Jorge H.B. Sampayo)

Drilling Engineering Fundamentals
Associate Professor Jorge H.B. Sampaio Jr., PhD Curtin University of Technology Department of Petroleum Engineering j.sampaio@curtin.edu.au April 3, 2007
Contents
1 Introduction 11
1.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.2 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.3 Drilling Rig Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.4 Personnel at Rig Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.5 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 21
2 Rotary Drilling System
2.1 Power System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.1.1 Energy, Work, and Efciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.2 Hoisting System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.2.1 The Derrick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 2.2.2 The Drawworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 2.2.3 The Block & Tackle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 2.2.4 Load Applied to the Derrick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 2.3 Drilling Fluid Circulation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 2.3.1 Mud Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 2.3.2 Solids Control Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 2.3.3 Treatment and Mixing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 2.4 The Rotary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 2.4.1 Swivel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 2.4.2 Kelly, Kelly Valves, and Kelly Saver Sub . . . . . . . . . . 233 2.4.3 Rotary Table and Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 2.5 Well Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 2.6 Well Monitoring System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 3 Drillstring Tubulars and Equipment i 31
3.1 Drill Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 3.1.1 Drill Pipe Elevator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.2 Drill Collars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.3 Heavy Wall Drill Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.4 Special Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.4.1 Stabilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.4.2 Reamers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.4.3 Holeopeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.5 Connections Makeup and Breakout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 3.5.1 Maximum Height of Tool Joint Shoulders . . . . . . . . . . 311 3.5.2 Makeup Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 3.6 Drill Bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 3.7 Other Drillstring Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 3.7.1 Top Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 3.7.2 Bottom Hole Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 4 Introduction to Hydraulics 41
4.1 Hydrostatic Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 4.1.1 Hydrostatic Pressure for Incompressible Fluids . . . . . . 42 4.1.2 Hydrostatic Pressure for Compressible Fluids . . . . . . . 44 4.2 Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 5 Drillstring Design 51
5.1 Length of Drill Collars Neutral Point Calculation . . . . . . . . . 51 5.2 Design for Tensile Force, Torque, Burst, and Collapse . . . . . . 56 5.2.1 Maximum Tensile Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 5.2.2 Maximum Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 5.2.3 Internal (Burst) and External (Collapse) Pressures . . . . 510 5.2.4 Drillstring Elongation 6 Drilling Hydraulics 6.1.1 Mass Conservation 6.1.2 Energy Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512 61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.1 Mass and Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.2 Flow Through Bit Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

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6.2.1 Pressure Drop Across the Bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 6.2.2 Hydraulic Power Across the Bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 6.2.3 Impact Force of the Jets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 6.3 Required Hydraulic Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 6.4 Bit Hydraulics Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611 6.4.1 Nozzle Size Selection Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613 6.4.2 Graphical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 7 Introduction to Drilling Fluids 71
7.1 Functions of Drilling Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 7.2 Types of Drilling Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 7.2.1 WaterBase Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 7.2.2 OilBase Muds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 7.2.3 Synthetic Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 7.2.4 Aerated Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 7.3 Laboratory Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 7.3.1 WaterBase Mud Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 7.3.2 Oil-Base Mud Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712 7.4 Fluid Density and Viscosity Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713 7.4.1 Density Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714 7.4.2 Density Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715 7.4.3 Initial Viscosity Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719 8 Rheology and Rheometry 81
8.1 Rheological Classication of Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 8.2 Rheometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 8.2.1 Viscosity of Newtonian Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 8.2.2 Parameters of BinghamPlastic Model Fluids . . . . . . . 85 8.2.3 Parameters of PowerLaw Model Fluids . . . . . . . . . . 85 8.2.4 Gel Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 9 Flow in Pipes and Annuli 91
9.1 Laminar Flow in Pipes and Annuli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 9.1.1 Equilibrium Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 9.1.2 Continuity Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
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9.1.3 Newtonian Flow in Pipes Poiseuilles Equation . . . . . 95 9.1.4 Newtonian Flow in Concentric Annuli Lambs Equation . 96 9.1.5 Slot Approximation for Newtonian Fluids . . . . . . . . . . 99 9.1.6 Pressure Drop Gradient for NonNewtonian Fluids . . . . 910 9.2 Turbulent Flow in Pipes and Annuli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912 9.2.1 Turbulent Flow of Newtonian Fluids in Pipes . . . . . . . . 912 9.2.2 Criterion for Laminar Transition Turbulent Flow . . . . 919 9.2.3 Other Geometries Turbulent Flow in Annuli (Newtonian) 920 9.2.4 Turbulent Flow for NonNewtonian Fluids . . . . . . . . . 922 10 Drilling Bits 101
10.1 Drill Bit Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 10.1.1 Roller Cone Bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 10.1.2 Air Drilling Bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 10.1.3 Fixed Cutter Bits (Drag Bits) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 10.2 Bit Classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015 10.2.1 PDC Bit Classication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1018 10.3 Drill Bit Selection and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020 10.3.1 Tooth Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021 10.3.2 Bearing Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021 10.3.3 Gage Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022 10.4 Factors that Affect the Rate Of Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022 10.4.1 Bit Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022 10.4.2 Formation Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022 10.4.3 Drilling Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023 10.4.4 Operating Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025 A Drill Pipe Dimensions (as in API RP7C) A1
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List of Figures
1.1 Rig Classication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.1 Typical rig components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.2 A simplied drillstring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.3 Making a connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.4 Rig crew setting the slips. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.5 Removing one stand of drillstring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.6 Typical hoisting system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.7 Stand of doubles along the mast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 2.8 Onshore rig drawworks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 2.9 Brake belts and magnication linkage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 2.10 Drawworks schematics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 2.11 Forces acting in the blocktackle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 2.12 Derrick oor plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 2.13 A swivel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 2.14 Rig circulation system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 2.15 Duplex pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 2.16 Triplex pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 2.17 Surge dampener. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 2.18 Solids control system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 2.19 Shale shaker congurations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 2.20 A twoscreen shale shaker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 2.21 A vacuum chamber degasser. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 2.22 Flow path in a hydrocyclone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 2.23 Solid control equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 2.24 Particle size classication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 2.25 Internal view of a centrifuge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 v
2.26 Mud cleaner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 2.27 Mud agitator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 2.28 Mud gun. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 2.29 Mud hopper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
2.30 Cut views of a swivel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 2.31 A square kelly and a hexagonal kelly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 2.32 A kelly valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 2.33 Kelly bushings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 2.34 Master bushings ([a] and [b]), and casing bushing (c). . . . . . . 236 2.35 Kelly bushing and master bushing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 2.36 Drillpipe slip (detail when set in the master bushing). . . . . . . . 237 2.37 DC slips, safety collar, and casing slips. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 2.38 A rotary table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 2.39 BOP stacks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 2.40 Annular BOPs (a and b) and an inside BOP (c) . . . . . . . . . . 240 2.41 BOP: (a) blind and pipe rams, (b) shear rams. . . . . . . . . . . . 241 2.42 BOP accumulators and control panels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 2.43 Choke manifold. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 2.44 Weight indicator (a) and a deadline anchor (b). . . . . . . . . . . 244 2.45 Drilling control console. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 3.1 Typical rotary drillstring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3.2 Typical tool joint designs. (A) Internal upset DP with fullhole shrinkgrip TJ, (B) External upset DP with internalush shrink grip TJ, (C) External upset DP with ashweld unitized TJ, (D) Externalinternal upset DP with Hydrillpressure welded TJ. . 33 3.3 A DP elevator and the links to the hook body. . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.4 A spiraled and a slick drill collars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.5 Spiraled DC crosssection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.6 A DC elevator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.8 Heavy wall drill pipes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.9 Some Stabilizers: (a) integral, (b) interchangeable, (c) nonrotating, (d) replaceable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.10 A roller reamer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.11 A xed holeopener. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
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3.12 Manual tongs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 3.13 Tongs in position to makeup a connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 3.14 A spinner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 3.15 Tongs position during makeup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 3.16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 3.17 An electrical top drive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 3.18 A bottom hole turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 3.19 A bottom hole PDM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 4.1 Stress state about a point in a uid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 4.2 Real gas deviation factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 4.3 Drillstring schematics for Example 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 5.1 Assumption 1 pressure contributes to buckling. . . . . . . . . . 52 5.2 Assumption 2 pressure does not contribute to buckling. . . . . 54 6.1 Mass balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 6.2 Schematic of a circulation system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 6.3 Longitudinal cut of bit nozzles. (Courtesy SPE) . . . . . . . . . . 66 6.4 Pressure drop across the bit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 6.5 Jet impact force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 6.6 Line of maximum hydraulic power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 6.7 Additional hydraulic constraints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 6.8 Ideal surface operational parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 6.9 Path of optimum hydraulics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 6.10 Frictional pressure drop lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 6.11 Graph for Example 27. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 7.1 A mud balance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 7.2 A Marsh funnel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 7.3 A rotational viscometer (rheometer). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 7.4 A API lter press. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 7.5 A HTHP lter press. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 7.6 Sand content sieve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710 7.7 Retort. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710 7.8 Methyl blue capacity test kit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
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7.9 A pH meter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 7.10 A titration kit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712 7.11 A permeameter kit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712 7.12 An aniline point kit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713 7.13 Electrical stability tester. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713 7.14 Clay performance for viscosity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721 8.1 Typical graph of Newtonian uids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 8.2 Typical graph of Bingham-plastic uids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 8.3 Typical graphs of powerlaw uids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 8.4 Arrangement of a rotational viscometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 9.1 Velocity proles of laminar ow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 9.2 Velocity prole of laminar ow in a slot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 9.3 Slot approximation of an annulus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 9.4 Fluid particle owing in a pipe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914 9.5 Stanton chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915 9.6 Selection of the correct pressure drop value. . . . . . . . . . . . 919 10.1 Typical roller cone bits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 10.2 Cut view of a roller cone bits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 10.3 Cut view of a nonsealed bearing bit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
10.4 A sealed bearing bit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 10.5 Cut view of a roller bearing cone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 10.6 Cut view of a journal bearing cone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 10.7 Geometry of bit cones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 10.8 Cone offsets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 10.9 Air drilling bits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 10.10 Steel blade drag bits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010 10.11 A diamond bit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010 10.12 Schematic and nomenclature of diamond bit. . . . . . . . . . . . 1011 10.13 PDC bits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013 10.14 Schematic and nomenclature of a PDC bit. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014 10.15 Nozzles in a PDC bit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
10.16 Back rake and side rake angles in PDC bits. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
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10.17 IADC roller cone bit classication chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016 10.18 Tooth wear diagram for milled tooth bits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021 10.19 Correlation between rock strength and threshold WOB. . . . . . 1023 10.20 Variation of ROP with different uid properties. . . . . . . . . . . 1024 10.21 Effect of differential pressure in the ROP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025 10.22 Exponential relationship between of differential pressure and ROP.1026 10.23 Effect of WOB (a) and rotary speed (b) in the ROP. . . . . . . . . 1026
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List of Tables
2.1 Heating values of fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.2 Blocktackle efciency ($\eta=0.96$). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 10.1 IADC codes for roller cone bits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017 10.2 Range for IADC bit prole. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019 10.3 Range for IADC bit hydraulic design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019 10.4 Range for IADC cutter size and density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020 A.1 New Drill Pipe Dimensional Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A2 A.2 New Drill Pipe Torsional and Tensile Data. Courtesy API . . . . . A3 A.3 New Drill Pipe Collapse and Internal Pressure Data. Courtesy APIA4 A.4 Premium Drill Pipe Torsional and Tensile Data. Courtesy API . . A5 A.5 Premium Drill Pipe Collapse and Internal Pressure Data. Courtesy API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A6
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Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
The purpose of this text is to give students an introduction to the principles and some recommended procedures practiced in drilling engineering. All chapters in general contain a theoretical introduction, examples, and exercises. References for further readings are given at the end of the text. Necessary equations and procedures to solve the exercises are presented throughout the text.
1.2
General
When a drilling project is commenced, two goals govern its aspects. The rst is to build the well according to its purpose and in a safe manner (i.e, avoiding personal injuries and avoiding technical problems). The second is to complete it with minimum cost. Thereto the overall costs of the well during its lifetime in conjunction with the eld development aspects shall be minimized. The overall cost minimization, or optimization, may inuence the location from where the well is drilled (e.g., an extended reach onshore or above reservoir offshore), the drilling technology applied (e.g., conventional or slimhole drilling, overbalanced or underbalanced, vertical or horizontal, etc), and which evaluation procedures are run to gather subsurface information to optimize future wells. On the other hand, the optimization is inuenced by logistics, environmental regulations, etc. To build a hole, different drilling technologies have been invented: Percussion drilling Cable drilling Pennsylvanian drilling Drillstring * With mud Quick percussion drilling
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Drilling Page 11
* Without mud Canadian drilling Rotating drilling Full cross-section drilling * Surface driven Rotary bit Rotary nozzle * Subsurface driven Turbine drilling Positive displacement motor drilling Electro motor drilling Annular drilling * Diamond coring * Shot drilling Special techniques Abrasive jet drilling Cavitating jet drilling Electric arc and plasma drilling Electric beam drilling Electric disintegration drilling Explosive drilling Flame jet drilling Implosion drilling Laser drilling REAM drilling Replaceable cutterhead drilling Rocket exhaust drilling Spark drilling Subterrene drilling Terra drilling Thermal-mechanical drilling Thermocorer drilling Throughout this text, rotary drilling technology is discussed exclusively.
Figure 1.1: Rig Classication.
1.3
Drilling Rig Types
The diagram in Figure 1.1 shows a general classication of rotary drilling rigs. Several pictures of the different types of rigs are presented in Figures (a) to (l) below.
(a) Jackknife rig.
(b) Portable mast.
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Drilling
Page 13
(c) A cantilever rig on a barge.
(d) A selfcontained platform.
(e) A tender assisted platform.
(f) A submersible platform.
(g) A JackUp rig
(h) Semisubmersible vessel.
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(i) A drillship
(j) A tensionleg platform.
(k) Caisson vessel (also called spar buoy).
(l) Diagram of a sparbuoy.
1.4
Personnel at Rig Site
This section describes the crew requirements and tasks of some individual crew members at the rig site. People directly involved in drilling a well are employed either by the operating company, the drilling contractor, or one of the service and supply companies. The operating company is the owner of the lease/block and principal user of the services provided by the drilling contractor and the different service companies. To drill an oil or gas well, the operating company (or simply called operator) acquires the right from the land owner under which the prospective reservoir
may exist, to drill and produce from it. Usually, when a well has to be drilled, an auction is run by the operator and various drilling contractors are invited to place their bid. Since drilling contractors are companies that perform the actual drilling of the well, their main job is to drill a hole to the depth/location and specications set by the operator. Along with hiring a drilling contractor, the operator usually employs various service and supply companies to perform logging, cementing, or any other special operations, including maintaining the drilling uid in its planed condition. Most drilling crews consist of a tool pusher, a driller, a derrickman, a mud logger, and two or three rotary helpers (also called oormen or roughnecks). Along with this basic crew conguration the operator sends usually a representative, called company man to the rig. For offshore operations the crews usually consist of many more employees. Tool Pusher: The tool pusher supervises all drilling operations and is the leading man of the drilling contractor on location. Along with this supervision duties, he has to coordinate company and contractor affairs. Two or three crews operate 24/7, and it is a responsibility of the Tool Pusher to supervise and coordinate these crews. Company Man: The company man is in direct charge of all companys activities on the rig site. He is responsible for the drilling strategy as well as the supplies and services in need. His decisions directly effect the progress of the well. Driller: The driller operates the drilling machinery on the rig oor and is the overall supervisor of all oormen. He reports directly to the tool pusher and is the person who is most closely involved in the drilling process. He operates, from his position at the control console, the rig oor brakes, switches, levers, and all other related controls that inuence the drilling parameters. In case of a kick he is the rst person to take action by moving the bit off bottom and closing the BOP. Derrick Man: The derrickman works on the socalled monkeyboard, a small platform up in the derrick, usually about 90 ft above the rotary table. When a connection is made or during tripping operations he is handling and guiding the upper end of the pipe. During drilling operations the derrickman is responsible for maintaining and repairing the pumps and other equipment as well as keeping tabs on the drilling uid. Floormen: During tripping, the rotary helpers are responsible for handling the lower end of the drill pipe as well as operating tongs and wrenches to make or break up a connection. During other times, they also maintain equipment, keep it clean, do painting and in general help where ever help is needed. Mud Engineer, Mud Logger: The service company who provides the mud almost always sends a mud engineer and a mud logger to the rig site. They
are constantly responsible for logging what is happening in the hole as well as maintaining the proper mud conditions.
1.5
Miscellaneous
According to a wells nal depth, it can be classied into: Shallow well: < 2000 m Conventional well: 2 000 m 3500 m Deep well: 3500 m 5000 m Ultra deep well: > 5 000m With the help of advanced technologies in MWD/LWD and extended reach drilling techniques, horizontal departures of more than10000 m are possible today (e.g.,Wytch Farm).
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Page 18
Chapter 2 Rotary Drilling System

The most common drilling rigs in use today are rotary drilling rigs. Their main tasks are to create rotation of the drillstring and facilities to advance and lift the drillstring, casings, and special equipment into and out of the hole drilled. The main components of a rotary drilling rig can be seen in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Typical rig components. Since the rig rate (rental cost of the rig) is one of the most inuencing cost factors to the total cost of a well, careful selection of the proper type and capacity is vital for a successful drilling project.
CHAPTER 2 Rotary Drilling Systems Page 21
For all rigs, the depth of the planned well determines basic rig requirements like hoisting capacity, power system, circulation system (mud pressure, mud stream, mud cleaning), and the pressure control system. The selection of the most costefcient rig involves both quantitative and qualitative considerations. The most important rig systems are: 1. Power system, 2. Hoisting system, 3. Drilling uid circulation system, 4. Rotary system, 5. Derrick and substructure, 6. Well control system, 7. Well monitoring system. The proper way to calculate the various requirements is discussed below. The qualitative aspects involve technical design, appropriate expertise and training of the drilling crew, contractors track record, and logistics handling. For offshore rigs, factors like water depth, expected sea, winds, and currents conditions, and location (supply time) have to be considered. It should be understood that rig rates are not only inuenced by the rig type but they are also strongly dependent on by the current market situation (oil price, drilling activity, rig availability, location, etc). Therefore, for the rig selection, basic rig requirements are determined rst. Then drilling contractors are contacted for offers of a proposed spud date (date at which drilling operation commences) and alternative spud dates. This exibility to schedule the spud date may reduce rig rates considerably. Before describe the various rig systems listed above, it is important to understand the drilling process. In rotary drilling, the rock is destroyed by the action of rotation and axial force applied to a drilling bit. The bit acts on the soil destroying the rock, whose cuttings must be removed from the bottom of the borehole in order to continue drilling. The drilling bit is located at the end of a drill string which is composed of drill pipes (also called joints or singles), drill collars, and other specialized drilling tools connected end to end by threads to the total length of the drill string, which roughly corresponds to the current depth of the borehole. Drill collars are thick walled tubes responsible for applying the axial force at the bit. Rotation at the bit is usually obtained by rotating the whole drill string from the surface. (See Figure 2.2.) The lower portion of the drill string, composed of drill collars and specialized drilling tools, are called bottom hole assembly (BHA). A large variety of bit models and designs are available in industry. The choice of the right bit,
Figure 2.2: A simplied drillstring.
based on the characteristics of the formations to be drilled, and the right parameters (weight on bit and rotary speed) are the two most basic problems the drilling engineer faces during drilling planning and drilling operation. The cuttings created by the bit action are lifted to the surface by the drilling uid, which is continuously pumped from the surface to the bottom through inside of the hollow drill string. At the bit, the drilling uid is forced through nozzles in a uid jet action which removes the cuttings from under the bit. The uid returns to the surface carrying the cuttings, through the annular space between the drill string and the borehole. The carrying capacity of the drilling uid is an important characteristics of the drilling uid. Other important characteristics are the capacity to prevent formation uids from entering in the borehole, and the capacity to maintain the stability of the borehole wall. At the surface, the cuttings are separated from the drilling uid by several solid removal equipment. The drilling uid accumulates in a series of tanks where it receives the necessary treatment. From the last tank in this series, the drilling mud is picked up by the system of pumps and pumped again down the hole. As drilling progresses, new joints are added to the top of the drill string increasing its length, in an operation called connection. The diagram in Figure 2.3 depicts the process of adding a new joint to the drill string. During the drilling of the length of the kelly, a new joint is picked from the pipe rack and stabbed into the mousehole using rig lift equipment. At the kelly down, the kelly is pulled out of the hole. A pipe slips (see gure 2.4) is used to transfer the weight of the drillstring from the hook to the master bushing. The
Figure 2.3: Making a connection.
Figure 2.4: Rig crew setting the slips. connection at the rst tool joint is broken and the kelly is swang and stabbed onto the joint in the mousehole. The new joint is stabbed on and connected to the top of the drillstring. The drillstring is picked up to remove the slips and the drillstring is lowered until the kelly bushing ts the master bushing. Then drilling is reinitiated. As the bit gets dull, a round trip is performed to bring the dull bit to the surface and replace it by a new one. A round trip is performed also to change the BHA. The drillstring is also removed to run a casing string. The operation is done by removing stands of two (doubles), three (thribbles) or even four (fourbles) joints connected, and stacking them upright in the rig. During trips, the kelly and swivel is stabbed into the rathole". The diagram in Figure 2.5 depicts the process of removing a stand of the drillstring. The process repeats until the whole drillstring is out of the hole. Then the drill string is run again into
Figure 2.5: Removing one stand of drillstring. the hole and drilling continues. The process to run the drillstring into the hole is exactly the reverse of that shown in Figure 2.5. Sometimes the drillstring is not completely run out of the hole. It is just lifted up to the top of the open-hole section and then lowered back again while continuously circulating with drilling mud. Such a trip, called wiper trip, is carried out to clean the hole from remaining cuttings that may have settled along the openhole section.
2.1
Power System
The power system of a rotary drilling rig has to supply power to items 2 to 7 in the list above. In addition, the system must provide power for pumps in general, rig light, air compressors, etc. Since the largest power consumers on a rotary drilling rig are the hoisting, the circulation system, and the rotary system, these components determine mainly the total power requirements. During typical drilling operations, the hoisting and the rotary systems are not operated at the same time. Therefore the same engines can be used to perform both functions. Drilling rig power systems are classied as direct drive type and electric type. In both cases, the sources of energy are diesel fueled engines. In the direct drive type, internal combustion engines supply mechanical power to the rig. Most rigs use one to three engines to power the drawworks and rotary table. Power is usually transmitted to the elements by gears, chains, belts, clutches, and torque converters. The engines are usually rated between 400 hp and
800 hp. The power is used primarily to turn the drill string, pump the drilling uid, and raise the drillstring. Engines also power generators that supply the electricity used on and around the rig. Usually there are two generator sets in the rig. The rig can run with one of these units but it would run close to maximum output at night. The second provides for backup and allows for other options. These engines are generally rated at 300 hp to 350 hp. Rigs may also employ one or two engines to power the drilling uid pumps. Total output varies from 300 hp to 800 hp. In the electric type, several diesel engines are used to generate electricity (DC and AC at various voltage levels) that are transmitted to the various rig systems. DC electric motors are compact and powerful, and can operate in a wide range of power and torque. There is considerable exibility of equipment placement, allowing better space utilization and weight distribution. This is extremely important in offshore rigs. As guideline, power requirements for most onshore rigs are between 1,000 to 3,000 hp. Offshore rigs in general use much more power. The performance of a rig power system is characterized by the output horsepower, torque, and fuel consumption for various engine speeds. These three parameters are related by the efciency of each system.
2.1.1
Energy, Work, and Efciency
The energy consumed by the engines comes from burning fuels. Table 2.1 presents the heating values for some types of fuels used in internal combustion engines. The engine transforms the chemical energy of the fuel into work. No engine can transform totally the chemical energy into work. Most of the energy that enters the engine is lost as heat. The thermal efciency Et of a machine is dened as the ratio of the work W generated to the chemical energy consumed Q: W Et = . Q Evidently, in order to perform this calculation, we must use the same units both to the work and to the chemical energy. Important conversion factors are: 1 BTU = 778.17 lbf /ft,
Table 2.1: Heating values of fuels. Fuel Type Heating Value Density (BTU/lbm) (lbm/gal) Diesel 19000 7.2 Gasoline 20000 6.6 Butane (liquid) 21000 4.7 Methane (gas) 24000
CHAPTER 2 Rotary Drilling Systems
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1 cal = 4.1868 Joule = 4.1868 N m, 1 BTU = 252 cal. Engines are normally rated by the power P they can deliver at a given working regime. Power if dened as the rate work is performed, that is work per unit is the rate of chemical energy consumed by the machine (chemical of time. If Q energy per unit of time), we can rewrite the expression for the thermal efciency as: P Et = . Q we need to know the type of fuel and the rate of fuel conTo calculate Q sumption in mass per unit time. (Consumption of gaseous fuels is normally given in mass per unit time, but consumption for liquid fuels is normally given in volume per unit time. In the latter, we need to know the density of the uid.) A system produces mechanical work when the sole result of the process could be the raising of a weight (most time limited by its efciency). In this case, the work W done by the system is given by W =F h, where F is the weight and h is the height. Since power is the rate the work is produced, if we take the time derivative of the work we obtain power: P = dW dh =F =F v, dt dt
where P is power, and v the velocity (assuming F constant). When a rotating machine is operating (an internal combustion engine or an electrical motor, for example), we cannot measure its power, but we can measure its rotating speed (normally in RPM) and the torque at the shaft. This is normally performed in a machine called dynamometer. The expression relating power to angular velocity and torque is: P =T , where is the angular velocity (in radians per unit of time) and T is the torque. A common unit of power is the hp (horse power). One hp is the power required to raise a weight of 33,000 lbf by one foot in one minute: 1 hp = 33, 000 lbf ft lbf ft = 550 . min s
For T in ft lbf and N in RPM we have: N [RPM] that is P [hp] =

rad/s 30 RPM
T [ft lbf]
1 hp 550 lbf ft/s
= P [hp] .
N [RPM] T [ft lbf] . 5252

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When the rig is operated at environments with nonstandard temperatures (85 F) or at high altitudes, the mechanical horsepower requirements have to be corrected. The correction should follow the American Petroleum Institute (API) standard 7B-llC:
1. Deduction of 3% of the standard brake horsepower for each 1000 ft of altitude above mean sea level. 2. Deduction of 1% of the standard brake horsepower for each 10 F rise or fall in temperature above or below 85 F.
Example 1: A diesel engine gives an output torque of 1740 ft lbf at an engine speed of 1200 RPM. If the fuel consumption rate was 31.5 gal/hr, what is the output power and the overall efciency of the engine. Solution: The power delivered at the given regime is: P = 1200 RPM 1740 ft lbf = 397.5 hp 5252
Diesel is consumed at 31.5 gal/hr. From Table 2.1 we have: = 31.5 gal 7.2 lbm 19000 BTU = 4, 309, 200 BTU/hr Q hr gal lbm Converting to hp, results in: 1 hp = 4, 309, 200 BTU 778.17 lbf ft 1 hr Q = 1693.6 hp hr BTU 3600 s 550 lbf ft/s The thermal efciency is: Et = 397.5 P = = 23.5% 1693.6 Q
2.2
Hoisting System
The hoisting system is used to raise, lower, and suspend equipment in the well (e.g., drillstring, casing, etc). The hoisting equipment itself consists of: (See Figure 2.6.) derrick (not shown),
Figure 2.6: Typical hoisting system. draw works, fast line, crown block, traveling block, dead line, deal line anchor, storage reel, hook. The drilling line (wire rope) is usually braided steel cable varying from 1 inch to 13 /4 inches in diameter. It is wound around a reel or drum in the drawworks. Power (torque and rotation) is transmitted to the drawworks, allowing the drilling line in or out. The hoisting systems is composed by the derrick, the drawworks, and the block-tackle system.
Figure 2.7: Stand of doubles along the mast.
2.2.1
The Derrick
The derrick or mast is a steel tower.1 The purpose of the derrick is to provide height to raise and lower the drillstring (and also casing) out and into the borehole. Derricks are rated by the API according to their height and their ability to withstand wind and compressive loads. API has published standards for the particular specications. The higher the derrick is, the longer stands it can handle, which in turn reduces the tripping time. Derricks are designed to handle two, three, or four joints. The derrick stands above the derrick oor. The derrick oor is the stage where several surface drilling operations occur. At the derrick oor are located the drawworks, the drillers console, the drillers house (or doghouse), the rotary table, the drilling uid manifold, and several other tools to operate the drillstring. The space below the derrick oor is the substructure. The height of the substructure should be enough to accommodate the well control equipment. (See Figure 2.1.) At about 3 /4 of the height of the derrick is located a platform called monkey board. This platform is used to operate the drillstring stands during trip operations. During drillstring trips, the stands are kept stood in in the mast, held by ngers in the derrick rack near the monkey board, as shown in Figure 2.7.
If the tower is jacked up, it is called mast. If the tower is erected on the site, it is called derrick.
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Figure 2.8: Onshore rig drawworks.
Figure 2.9: Brake belts and magnication linkage.
2.2.2
The Drawworks
The drawworks provides hoisting and braking power required to handle the heavy equipments in the borehole. It is is composed of a wire rope drum, mechanical and hydraulic brakes, the transmission, and the cathead (small winches operated by hand or remotely to provide hoisting and pulling power to operate small loads and tools in the derrick area). Figure 2.8 shows a typical onshore rig drawworks. The reelingin of the drilling line is powered by an electric motor or Diesel engine, and the reelingout is powered by gravity. To control the reeling out, mechanical brakes and auxiliary hydraulic or magnetic brakes are used, which dissipates the energy required to reduce the speed and/or stop the downward movement of the suspended equipment. (See Figure 2.9.)
Figure 2.10: Drawworks schematics. The drawworks take power from Diesel engines or electrical motors, and an assembly of gears and clutches reduces the rotary speed to power the drum and the various catheads. A schematic of the internal mechanisms of a drawworks is shown in Figure 2.10. As shown in the schematics, the drum surface has a helical groove to accommodate the drilling line without causing excessive stress and stain. This also helps the drilling line to lay neatly when reeled in.
2.2.3
The Block & Tackle
The drawworks, although very powerful, cannot provide the pull required to raise the heavy drillstring. The required pull is obtained with a system of pulleys. The drilling line coming from the drawworks, called fast line, goes over a pulley system mounted at the top of the derrick, called the crown block, and down to another pulley system called the traveling block. The assembly of crown block, traveling block and drilling line is called block-tackle. The number of lines n of a tackle is twice the number of (active) pulleys in the traveling block. The last line of the tackle is called dead line and is anchored to the derrick oor, close to one of its legs. Below and connected to the traveling block is a hook to which drilling equipment can be hung. As the drilling line is reeled in or out of the drawworks, the traveling block rises and lowers along the derrick. This raises and lowers the equipment in the well. The block-tackle system provides a mechanical advantage to the drawworks, and reduces the total load applied to the derrick. We will be interested in calculating the fast line force Ff (provided by the drawworks) required to raise a weight W in the hook, and the total load
Figure 2.11: Forces acting in the blocktackle. applied to the rig and its distribution on the derrick oor.
2.2.3.1
Mechanical advantage and Efciency
The mechanical advantage AM of the blocktackle is dened as the ratio of the load W in the hook to the tensile force on the fast line Ff : AM = W . Ff
For an ideal, frictionless system, the tension in the drilling line is the same throughout the system, so that W = n Ff . (See Figure 2.11.) Therefore, the ideal mechanical advantage is equal to the number of lines strung through the traveling block: (AM )ideal = n . In a real pulley, however, the tensile forces in the cable or rope in a pulley are not identical. If Fi and Fo are the input and output tensile forces of the rope in the pulley, the efciency of a real pulley is given by the following ratio: = Fo . Fi
We will assume that all pulleys in the hoisting system have the same efciency, and we want to calculate the mechanical advantage of a real pulley system. If Ff is the force in the fast line, the force F1 in the line over the rst pulley (in the crown block) is given by F1 = Ff .
The force in the line over the second pulley (in the traveling block) is F2 = F1 = 2 Ff . Using the same reasoning over and over, the force in the ith line is Fi = i Ff . The total load W acting in the hook is equal to the sum of the forces in each line of the traveling block. This means that the load W is given by W = F1 + F2 + + Fn = ( + 2 + + n )Ff . It can be easily shown that the expression between parenthesis can be written as n+1 . 1 Therefore we have: n+1 W = Ff . 1 Consequently, the real mechanical advantage is given by: AM = n+1 W = . Ff 1
The overall efciency E of the system of pulleys is dened as the ratio of the real mechanical advantage to the ideal mechanical advantage: E= n+1 AM = . (AM )ideal n(1 ) (2.1)
If the efciency of the pulleys is known, Blocktackle overall efciency E can be calculated using Expression 2.1. A typical value for the efciency of ballbearing pulleys is = 0.96. Table 2.2 shows the calculated and industry average overall efciency for the usual number of lines. Table 2.2: Blocktackle efciency ($\eta=0.96$). n E Eave 6 0.869 0.874 8 0.836 0.841 10 0.804 0.810 12 0.775 0.770 16 0.746 0.740 Therefore, if E is known, the fast line force Ff required to rise a load W is given by W Ff = (2.2) nE
2.2.3.2
Hook Power
For an ideal blocktackle system, the input power (provided by the drawworks) is equal to the output or hook power (available to move the borehole equipments). In this case, the power delivered by the drawworks is equal to the force in the fast line Ff times the velocity of the fast line vf , and the power developed at the hook is equal to the force in the hook W times the velocity of the traveling block vb . That is Pd = Ff vf = W vb = Ph . Since for the ideal case n Ff = W , we have that vb = vf , n
that is, the velocity of the block is n times slower than the velocity of the fast line, and this is valid also for the real case. Considering the Equation (2.2) Ff = 2.2 which represents the real relationship between the force in the fast line and the weight in the hook, and multiplying both sides by vf we obtain: Ff vf = Pd = W vf W vb Ph = = , nE E E W nE (2.3)
Ph , E which represents the real relationship between the power delivered by the drawworks and the power available in the hook, where E is the overall efciency of the blocktackle system. Pd =
Example 2: A rig must hoist a load of 300,000 lbf. The drawworks can provide a maximum input power to the blocktackle system of as 500 hp. Eight lines are strung between the crown block and traveling block. Calculate (1) the tension in the fast line when upward motion is impending, (2) the maximum hook horsepower, (3) the maximum hoisting speed. Solution: Using E = 0.841 (average efciency for n = 8) we have: (1) (2)
Ff =
300, 000 lbf W = nE 8 0.841
Ff = 44, 590 lbf
Pd = 500 hp =
Ph Ph = Ph = 421 hp E 0.841
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(3)
Ph = 421 hp vb =
550 lbf ft/s 1 hp
= 231, 550 lbf ft/s = W vb = 300, 000 lbf vb
231, 550 lbf ft/s vb = 0.772 ft/s = 46.3 ft/min 300, 000 lbf
2.2.4
Load Applied to the Derrick
The total load applied to the derrick, FD is equal to the load in the hook plus the force acting in the dead line plus the force acting in the fast line: FD = W + Ff + Fd . The worst scenario for the force in the fast line is that for the real case. From Section 2.2.3.1 the force in the fast line is: Ff = 2.2 For the dead line, however, the worst scenario (largest force) is that of ideal case. In this case, the force in the dead line is: Fd = W . n W nE (2.4)
Therefore, the total load applied to the derrick is: FD = W + W W (n + 1)E + 1 + = W . nE n nE
The total load FD , however, is not evenly distributed over all legs of the derrick. In a conventional derrick, the drawworks is usually located between two of the legs of the derrick. (See Figure 2.12.) The dead line, however must be anchored close to one of the remaining two legs.2 From this conguration the load in each leg is: Leg A : W n+4 W + = W , 4 n 4n Leg B :
W , 4 W W nE + 2 + = W . Legs C and D : 4 2nE 4nE

The side of the derrick opposite to the drawworks is called Vgate. This area must be kept free to allow pipe handling. Therefore, the dead line cannot be anchored between legs A and B.
2
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Figure 2.12: Derrick oor plan. Evidently, the less loaded leg is leg B. We can determine under which conditions the load in leg A is greater then the load in legs C and D: n+4 nE + 2 W > W 4n 4nE E > 0.5 .
Since the efciency E is usually greater than 0.5, leg A will be the most loaded leg, and very likely it will be the rst to fail in the event of an excessive load is applied to the hook. If a derrick is designed to support a maximum nominal load Lmax , each leg can support Lmax . Therefore, the maximum hook 4 load that the derrick can support for a given line arrangement is Lmax n+4 = Wmax 4 4n Wmax = n Lmax . n+4
The equivalent derrick load, FDE , is dened as four times the load in the most loaded leg. For the derrick conguration above, the equivalent derrick load is n+4 FDE = W . n The equivalent derrick load (which depends on the number of lines) must be less than the nominal capacity of the derrick. The derrick efciency factor, ED is dened as the ratio of the total load applied to the derrick to the equivalent derrick load: FD ED = = FDE
(n+1)E +1 W nE n+4 W n
(n + 1)E + 1 . (n + 4)E
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Example 3: For the data of Example 2, calculate (1) the actual derrick load, (2) the equivalent derrick load, and (3) the derrick efcient factor. Solution: (1) The actual derrick load is given by FD = (n + 1)E + 1 (8 + 1) 0.841 + 1 W = 300, 000 = 382, 000 lbf nE 8 0.841
(2) The equivalent derrick load is given by FDE = n+4 8+4 W = 300, 000 = 450, 000 lbf n 8
(3) The derrick efciency factor is ED = 382, 000 FD = = 85% FDE 450, 000
2.3
Drilling Fluid Circulation System
The drilling uid plays several functions in the drilling process. The most important are: 1. clean the rock fragments from beneath the bit and carry them to surface, 2. exert sufcient hydrostatic pressure against the formation to prevent formation uids from owing into the well, 3. maintain stability of the borehole walls, 4. cool and lubricate the drillstring and bit. Drilling uid is forced to circulate in the hole at various pressures and ow rates. Drilling uid is stored in steel tanks located beside the rig. Powerful pumps force the drilling uid through surface high pressure connections to a set of valves called pump manifold, located at the derrick oor. From the manifold, the uid goes up the rig within a pipe called standpipe to approximately 1/3 of the height of the mast. From there the drilling uid ows through a exible high pressure hose to the top of the drillstring. The exible hose allows the uid to ow continuously as the drillstring moves up and down during normal drilling operations. The uid enters in the drillstring through a special piece of equipment called swivel (Figure 2.13) located at the top of the kelly. The swivel permits rotating the drillstring while the uid is pumped through the drillstring.3 The drilling uid
3
See Section 2.4.1 for details.
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Figure 2.13: A swivel. then ows down the rotating drillstring and jets out through nozzles in the drill bit at the bottom of the hole. The drilling uid picks the rock cuttings generated by the drill bit action on the formation. The drilling uid then ows up the borehole through the annular space between the rotating drillstring and borehole wall. At the top of the well (and above the tank level, the drilling uid ows through the ow line to a series of screens called the shale shaker. The shale shaker is designed to separate the cuttings from the drilling mud. Other devices are also used to clean the drilling uid before it ows back into the drilling uid pits. Figure 2.14 depicts the process described above. The principal components of the mud circulation system are: 1. pits or tanks, 2. pumps, 3. ow line, 4. solids and contaminants removal equipment, 5. treatment and mixing equipment, 6. surface piping and valves, 7. the drillstring. The tanks (3 or 4 settling tank, mixing tank(s), suction tank) are made of steel sheet. They contain a safe excess (neither to big nor to small) of the
Figure 2.14: Rig circulation system. total volume of the borehole. In the case of loss of circulation, this excess will provide the well with drilling uid while the corrective measures are taken. The number of active tanks depends on the current depth of the hole (bypasses allow to isolate one or more tanks.) The tanks will allow enough retaining time so that much of the solids brought from the hole can be removed from the uid.
2.3.1
Mud Pumps
The great majority of the pumps used in drilling operations are reciprocating positive displacement pumps (PDP). Advantages of the reciprocating PDP when compared to centrifugal pumps are: ability to pump uids with high abrasive solids contents and with large solid particles, easy to operate and maintain, sturdy and reliable, ability to operate in a wide range of pressure and ow rate.
Centrifugal pumps are very sensitive to abrasive solid contents mud, and do not offer a wide range of operation compared to PDP. PDP are composed of two major parts, namely: Power end: receives power from engines and transform the rotating movement into reciprocating movement. Fluid end: converts the reciprocating power into pressure and ow rate. The efciency Em of the power end, that is the efciency with which rotating mechanical power is transformed in reciprocating mechanical power is of the order of 90%. The efciency Ev of the uid end (also called volumetric efciency), that is, the efciency that the reciprocating mechanical power is transformed into hydraulic power, can be as high as 100%. Rigs normally have two or three PDPs. During drilling of shallow portions of the hole, when the diameter is large, the two PDPs are connected in parallel to provide the highest ow rate necessary to clean the borehole. As the borehole deepens, less ow rate and higher pressure are required. In this case, normally only one PDP is used while the other is in standby or in preventive maintenance. The great exibility in the pressure and ow rate is obtained with the possibility of changing the diameters of the pair pistonliner. The ow rate depends on the following parameters: stroke length LS (normally xed), liner diameter dL , rod diameter dR (for duplex PDP only), pump speed N (normally given in strokes/minute), volumetric efciency EV of the pump. In addition, the pump factor Fp is dened as the total volume displaced by the pump in one stroke. There are two types of PDP: double-action duplex pump, and single-action triplex pump. Triplex PDPs, due to several advantages, (less bulky, less pressure uctuation, cheaper to buy and to maintain, etc,) has taking place of the duplex PDPs in both onshore and offshore rigs.
2.3.1.1
Duplex PDP
The duplex mud pump consists of two doubleaction cylinders (see Figure 2.16a). This means that drilling mud is pumped with the forward and backward movement of the barrel.
(a) Piston scheme (double action).
(b) A duplex unit.
Figure 2.15: Duplex pumps.
(a) Piston scheme (single action).
(b) A Triplex unit.
Figure 2.16: Triplex pumps. For a duplex pump (2 doubleaction cylinders) the pump factor is given by: 2 Fp = 2d2 L dR LS EV . 2 A typical duplex pump is shown in Figure 2.16-b. 2.3.1.2 Triplex PDP
The triplex mud pump consists of three singleaction cylinders (see Figure ??a). This means that drilling mud is pumped only in the forward movement of the barrel. For a triplex pump the pump factor is given by: Fp = 3 2 d LS EV . 4 L
A typical triplex pump is shown in Figure ??-b. 2.3.1.3 Pump Flow Rate
For both types of PDP, the ow rate is calculated from: q = N Fp .

For N in strokes per minute (spm), dL , dR , and LS in inches, Fp in in3 , and q in gallons per minute (gpm) we have: q= 1 N Fp . 231
Note that in this particular formulation, the volumetric efciency of the pump is included in the pump factor. 2.3.1.4 Pump Power
Pumps convert mechanical power into hydraulic power. From the denition of power we can write: P = F v. In its motion, the piston exerts a force on the uid that is equal to the pressure differential in the piston p times the area A of the piston, and the velocity v is equal to the ow rate q divided by the area A, that is PH = (p A) q = p q . A (2.5)
For PH in hp, p in psi, and q in gpm we have: PH = p q . 1714.29 (2.6)
Example 4: Compute the pump factor in gallons per stroke and in barrels per stroke for a triplex pump having 5.5 in liners and 16 in stroke length, with a volumetric efciency of 90%. At N = 76spm, the pressure differential between the input and the output of the pump is 2400 psi. Calculate the hydraulic power transferred to the uid, and the required mechanical power of the pump if Em is 78%. Solution: The pump factor (triplex pump) in in3 per stroke is: Fp = 3 5.52 16 90% = 1026 in3 4
Converting to gallons per stroke and to barrels per stroke gives: Fp = 1026 1 1 = 4.44gps = 4.44 = 0.1058bps 231 42
The ow rate at N = 76spm is: q = N Fp = 78spm 4.44gps = 337.44gpm

The hydraulic power transferred to the uid is: PH = 2400psi 334.44gpm = 468hp 1714.29
To calculate the mechanical power required by the pump we must consider the efciencies: 1 1 P = 468hp = 667hp 90% 78%
2.3.1.5
Surge Dampeners
Due to the reciprocating action of the PDPs, the output ow rate of the pump presents a pulsation (caused by the changing speed of the pistons as they move along the liners). This pulsation is detrimental to the surface and downhole equipment (particularly with MWD pulse telemetry system). To decrease the pulsation, surge dampeners are used at the output of each pump. A exible diaphragm creates a chamber lled with nitrogen at high pressure. The uctuation of pressure is compensated by a change in the volume of the chamber. The schematic of a typical surge dampener is shown in Figure 2.17. A relief valve located in the pump discharge line prevents line rupture in case the pump is started against a closed valve.
Figure 2.17: Surge dampener.
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2.3.2
Solids Control Equipment
The purpose of the solids control equipment is to reduce to a minimum the amount of inert solids and gases in the drilling uid. They are: 1. Shale shakers, 2. Degassers, 3. Desanders (hydrocyclones), 4. Desilters (hydrocyclones), 5. Centrifuges, 6. Mud cleaners. Figure 2.18 shows a sketch of a typical solids control system (for unweighted uid). Fine particles of inactive solids are continuously added to the uid during drilling. These solids increase the density of the uid and also the friction pressure drop, but do not contribute to the carrying capacity of the uid. The amount of inert solids must be kept as low as possible.
Figure 2.18: Solids control system.
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Figure 2.19: Shale shaker congurations.
Figure 2.20: A twoscreen shale shaker. 2.3.2.1 Shale Shakers
The shale shaker removes the coarse solids (cuttings) generated during drilling. It is located at the end of the ow line. It constitutes of one or more vibrating screens in the range of 10 to 150 mesh over which the mud passes before it is fed to the mud pits. (See Figure 2.19.) The screens are vibrated by eccentric heavy cylinders connected to electric motors. The vibration promotes an efcient separation without loss of uid. Figure 2.20 shows a typical twoscreen shale shaker. 2.3.2.2 Degassers
Gases that might enter the uid must also be removed. Even when the uid is overbalanced, the gas contained in the rock cut by the bit will enter the uid and must be removed. The degasser removes gas from the gas cut uid by creating a vacuum in a vacuum chamber. The uid ows down an inclined at surface as a thin layer. The vacuum enlarges and coalesce the bubbles. Degassed
Figure 2.21: A vacuum chamber degasser.
uid is draw from chamber by a uid jet located at the discharge line. A typical degasser diagram is shown in Figure 2.21.
2.3.2.3
Hydrocyclones (Desanders and Desilters)
Hydrocyclones are simple devices with no internal moving parts. The drilling uid enters the device through a tangential opening in the cylindrical section, impelled by a centrifugal pump. The centrifugal force generated by the whirling motion pushes the solid particles towards the internal wall of the inverted cone. As the whirling ux moves downwards the rotating speed increased and the diameters decreases. The uid free of solid particles is squeezed out of the ow and swirls upwards in a vortex motion, leaving the hydrocyclone from the upper exit. The solids leave the hydrocyclone from the apex of the cone (underow). For maximum efciency, the discharge from the apex exit of hydrocyclone should be in a spray in the shape of a hollow cone rather than a rope shape. Figure 2.22 shows the uid/solids paths in a hydrocyclone. Hydrocyclones are classied according to the size of the particles removed as desanders (cut point in the 4045m size range) or desilters (cut point in the 1020m size range). At the cut point of a hydrocyclone 50% of the particles of that size is discarded. The desander is a set of two or three 8in or 10in hydrocyclones, and are positioned after the shale shaker and the degasser (if used). The desilter is a set of eight to twelve 4in or 5in hydrocyclones. It removes particles that can not be removed by the desander. Figures 2.23 shows a desander (a), and a desilter (b). Note the size and number of hydrocyclones in each case. A typical drilling solid particle distribution and particle size range classication are shown in the diagram in Figure 2.24.
Figure 2.22: Flow path in a hydrocyclone.
(a) Desander.
(b) Desilter.
Figure 2.23: Solid control equipment.
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Figure 2.24: Particle size classication. 2.3.2.4 Centrifuges
The centrifuge is a solids control equipment which separates particles even smaller, which can not be removed by the hydrocyclones. It consists of a rotating coneshape drum, with a screw conveyor. (See Figure 2.25.) Drilling uid is fed through the hollow conveyor. The drum rotates at a high speed and creates a centrifugal force that causes the heavier solids to decant. The screw rotates in the same direction of the drum but at a slight slower speed, pushing the solids toward the discharge line. The colloidal suspension exits the drum through the overow ports. The drums are enclosed in an external, nonrotating casing not shown in the gure.
2.3.2.5
Mud Cleaners
Inert solids in weighted uid (drilling uid with weight material like barite, iron oxide, etc) can not be treated with hydrocyclones alone because the particle sizes of the weighting material are within the operational range of desanders and desilters. 4 This is shown in the diagram in Figure 2.24, which includes the particle size distribution of typical industrial barite used in drilling uids. A mud cleaner is a desilter unit in which the underow is further processed by a ne vibrating screen, mounted directly under the cones. The mud cleaner separates the low density inert solids (undesirable) from the high density weight4
Weighting material are relatively expensive additives, which must be saved.
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Figure 2.25: Internal view of a centrifuge. ing particles. (See Figure 2.26-a.) Hydrocyclones discriminate light particles from heavy particles. Bentonite are lighter than formation solids because they are of colloidal size (although of the same density). Barite particles are smaller than formation solids because they are denser. The desilter removes the barite and the formation solids particles in the underow, leaving only a clean mud with bentonite particles in a colloidal suspension in the overow. The thick slurry in the underow goes to the ne screen, which separate the large (low density) particles (formation solids) from the small (high density) barite particles, thus conserving weighting agent and the liquid phase but at the same time returning many ne solids to the active system. The thick barite rich slurry is treated with dilution and mixed with the clean mud (colloidal bentonite). The resulting mud is treated to the right density and viscosity and recirculates in the hole. A diagram of a mud cleaner is shown in Figure 2.26-b. Mud cleaners are used mainly with oil and syntheticbase uids where the liquid discharge from the cone cannot be discharged, either for environmental or economic reasons. It may also be used with weighted waterbase uids to conserve barite and the liquid phase.
2.3.3
Treatment and Mixing Equipment
Drilling uid is usually a suspension of clay (sodium bentonite) in water. Higher density uids can be obtained by adding nely granulated (ne sand to silt size see Figure 2.24) barite (BaSO4). Various chemicals or additives are also used in different situations. The drilling uid continuous phase is usually water (freshwater or brine) called waterbase uids. When the continuous phase is oil (emulsion of water in oil) it is called oilbase uid. The basic drilling uids
(a) Unit of a mud cleaner
(b) Principle of the mud cleaner.
Figure 2.26: Mud cleaner.
(a)
Figure 2.27: Mud agitator. physical properties are density, viscosity, and ltrate. Fresh water density is 8.37 pounds per gallon (ppg). Bentonite adds viscosity to the uids and also increases the density to about 9 to 10 ppg. Higher density (15 to 20 ppg) is obtained with barite, iron oxide, or any other dense ne ground material. Water base uids are normally made at the rig site (oil base mud and synthetic uids are normally manufactured in a drilling uid plant). Special treatment and mixing equipment exists for this purpose. Tank agitators, mud guns, mixing hoppers, and other equipment are used for these purposes. Tank agitators or blenders (Figure 2.27-a) are located in the mud tanks to homogenize the uid in the tank. They help to keep the various suspended material homogeneously distributed in the tank by forcing toroidal and whirl motions of the uid in the tank. (See Figure 2.27-b.) Mud guns are mounted in gimbals at the side of the tanks, which allow aimCHAPTER 2 Rotary Drilling Systems Page 231
Figure 2.28: Mud gun.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.29: Mud hopper.
ing a mud jet to any point in the tank. They help to homogenize the properties of two tanks, and spread liquid additives in a large area of the tank (from a pre-mixed tank). (See Figure 2.28.) Centrifugal pumps power the mud guns. The mixing hopper (see Figure 2.29) allows adding powder substances and additives in the mud system. The hopper is connected to a Venturi pipe. Mud is circulated by centrifugal pumps and passes in the Venturi at high speed, sucking the substance into the system.
2.4
The Rotary System
The rotary system is the set of equipments necessary to promote the rotation of the bit. The bit must be mechanically and hydraulically connected to the rig. This connection is made by the drillstring. The purpose of the drillstring is to transmit axial force, torque, and drilling uid (hydraulic power) to the bit. The basic drillstring is composed of the following components: Swivel, Kelly and accessories, Rotary table and components, Drillstring tubulars (drill pipe, drill collars, etc.), Drill bit. Several other components and equipment can be connected to the drillstring to perform several tasks and to lend to the drillstring special features.
2.4.1
Swivel
The swivel is suspended by the hook of the traveling block and allows the drillstring to rotate as drilling uid is pumped to within the drillstring. Without the swivel, drilling uid could not be pumped downhole, or the drillstring could not rotate. The swivel also supports the axial load of the drillstring. See Figure 2.30 for cuts of a swivel showing the internal parts. A exible hose connects to the gooseneck which is hydraulically coupled to the top of the swivel stem by a stufng box. The stem shoulder rest on a large thrust tapered roller bearing, which transmits the drillstring weight to the swivel body, and then to the bail. The thread connector of the swivel is cut lefthand so that it will not tend to disconnect when the drillstring is rotated by the kelly or by the top drive.
2.4.2
Kelly, Kelly Valves, and Kelly Saver Sub
Below and connected to the swivel is a long four-sided (square) or six-sided (hexagon) steel bar with a hole drilled through the middle for a uid path called kelly. The purpose of the kelly is to transmit rotary motion and torque to the drillstring (and consequently to the drill bit), while allowing the drillstring to be lowered or raised during rotation. The square or hexagonal section of the kelly allows it to be gripped and turned by the kelly bushing and rotary table (see Section 2.4.3). The kelly bushing has an inside prole matching the kellys outside prole (either square or hexagonal), but with slightly larger dimensions
(a) Lateral cut.
(b) Front cut.
Figure 2.30: Cut views of a swivel. so that the kelly can freely move up and down inside it. The overall length of the kelly varies from 40 ft to 54 ft. It is common (and advisable) to include two special valves at both ends of the kelly, called kelly valves. (The upper kelly valve has lefthand threads.) The kelly valve consists of a ball valve which allows free passage of drilling uids without pressure loss. This is a safety device that can be closed to prevent ow from inside the drillstring during critical operations like kick control. It also isolates the drillstring from the surface equipment and allows disconnecting the kelly during critical operations. A kelly saver sub is simply a short length pipe with has male threads on one end and female on the other. It is screwed onto the bottom of the lower kelly valve or topdrive and onto the rest of the drillstring. When the hole must be deepened, and pipe added to the drillstring, the threads are unscrewed between the kelly saver sub and the rest of the drillstring, as opposed to between the kelly valve or topdrive and the saver sub. This means that the connection between the kelly or topdrive and the saver sub rarely is used, and suffers minimal wear and tear, whereas the lower connection is used in almost all cases and suffers the most wear and tear. The saver sub is expendable and does not represent a major investment. However, the kelly or topdrive component threads are spared by use of a saver sub, and those components represent a signicant capital cost and considerable downtime when replaced. It is important that both lower kelly valve and kelly saver sub be of the same diameter of
Figure 2.31: A square kelly and a hexagonal kelly.
Figure 2.32: A kelly valve.
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the drill pipe tool-joints to allow stripping into the hole during control operations.
2.4.3
Rotary Table and Components
Torque and is transmitted to the kelly by the kelly bushing. The kelly bushing has an inside prole matching the kellys outside prole (either square or hexagonal), but with slightly larger dimensions so that the kelly can freely move up and down inside it (see Figure 2.33).
Figure 2.33: Kelly bushings.
Figure 2.34: Master bushings ([a] and [b]), and casing bushing (c). The kelly bushing ts in the master bushing, which, in turn, attach to the rotary table. It connects to the master bushing either by pins of by a squared
Figure 2.35: Kelly bushing and master bushing. link. A master casing bushing is used to handle casings. Figure 2.34 shows two master bushing and one master casing bushing. The master bushing transmit torque and rotation from the rotary table to the kelly bushing. Figure 2.35 shows a kelly bushing, master bushing, and rotary table assembly. The master bushing (and also the master casing bushing) has a tapered internal hole as shown in the schematics in Figure 2.36-a. The purpose of the tapered hole is to receive the pipe slips (see Figure 2.36-b). During pipe connection or drillstring trip operations, this tapered hole receives either the drill pipe slips, or the drill collar slips, or the casing slips, which grips the tubular and frees the hook from its weight. Because of the slick shape of most drill collars, a safety clamp is always
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.36: Drillpipe slip (detail when set in the master bushing).
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 2.37: DC slips, safety collar, and casing slips.
Figure 2.38: A rotary table. used above the drill collar slips (mandatory!) If the drill collars slides in the slips, the safety clamp works as a stop to force the slips to grip the drill collar. A drill collar slips, a safety collar, and a casing slips are shown in Figure 2.37. The rotary table (Figure 2.38) receives power from the power system (either mechanical or electric.) A gearbox allows several combinations of torque and speed.
2.5
Well Control System
The functions of the well control system are to detect, stop, and remove any undesired entrance of formation uids into the borehole. An undesired entrance of formation uid into the borehole is called kick and may occur due to several
(a) A xed rig BOP.
(b) A oating rig BOP.
Figure 2.39: BOP stacks. reasons (high pressure formations, insufcient drilling uid density, drillstring swab, loss of circulation, formation fracture, etc). If the undesired entrance of uid feedbacks and the uid continuously enters the borehole reaching the surface, it is called blowout. Blowouts (in particular gas blowouts) are extremely dangerous and put the crew, the rig, the drilling operation, and the reservoir at risk. The well control system must detect, control, and remove the undesired entrance of uids into the borehole. The system is composed of sensors (ow rate, surface volume, annular and drillstring pressure etc,) capable to detect an increase of ow or volume in the uid system, the blowout preventer (BOP), the circulating pressure control manifold (choke manifold), and the kill and choke lines. The BOP is a set of packoffs capable of shutting the annular space between the surface casing and the drillstring. Because of the diversity in shape of the annular, several different device types exist and they are normally assembled together (and in various congurations) called BOP stack (see Figure 2.39. The BOP stack is located under the rotary table in land and xed marine rigs, and on the bottom of the sea in mobile and oating rigs. The various types of BOP devices are: Annular BOP: The purpose of the annular BOP is to shut the annular in front of any kind of drillstring equipment (except stabilizers) or even without drillstring. The active element is an elastomeric ribbed donut that is squeezed around the drillstring by an hydraulic ram (see Figure 2.40-a and -b). It is located at the top of the BOP stack. Controlling the pressure applied to the ram, it is possible to strip the drillstring in and out while keeping the
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 2.40: Annular BOPs (a and b) and an inside BOP (c) annular closed (requires the use of an inside-BOP, shown in Figure 2.40c, which should be connected immediately to the drillstring when a kick is identied). The inside bop acts as a check valve, allowing uid be pumped down the drillstring, but blocking back ow.
Blind ram: The blind rams (normally one at the top of all other rams) allows shutting the borehole with no drillstring element in front of it. (See Figure 2.41-a, upper ram.) If the blind ram is applied to a drillpipe, the pipe will but no seal is obtained. Pipe rams: The pipe rams allows shutting the annular in front a compatible drill pipe (not in front of tool joints.) Normally two rams are used (a special
spool between the two is used where the kill and choke line is connected. (See Figure 2.41-a, lower ram.) The use of two pipe rams also permit to snub the drillstring during the well control operation. Shear rams: The shear ram (normally one below the blind ram or below all other rams) can shear a drill pipe and provide seal. (See Figure 2.41b.) This is a last resource when all other rams and annular had failed. Circulation through the drillstring is lost and, if the shear ram is the lower one, the drillstring falls into the borehole.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.41: BOP: (a) blind and pipe rams, (b) shear rams. All these safety devices are hydraulically actuated by a pneumatichydraulic system (actuators and accumulators), which can operate completely independent of the power system of the rig. Two control panels are normally used, one at the rig oor, and a remote one away from the risky area. The accumulators are steel bottles lined with a elastomeric bladers forming two separated compartments. One compartment is lled with oil, which powers the BOP. The other compartment is lled with air or nitrogen at high pressure. The pressure of the gas pressurizes the oil across the elastomeric liner. Rig power, during ordinary operation, keeps the gas in the accumulators under pressure. The accumulators should be able to provide hydraulic power to close and open all elements of the BOP stack a number of times without external power. Choke Manifold During a kick control operation, some of the BOP stack devices are actuated to close the annulus and divert the the returning uid to the choke line. The choke line directs the returning uid to a manifold of valves and chokes called choke manifold, which allows to control the ow pressure at the top of the annular adjusting the ow area open to ow. The choke manifold also direct the ow to a are (in case of a gas kick), or to the pits (if mud) or to special tanks (if oil).
Figure 2.42: BOP accumulators and control panels.
Figure 2.43: Choke manifold.
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2.6
Well Monitoring System
Several sensors, gauges, meters, indicators, alarms, and recorders exist in the rig to provide all data required to control (safely, efciently, and reliably) of all operations under way in the rig. Among the most important parameters are: weight on bit (WOB) and hook load, rate of penetration (ROP), rotary speed, torque, circulating (pump) pressure, ow rate (in and out), drilling uid gain/loss, mud temperature, mud density, total hydrocarbon gas in the drilling uid. Accurate and reliable indication of hook load and weight on bit are essential for the efcient control of rate of penetration, bit life, borehole cleaning, and borehole direction. The weight indicator works in conjunction with the deadline anchor using either tension or compression hydraulic load cells. The deadline anchor senses the tension in the deadline and hydraulically actuates the weight indicator. Most weight indicators have two hands and two scales. The inner scale shows the hook load and the outer one shows the weight-onbit. To obtain the weightonbit, the driller perform the following steps: with the bit out of the bottom, the drillstring is put to rotate and the weight of the drillstring is observed in the central scale; using the knob at the rim of the weight indicator, the outer scale is adjusted so that the zero of the outer scale aligns with the longer hand. The driller lowers the drillstring slowly observing the long hand. When the bit touches the bottom, part of the weight of the drillstring is transferred from the hook to the bit (the weightonbit.) The amount of weight transferred corresponds to the decrease of hook load, indicated by the long pointer (turning counterclockwise). All modern rigs have control consoles that shows all pertinent parameters in analog and or digital displays. All parameters and operations may be recorded in physical (paper) or magnetic media for post analysis. Some automated operations like constant weightonbit and constant torque are possible in most rigs.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.44: Weight indicator (a) and a deadline anchor (b).
Figure 2.45: Drilling control console.
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Chapter 3 Drillstring Tubulars and Equipment

The purpose of the drillstring is to transmit mechanical power (torque and rotation), hydraulic power (pressure and ow rate), and weight to the bit. The drillstring is composed mainly of the following elements: Drill pipes, Heavy wall drill pipes, Drill collars, Several special elements and tools. Figure 3.1 shows an schematic of a typical rotary drillstring.
3.1
Drill Pipes
Below the kelly assembly (upper kelly valve + kelly +lower kelly valve + kelly saver sub) is a length of drill pipes (DP). Drill Pipe is a primary and important drillstring member. Since the drill pipes are generally compose the upper and longest portion of the drillstring, they must be light and strong. The drill pipe body is a seamless pipe with outside diameter (OD) varying from 23 /8 in to 65 /8 in. The outside diameter and the wall thickness t determine the linear weight of the drill pipe. The inside diameter (ID) is equal to OD minus 2t. Drill pipes are made of high grade steel (there are also drill pipes made of aluminum, carbon ber, etc). API has standardized four steel grades: E75, X95, G105, and S135. The gures represent the minimum yield strength Ys (in ksi) of the the steel. Drill pipes are specied with the following basic parameters:
CHAPTER 3 Drillstring Tubulars and Equipment Page 31
Figure 3.1: Typical rotary drillstring. 1. Length range: Range I: 18ft to 22ft, Range II: 27ft to 30ft (most common), Range III: 38ft to 45 ft, 2. Nominal linear weight: in general 2 or 3 linear weight or wall thickness for each standard OD 3. Wall upset: EU (external upset), IU (internal upset), and IEU (internal & external upset). The wall upset is a length of extra thickness at both ends of the drill pipe body to provide a smooth transition between the pipe body and the tool joint, in order to reduce the stress concentration, 4. Tool joint OD, ID, and tong length, 5. Steel grade: (D-55), E-75, X-95, G-105, S-135, 6. Connection size and type: from 23 /8 in to 51 /2 in, type IF (internal ush), EF (external ush), FH (full hole), XH (extra hole), SH (slim hole), DS (double streamline), and NC (numbered connection), The API RP-7G contains the specication of all API standard drill pipes approved for oil and gas drilling use. The tool joints are heavy coupling elements
having coarse, tapered threads and sealing shoulders designed to sustain the weight and to transmit torque along the drillstring. The threads of the tool joints are specially designed to offer strength (axial and torsional), easy handling, fast connections (number of turns to make the connection), and leak-proof sealing (metal to metal). Tool joints might be welded or screwed to the ends of the drill pipe body.
Figure 3.2: Typical tool joint designs. (A) Internal upset DP with fullhole shrinkgrip TJ, (B) External upset DP with internalush shrinkgrip TJ, (C) External upset DP with ashweld unitized TJ, (D) Externalinternal upset DP with Hydrillpressure welded TJ. Two other common properties of drill pipes are capacity and displacement. Pipe Capacity: The capacity Ap of a drill pipe is a measure of its internal area, expressed as volume/length, usually gal/ft or bbl/ft.1 If Di is the inside diameter (ID) of a drill pipe in inches, then
2 2 2 Di Di 2 Ap = Di [in ] = [gal/ft] = [bbl/ft] . 4 24.51 1029.41
Pipe Displacement: The displacement As of the drill pipe is the measure of its cross-section area, expressed as volume/length, normally bbl/ft. If Do
Sometimes the capacity is expressed as the reversal of the area, usually in ft/bbl. The reader should be attended to the units.
1
CHAPTER 3 Drillstring Tubulars and Equipment
Page 33
is the outside diameter (OD) of a drill pipe in inches, then

2 2 2 2 Do Di Do Di 2 2 2 As = Do Di [in ] = [gal/ft] = [bbl/ft] . 4 24.51 1029.41
Annulus Capacity: The annulus capacity Aa is not a property of the pipe because it depends on the diameter of the hole opposite to the pipe. If DW is the diameter of the well, the annulus capacity Aa in bbl/ft is given by: Aa =
2 2 D2 Do D2 Do 2 2 DW Do [in2 ] = W [gal/ft] = W [bbl/ft] . 4 24.51 1029.41
The capacity and displacement formulas above do not take into account the tool joints, and manufacturer tables must be consulted when more accurate values are required. In particular, the nominal weight that specify a given drill pipe represents neither the pipe body linear weight, nor the the average linear weight (body plus tool joint divided by its length). It is just a nominal value. For example, a typical 5in DP with 19.5 lb/ft has an internal diameter of 4.276in. The density of steel is 489.5 lb/ft3 . Therefore, one foot op pipe body weights 2 5 4.2762 4 1ft3 144in3 489.5 lb/ft3 = 17.93 lb/ft .
Considering a 30 ft long DP (Range II), the tool joints (pin and box) comprise about 21 /2 ft of its length. Outside and inside diameters of the tool joints are 6in and 31 /2 in respectively. Therefore, the linear weight of the tool joint is 2 6 3.52 4 1 ft3 144 in3 489.5 lb/ft3 = 63.41 lb/ft .
The weight of the drill pipe (body plus TJ) is 27.5 ft 17.93 lb/ft + 2.5 ft 63.41 lb/ft = 651.6 lbm . Consequently, the adjusted linear weight of the drill pipe is 651.6 lb = 21.72 lb/ft . 30 ft Drill pipes are subjected to wear during operation. In particular, reduction of tool joints OD and wall thickness reduce tensile and torsion capacity of the element. Used drill pipes are classied as Premium or Class I if the minimum wall thickness is at least 80% of the wall thickness of a new pipe, and Class II when at least 70%. A new pipe that for the rst time is connected to a drillstring is immediately reclassied to premium DP. Table A.1 presents dimensional data for new drill pipes.
Figure 3.3: A DP elevator and the links to the hook body.
3.1.1
Drill Pipe Elevator
Drill pipes are handled during tripping using a drill pipe elevator. (The swivel and kelly are set aside in the rat hole.) It is connected by two links to the hook body (See Figures 3.3 and 2.4) . A hinge and latch allows opening and closing the biparted collar around the drill pipe. The elevator is operated by the roughnecks at the rotary table level, and by the derrick man at the monkey board. Drill pipes extend across almost the whole length of the drillstring and, although relatively light, they contribute with a signicant part of the drillstring weight (50% or more). However, drill pipes are, in general, used only under tension. They should not be subjected to compression due to its low resistance to buckling. Therefore, they cannot be used to apply weight on the bit. 2
3.2
Drill Collars
Since drill pipes cannot be used to apply weight on bit, this role is played be the drill collars (and also by heavy weight drill pipes as shown next). Drill colIn horizontal wells, drill pipes can be put under compression if located in a suitably curved section of the hole; in addition, compression service drill pipes (CSDP, S-135 grade DP with 2 or 3 wear knots) are specially designed to work under compression to drill short radius horizontal wells.
2
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lars (DC) are thick walled steel pipes located normally right above the bit, and their purpose is to provide weight (axial force) to the bit. Drill collars are manufactured with carbon steel (AISI 4115), or some non-magnetic alloy (stainless steel, monel metal). The outside of drill collars may be slick (small diameters) or spiral grooved (any size.). Figure 3.4 shows a spiraled and a slick drill collars. The purpose of the groves is to reduce or avoid the risk of differential sticking opposite to permeable formations . The depth of the grooves is made larger than the average thickness of a occulated mud cake (see Figure 3.5). Average length of drill collars is 34 ft, but rethreading normally makes them shorter.
Figure 3.4: A spiraled and a slick drill collars.
Figure 3.5: Spiraled DC crosssection.
Figure 3.6: A DC elevator.
The elevators for drill collars are very similar to the elevators for drill pipes. They differ in the shape of the internal hole that clamps on the pipe. Most drill collars are recessed so as to be handled with the elevator. If the drill collar is not recessed (sometimes even if it is!), a special sub called lift sub is used. Lift subs have the shape of the upper end of a drill pipe, and connects to the top of sections of drill collars during trips. Then the drill pipe elevator can be used to lift or lower the drillstring.
3.3
Heavy Wall Drill Pipes
In addition to drill pipes and drill collars, there are special pipes called heavy wall drill pipes (HWDP). They are intermediary pipes between drill pipes and drill collars, being strong enough to be put under compression (they contribute
to the available weight to apply to the bit), and they are exible enough to be used in directional drilling (less torque and drag than drill collars.) The use of HWDP also allow a gradual transition between the exible drill pipes and the stiff drill collars (less stress concentration, and therefore, less mechanical fatigue on the threads.) HWDPs look very similar to regular drill pipes, being of the same length of Range II DP (27 to 30 ft), but with longer tool joints (to permit rethreading). HWDPs have a central external upset as shown in Figure 3.8. This central upset provides an additional third point of contact, increasing the overall stiffness and protecting the pipe sections from excessive wearing in high inclination wells (normally the tool joints and central upset have a band of hard material to prevent/reduce wear).
Figure 3.8: Heavy wall drill pipes.
3.4
Special Tools
Several drilling equipment are used in the drillstring. The most important are: stabilizers, reamers, holeopeners.
3.4.1
Stabilizers
Stabilizers provide localized additional support points (localized larger diameter) in one or more positions along the drillstring. For vertical wells, the stabilizer prevents low frequency vibration in the drillstring during rotation. The advantages are: reduce wear (of both drillstring and casing), reduce mechanical fatigue, reduce mechanical instability of formation (caving), reduce tortuous hole.
Stabilizers are essential equipment for directional drilling. Suitable choice of number and position of stabilizers in the drillstring lend to the bottom hole assembly (BHA, the lower part of the drillstring composed of drill collars, stabilizers and HWDP) special characteristics in terms of inclination control: angle buildup, angle dropoff, angle hold. Stabilizer may be of the following types: integral blade, interchangeable blade, nonrotating blades, replaceable blades, clampon near-bit, The diameter of stabilizers can be in gauge or under gauge. More recently, remote adjustable blade stabilizers were introduced. Changing suitably the diameter of the stabilizers provide a level of control in the directional behavior of BHAs.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 3.9: Some Stabilizers: (a) integral, (b) interchangeable, (c) nonrotating, (d) replaceable.
3.4.2
Reamers
The purpose of the reamer is to keep the diameter of the open hole in gauge, that is, with the expected original diameter of the bit. Two reasons may cause a decrease in the original diameter: 1. formation swelling (hydrated shales, moving salt), 2. bit diameter reduction (hard and abrasive formations). The reamer also functions as a stabilizer since the rollers touch the borehole wall. Different types of rollers can be selected to suit the formations being reamed. (See Figure 3.10.)
Figure 3.10: A roller reamer.
Figure 3.11: A xed holeopener.
3.4.3
Holeopeners
The holeopener is a tool designed to enlarge the diameter of a previously (or simultaneously drilled smaller borehole. Three situations (at least) are possible: (See Figure 3.11.) 1. to drill the borehole section with a smaller bit, and later to enlarge to the nal diameter (a special tool called bull nose is connected in the place of the bit, to guide the hole opener along the pre-drilled hole), 2. to drill the borehole section with a smaller bit and simultaneously enlarge to the nal diameter,
3. to enlarge a section below a casing with a diameter larger than the internal diameter of the casing. In this case, a special hole opener (also caller underreamer) with hinged arms actuated hydraulically is used (the drilling uid pressure actuates in rams that open the arms forcing the cutters against the borehole wall).
3.5
Connections Makeup and Breakout
To makeup and breakout the pipe connections (during normal operations and drillstring trips), big selflocking wrenches called manual tongs are used to grip the drillstring and apply torque. The tongs are kept suspended at suitable height above the rotary table (3 to 5ft) balanced by counterweights. They work in pairs, one turns to left (counterclockwise) and the other to right (clockwise). They are mechanically or pneimatically actuated by the cathead (special rotating spools connected to the drawworks). (See Figure 3.12).
(a) Left tongue (break-out).
(b) Right tong (makeup).
Figure 3.12: Manual tongs. To makeup a connection, the left tong grips the upper tool joint joint (box) of the lower pipe, and the right tong grips the lower tool joint (pin) of the upper pipe. The left tong is connected by a steel rope to a xed point in the derrick, and the right tong is connected to the cathead (turns the upper pipe). To break a connection, the left tong grips the lower tool joint (pin) of the upper pipe, and the right tong grips the upper tool joint (box) of the lower pipe. The right tong is connected by a steel rope to a xed point in the derrick, and the left tong is connected to the cathead (also turns the upper pipe). Figure 3.13 shows the tongs ready to makeup a connection.
Figure 3.13: Tongs in position to makeup a connection. When set and ready to apply torque, the angle between the arms of the tongs should be either 90 or 180 (the ideal is zero degrees but operational difculties make this position not practical). It is important to leave the rotary table unlocked, to avoid damage to the pipe caused by the slips. Compressed air tongs or spinners (see Figure 3.14) are also used to speed up the operation, but the torque to makeup or to breakout the connection is always done using the manual tongs.
3.5.1
Maximum Height of Tool Joint Shoulders
To makeup or breakout a connection, the drillstring must be resting on the master bushing using the slips (DP and HWDP) or slips+safety clamp (DC and any other slick equipment.) The angle between the arms of the tongs are either 90 or 180 as shown in Figure 3.16. The maximum height of the tool joint shoulder with respect to the master bushing is given by the following formulas:
Case 1: 90 Hmax [f t] = 0.053 Ymin LT S Tmu

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Figure 3.14: A spinner.
Figure 3.15: Tongs position during makeup. Figure 3.16: Case 1: 180 Hmax [f t] = 0.038
Ymin LT S Tmu
where: Ymin = minimum yield stress of the pipe [psi] LT = tongs arm length [ft] 4 D 4 D ( ) o i S=I = 32Do = section modulus [in3 ] c Tmu = make up torque [ft lbf]
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Example 5: Calculate maximum height of the tool joint shoulder for a 5 in OD DP, 19.5 lb/ft, X-95, with NC50 65 /8 in 31 2 in new tool joint, using tongs with 31 /2 ft positioned at 90 and 180 . Solution: Ymin = 95 kpsi = 95, 000psi LT = 3.5 ft S= (54 4.2764 ) = 5.71 in3 32 5 Tmu = 27, 076 ft lbf a) 90 : Hmax = 0.053 b) 180 : Hmax = 0.038 95, 000 3.5 5.71 = 2.76 f t 27, 076 95, 000 3.5 5.71 = 3.72 f t 27, 076
3.5.2
Makeup Torque
It is very important to apply the right torque during the makeup of a connection. Too little torque will not provide a suitable seal between the pin and box shoulders, and leakage might wash out the threads causing failure of the connection. Too much torque may cause mechanical failure of the threads, either in the box or in the pin. The API RP7G tables present the maximum (tb.9) and minimum (tb.10) torques for each standard connection.
3.6
Drill Bit
The bit is connected to the lower end of the drill collars. Bits are manufactured with a pin, so that to connect to the lower pin of the drillstring, a bit sub is used. The bit sub is a short sub (11 /2 to 2 ft) with two box connections. There are a large variety of bits. Each type is designed to drill rocks of different hardness, composition, abrasiveness, etc, encountered during drilling operations. It is a duty of the drilling engineer to select the most appropriate bit and the drilling parameters (nozzle sizes, weight-on-bit, rotation speed, and ow rate) to optimize the performance of the operation. A more detailed study of drill bits is covered in Chapter 10.
3.7
Other Drillstring Equipment
In addition to the kellyrotary table assembly, two other methods can be used to promote rotation to the bit: Top drive, Bottom hole motors (positive displacement motors and turbines).
3.7.1
Top Drive
The top drive, also called power swivel, takes the place of the kelly, and the torque is applied to the top of the drill pipe section by mean of hydraulic or electric motors. The assembly slides along tracks (most models incorporate a swivel in the design,) and is suspended by the hook. The reactive torque is transmitted to the rig structure directly through the tracks or by a torque reaction beam.
Figure 3.17: An electrical top drive. A great advantage of using a top drive is the possibility to drill a full stand (3 or 4 drill pipes) without interruption, saving time in connections. Another advantage is the possibility of rotating the drillstring during the trips reducing the drag to pullout or slackoff the drillstring in the hole for high inclination drilling.
3.7.2
Bottom Hole Motors
Bottom hole motors are special engines located above the bit to promote bit rotation. Bottom hole motors convert hydraulic power of the drilling uid (P = q p) into mechanical (rotational) power. Turbines use uid momentum conversion on the blades of stator/rotor to generate rotation and torque. Turbines operates in high speed and has a narrow range of operation. The torque decreases steadily from the maximum at 0 rpm (stalled) to zero at the maximum speed.
Figure 3.18: A bottom hole turbine. Positive displacement motors (PDM) use continuous displacement of constant volume compartments created between an elastomer stator and a steel rotor to generate rotation and torque. The rotation speed of a PDM is function of the ow rate, and the torque is directed related to the pressure differential across the motor (easily monitored from the surface). The use of bottom hole motors is essential for directional drilling. The use of bent sub or bent housing provides a good deal of control of the inclination and the azimuth, allowing to drill complex trajectories.
Figure 3.19: A bottom hole PDM.
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Chapter 4 Introduction to Hydraulics

By denition, a static uid cannot sustain shear stresses, otherwise it will enter in motion (and will not be static anymore). The consequence of this is that the state of stress inside a uid is such that the normal stresses are the same in any direction. This state of stress is called hydrostatic state of stress. The magnitude of the stress is called pressure.
4.1
Hydrostatic Pressure
The hydrostatic pressure inside a homogeneous uid comes from the pressure at the surface and the weight of the uid above the point in question. To calculate the pressure at any point inside a column of uid of density (gas or liquid), we consider an innitesimal element of uid with volume dV = dx dy dz as shown in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Stress state about a point in a uid.

CHAPTER 4 Introduction to Hydraulics Page 41
To remain in equilibrium, the resulting forces acting in all 3 directions must be zero. Then we have: Fx = px dy dz (px + dpx ) dy dz = 0 dpx = 0 Fy = py dz dx (py + dpy ) dz dx = 0 dpy = 0 Fz = py dz dx (py + dpy ) dz dx g dx dy dz = 0 dpz = g dz The horizontal gradients (dpx /dx and dpy /dy ) are zero. Using p instead of pz , we have, for the hydrostatic gradient: dpz = g dz Since in general we will be dealing with depth D, and since a point at depth D has coordinate z = D, the expression for the pressure differential in terms of depth is: dp = g dD (4.1) Note that is mass per volume, or specic mass, or density. Therefore, g is weight per volume or specic weight, usually noted as . For a gravitational system of units as the British System, the acceleration of gravity is equal to 1 G. Such that 1 lbm 1 G = 1 lbf . That is the magnitude of the force is numerically equal to the magnitude of the mass. For a scientic or nongravitational system as the International System (SI), the acceleration of gravity is equal to 9.80665m/s2 , such that 1 kg 9.80665m/s2 = 9.80665 N . To integrate (4.1), we need to know how the density depends on the pressure. All uids are compressible, but for some applications, some uids can be classied as incompressible. Liquids, in general are incompressible up to a considerably high pressures. Gases are, in general, incompressible.
4.1.1
Hydrostatic Pressure for Incompressible Fluids
For incompressible uids (liquids in general are in this class), the density is constant and integrating the (4.1) yields: p1 = p0 + g (D1 D0 ) , which allows us to calculate the pressure at a point with depth D1 if we know the pressure p0 at a point of depth D0 . For pressure in psi, density in lbm/gal, and depth in feet we have: p1 = p0 +
CHAPTER 4 Introduction to Hydraulics
12 (D1 D0 ) p0 + 0.0519(D1 D0 ) 231

Page 42
For pressure in psi, density in lbm/gal, and depth in meter we have: p1 = p0 + 12 D1 D0 p0 + 0.1704(D1 D0 ) 231 0.3048
Example 6: Calculate the absolute pressure 1 at the depth of 3,000 ft in a borehole lled with a drilling uid with 9.2 lb/gal, in a location where the atmospheric pressure is 13.5psi. Solution: p = 13.5 psi + 0.0519 9.2 lbm/gal (3, 000 ft 0 ft) = 1, 446 psia
Example 7: Calculate the uid density required to drill a permeable formation at 12,000 ft if the pore pressure of the formation is 8,200 psig, with an overbalance of 50 psi. Solution: 8200 psig + 50 psid = 0.0519 12000 ft = 13.25 lbm/gal
4.1.1.1
Complex Fluid Column and Equivalent Density
If the column of uid is composed of several segregated uids with different densities (complex uid column), we still can use the expression for hydrostatic pressure above, considering that at the top of a homogeneous column of uid acts a pressure resulting from the uid above: p=g i Ti ,
where i is the density of the ith layer of uid and Ti its thickness. For a complex uid column, the equivalent uid density at a given depth is the density of a homogeneous uid that would cause the same hydrostatic pressure at that depth. Note that the equivalent density depends on the depth in consideration.
The zero point of an absolute reference is the absence of all matter. There is no pressure at absolute zero. On the other hand, a gauge pressure measures pressure relative to the local atmosphere. Changes in local atmospheric pressure occur due to weather, altitude, and/or depth. Gauge pressure indications usually use a "g" after the unit as in "psig". Absolute pressure may have the letter "a" after the unit as in "psia". For pressure differential, it is common to use a "d" after the unit.
1
Page 43
A general expression for the equivalent density at depth D = eq = i Ti . D
Ti is
Example 8: A borehole is lled with uid of density 8.8 lbm/gal from the surface to the depth of 8,000 ft, and a uid with 10.0 lbm/gal below 8,000 ft. Calculate the absolute pressure at 12,200 ft. What is the equivalent density of the uid at 12,200 ft. Assume standard atmospheric pressure. Solution: p12200 = 14.696 psi+0.0519 8.8
lbm 8000 gal
ft+0.0519 10
lbm (12200 gal
ft 8000 ft)
P12000 = 5848 psia 5848 psia = 14.696 psi + 0.0519 eq 12200 ft eq = 9.21 lbm/gal
4.1.2
Hydrostatic Pressure for Compressible Fluids
The density of a compressible uid (gases in general are compressible) is not constant and depends on the pressure and temperature. In order to account for this, we must consider the equation of state for real gases: T =z m R T , pV = z n R M where z is the real gas deviation factor (see Figure 4.2) of the real gas at pressure p and temperature T . Solving for = m/V results in: = M T p. zR (4.2)
Considering the expression (4.1) for the pressure differential we have: dp = Mg T p dD . zR
Since z depends on p, separating variables and integrating results in: 2

p2
Mg z dp = (D2 D1 ) . p RT
p1
2
And assuming that the temperature is constant in the gas column.
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Figure 4.2: Real gas deviation factor.
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The pressure integral can only be calculated if we know how z depends on p. This is normally very complicated. For short columns, z cam be considered constant and we can write:
p2
z
p1
Mg dp = (D2 D1 ) , p RT
M g T p 2 = p 1 e z1 R
(D2 D1 )
(4.3)
where z1 is the compressibility factor at pressure p1 and T . A more accurate approach is to use an average value for z given by: z = z1 + z2 , 2
where z2 is the deviation factor for p2 calculated using the expression above. Using this new average value of the compressibility factor, a new pressure p2 is obtained from M g T (D2 D1 ) , R p2 = p1 e z and compared with the previous one. The process is repeated until convergence is obtained. for various units are: Values for the universal gas constant R = 10.732 R = 1545.4 R psi ft3 lbmole R
lbf ft lbmole R 3 = 8.3145 kPa m R kgmole K J = 8314.5 R kgmole K It is important to note that pressure and temperature must be given in absolute scales, as required by the gas equation of state. The absolute temperatures are normally the Rankine and the Kelvin scales and given by: T [ R] = t[ F] + 459.67 , T [K] = t[ C] + 273.15 . The gures above are normally approximated to 460 and 273 respectively. The Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature are converted using the following relations: 9 t[ F] = (t[ C] + 40) 40 , 5 5 t[ C] = (t[ F] + 40) 40 . 9
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Example 9: What is the density of the air at 13 psia and 60 F? (assume ideal gas) Solution: With sufcient accuracy, the molecular weight of the air is: Mair = 22% 32 + 78% 28 = 28.88 Using Equation (4.2) gives:
lbm 28.88 lbmole M = p= 13 psi lbf ft zRT (60 + 460) R 1 1545.4 lbmole R 144 in2 1 ft2
lbm lbmole
= 0.0673 lbm/ft3
Example 10: Consider a 10,000 ft deep borehole with a drillstring and bit to the bottom. The annular is completely lled with methane (CH4 ), and the drillstring is lled with a 8.4 lbm/gal mud. After closing the BOP, the pressure in the drill pipe at the surface is 640 psia. What is the expected pressure in the casing at the surface, assuming ideal gas and average temperature of 150 F. Solution: The mass of one lbmole of methane is 1x12+4x1 = 16 lbm. The drillstring annular system form a Utube system. The pressure at the bottom of the borehole can be calculated using the uid inside the drill pipe and the surface pressure: pbottom = 640 psi + 0.0519 8.4 lbm/gal 10000 ft = 5000 psi This pressure is balanced by the pressure of the casing at the surface and the hydrostatic pressure of the gas. Using Equation (4.3) gives: psur = 5000 e 11545.4(150+460) (010000) psur = 4220 psi
161
4.2
Buoyancy
Archimedes principle of buoyancy states that the buoyant force exerted on a body fully or partially immersed in a uid is equal in magnitude (and opposite in direction) to the weight of the volume of uid which is displaced by that body. For homogeneous bodies immersed in homogeneous uids, the net or buoyed weight of the body can be calculated from Wnet = 1 f b W
Page 47
where W is the weight of the body (in the air), f is the density of the uid, and b is the density of the body. The term 1 f is called buoyancy facb tor. This expression is valid only for homogeneous bodies fully immersed in homogeneous uids. For homogeneous bodies, the geometric center of the body coincides with the center of mass. For nonhomogeneous bodies, an equivalent density (total mass/volume) can be used, but it is important to keep in mind that the geometric center (where the buoyant force applies) may not coincide with the center of mass. In these cases, stable or instable equilibrium may exist.
Example 11: What is the weight of 0.4 ft3 of carbon steel? What is its buoyed weight when submerged in a 9.3 lbm/gal uid? What is the equivalent density of the buoyed body in lbm/gal? Solution: The average density of carbon steel is 490 lb/ft3 = 65.5 lb/gal, so that the weight of the body is W = s g Vb = 490 The buoyed weight is: Wbuoyed = 1 f s W = 1 9.3 65.5 196 = 168.2 lbf lbm 1 G 0.4 ft3 = 196 lbf ft3
The equivalent density is the density that would result in the same buoyed weight: f f 1 Wb = 1 b g Vb = eq g Vb b b eq = b f = 65.5 lbm/gal 9.3 lbm/gal = 56.2 lbm/gal
Example 12: A 12,000 ft long drillstring is composed of the following elements (bottom up): 420 ft of 8 in OD3 in ID DC, 840 ft of 7 in OD 3 in ID DC, and 5 in E-75 19.5lb/ft drill pipe (22.28 lb/ft). The uid density is 8.9 lb/gal. Calculate the expected hook load when the drillstring is hanging on the elevator (out of the bottom). Solution: The linear weight of the DCs are 1 ft2 8 in DC: w = (82 32 ) 144 490 lbm/ft3 = 147.0 lbf /ft in2 4
Figure 4.3: Drillstring schematics for Example 12.
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1 ft2 (72 32 ) 144 490 lbm/ft3 = 106.9 lbf /ft in2 4 The weight in the air of the drillstring is 7 in DC: w = Wair = 420 147.0 + 840 106.9 + (12000 420 840) 22.28 = 390823 lbf The buoyed weight of the drillstring is: Whook = Wbuoyed = 1 8.9 65.5 390823 = 337719 lbf
If the body is either not totally submerged, or submerged in a inhomogeneous uid, the expression above cannot be used. This may be complicated for complex shape bodies. A more general way to calculate the buoyed weight, even for partially immersed bodies and for complex uid column is to calculate the effect of the hydrostatic pressure on the body. This is demonstrated in the next example.
Example 13: Recalculate the hook load of Example 12 using the effect of the hydrostatic pressure on the drillstring. Solution: Here we face a problem: the tool joints of the drill pipes causes a considerable increase in the average linear weight os the drill pipe body. Although we can consider each tool joint of the drillstring, a most appropriate way is to consider an equivalent cross section of the drill pipe. Since the purpose is to determine the effect of the uid in the weight, it is not important if we choose to change the inside or the outside diameter (or both). In the present example, we chose to change both, such that the average diameter remains the same. In this case, the average diameter is Dave = 5+42.276 = 4.638 in, and the area is given by As = Dave t , where t is the thickness of the equivalent drill pipe. The equivalent outside diameter is Dave + t and the inside diameter is Dave t. Therefore, for a drill pipe with 22.28 lb/ft, we have: 4.638 in t 490 lb ft3 1 ft2 144 in2 = 22.28 lb ft
t = 0.449 in Do = 4.638 + 0.449 = 5.087 in Di = 4.638 0.449 = 4.189 in Note that these gures are for buoyancy calculation only, and should never be used for strength calculations (torque, tensile, burst, collapse, etc).
Now, the uid pressure acts in the cross section areas at 10,740 ft, 11,580 ft, and 12,000 ft. In the rst and second areas, the forces are downwards, and in the third case the force is upward. These forces add and subtract to the weight of the drillstring. To calculate the force we need the pressures at each depth and the area exposed to the uid. The values are: p10740 = 0.0519 8.9 10740 = 4961 psi p11580 = 0.0519 8.9 11580 = 5349 psi p12000 = 0.0519 8.9 12000 = 5543 psi A10740 = [72 5.0872 ] + [4.1892 32 ] = 24.87 in2 4 2 8 72 = 11.78 in2 A11580 = 4 2 8 32 = 43.20 in2 A12000 = 4
The hook load is: Whook = 390823 + 4961 24.87 + 5349 11.78 5543 43.20 = 337756 lbf This result should be compared with the previous example. The discrepancy is due rounding errors. This method should always be used when either the annular or the drillstring is lled with nonhomogeneous uids, partially lled, etc.
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Chapter 5 Drillstring Design

The drillstring must be designed to support (with a safety margin) all the static and dynamic loadings that occur during normal and special operations. It also must support some extreme situations like pipe sticking problems, curved holes, harsh environment, etc. In addition, it must be able to provide a suitable conduit for the drilling uid ow without causing excessive frictional pressure drop both inside and outside the pipe. The mechanical aspects of drilling design are covered in this chapter.
5.1
Length of Drill Collars Neutral Point Calculation
One of the purposes of the drillstring is to apply weight on the bit, and as mentioned before, this is obtained by slacking part of the drillstring weight on the bit. When this is done, a portion of the lower end of the drillstring will be put in compression, and the upper portion will remain in tension. Since drill pipe can not be compressed, a sufcient length of drill collars and/or heavy weight drill pipes should be used so that the required weight on bit can be applied without compressing the drill pipes. The reason drill pipes can not be put in compression is that the moment of inertia1 of drill pipes are small compared to its length (a parameter called slenderness = length/radius of gyration). On the other hand, the slenderness of the drill collars are relatively low and compression is allowed. The slenderness is an important parameter to determine the mechanical buckling resistance of a column. The cause of buckling is the moment created by compressive forces. Therefore, a lot of discussion occurred to determine the right way to account the effects of hydrostatic pressure in the tendency to buckle a column. One of the considerations was that both the compressive force due to the weight on bit and the compressive force due to the hydrostatic pressure of the
CHAPTER 5 Drillstring Design Page 51
Figure 5.1: Assumption 1 pressure contributes to buckling. uid would contribute to buckle the drillstring, since the pressure acting in the lower area of the drillstring causes a substantial compressive force at the bit, even with no weight applied against the rock. Based on this assumption, the position of the neutral point of stress can be determined, and a sufcient length of drill collars must be used such that the neutral point lays in the drill collars (neutral point occurs where the axial stress is equal to zero.) Using this point of view, we can determine the position of the neutral point using the diagram in Figure 5.1. Considering the element of length x in the lower end of the column. The forces acting on this element is shown in the diagram, and the equilibrium of forces results in the following equation: FT = W p A Fb where FT is the axial force at acting at the top section of the element, W is the weight of the element of length x, p is the pressure at depth D, A is the cross section of the column, and Fb is the reaction of the force applied to at the bit. The force due to the pressure p acting on the lower area A is given by p A = f g D A , and the weight of the element is given by W = s g A x .
Substituting in the expression above we have forFT :
FT = s g A xf Assumption1pressurecontributestobuckling.g D AFb = g A (s x f D) The stress at x is calculated dividing FT by the area A: = FT Fb = g (s x f D) . A A
The neutral line is the position xn where = 0, that is: 0= Solving for xn we get: xn = Fb f D+ s s g A f Fb D+ . s wc FT Fb = g (s xn f D) . A A
xn =
where wc = s g A is the linear weight of the drill collar. Note that even if the weight on bit is zero (drillstring hanging off the bottom), this expression tells us that the neutral point is quite above the bit, and that the lower end of the drillstring will be under compression.
Example 14: Calculate the position of the neutral point for a column 10,000 ft long hanging off bottom and submerged in a borehole lled with a 9.3 ppg (pound per gallon) uid. What is the length of drill collar with 147 lb/ft is required to apply 100,000 lbf on the bit, assuming that, for safety, only 85% of the total length of DC is compressed. Calculate the suspended weight of the drillstring using nominal 19.5 lb/ft DP (actual 22.28 lb/ft). Use the assumption that pressure contributes to buckle the drillstring. Solution: Off bottom: xn = On bottom: xn = f Fb 9.3 100000 D+ = 10000 + = 2100 ft s wc 65.5 147 Fb 9.3 0 f D+ = 10000 + = 1420 ft s wc 65.5 147
Since this length should be 85% of the total, the minimum length of DCs is LDC =
CHAPTER 5 Drillstring Design
2100 = 2471 f t 85%

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Figure 5.2: Assumption 2 pressure does not contribute to buckling. The hook load (buoyed weight) of the drillstring is: Wh = [2471 147 + (10000 2471) 22.28] 1 9.3 65.5 = 455592 lbf
The fact, however, is that the neutral point position calculated as above is calculated assuming that the forces created by hydrostatic pressure will contribute to the buckling of the column. But this is not true. If we recall the Archimedess effect, the resultant force due to hydrostatic pressures is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the weight of the displaced uid. But that is not all. In addition to that, the resulting moment of the hydrostatic pressure must be ZERO, otherwise, the uid would rotate about its center of mass. This means that the hydrostatic pressure acting on an immersed column can not contribute to buckle it. The easiest (and correct) way to gure out the required length to apply a weight on bit is exactly doing this, that is, calculating the length of a column whose buoyed weight is equal to the required weight on bit. Considering the diagram in Figure5.2 we have: W = s g A x n B = f g A x n Fb = W B = (s f ) g A xn = 1 f s s g A x n
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xn = 1
Fb
f s
wDC
where wDC is the linear weight of the drill collar. Note that the denominator corresponds to the buoyed linear weight of the drill collar. The length calculated with this expression determines the neutral point of buckling. Above this point the drillstring will not buckle. Bellow this point, which depends on the weight on bit, the drillstring might be buckled or not, and this will depend, among other factors, on the weight on bit and on the polar moment of inertia of the drill collars.
Example 15: Calculate the position of the neutral point for a column 10,000 ft long hanging off bottom and submerged in a borehole lled with a 9.3 ppg (pound per gallon) uid. What is the length of drill collar with 147 lb/ft is required to apply 100,000 lbf on the bit, assuming that, for safety, only 85% of the total length of DC is compressed. Calculate the suspended weight of the drillstring using nominal 19.5 lb/ft DP (actual 22.28 lb/ft). Use the assumption that pressure dos not contribute to buckle the drillstring. Solution: Off bottom: The neutral point position is given by xn = 1 Fb
f s
. wDC
For the off bottom condition the weight on bit Fb = 0 and the neutral point is at xn = 0 ft. For a weight on bit of 100,000 lbf we have xn = 100000 = 793 f t 9 .3 147 1 65 .5
Since this length should be 85% of the total, the minimum length of DCs is LDC = 793 = 933 f t 85%
The hook load (buoyed weight) of the drillstring is: Wh = [933 147 + (10000 933) 22.28] 1 9.3 65.5 = 291008 lbf
A more general expression for the neutral point position includes the possibility that the uids inside and outside the pipe have different densities: xn = wDC Fb . (o Ao i Ai )
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5.2
Design for Tensile Force, Torque, Burst, and Collapse
Once the length of the drill collars and the total weight of the drillstring had been determined, we must check if the drillstring will be able to resist the loadings it will be submitted during normal and special operations. The drill pipe section may be composed by one or several types of drill pipes (diameter, linear weight, and steel grade). We must check for maximum tensile strength, maximum torque, maximum burst, and collapse pressure. In addition, since these loadings very likely occur simultaneously (for example, tension and torque), the conjoined strength must be determined.
5.2.1
Maximum Tensile Force
During normal operation, the maximum tensile force occurs at the top of the drill pipe section during pickups. Since this point has (normally) the smallest section area, it is also the point of maximum stress. In addition to static load (the buoyed weight of the drillstring), inertial effects (the force to accelerate the drillstring), friction effects between the drillstring and the borehole wall, and viscous effects must be considered. Also, in the event of stuck pipe1 , the drillstring must be able to support the overpull applied during pipe freeing operations. Due to several uncertainties involved in the calculation of the various loadings, relative large safety factors must be used. It is practice to use 125% of the static load as the design parameter (25% of overpull.) In addition, it is important to note that the API denes yield stress as the stress that will cause a certain permanent (plastic) deformation. Based on this, the minimum yield strength of a pipe is dened. The minimum yield strength is the minimum axial tensile load that will cause the yield of the material. Normally we want to avoid any plastic deformation of the drill pipes. Therefore, only a fraction (normally 90%) of the minimum yield strength is allowed during drilling operations. This gure is called tensile strength of the pipe. The margin of overpull (MOP) is dened as the excess of the tensile load capacity of the drillstring to the normal tensile load for normal operations. Knowing the MOP is important in case of stuck pipe. In practice, the determined MOP must not be exceeded since the drillpipe would fail. Typical values of MOP requirements for drillpipe selections are in the range from 50,000 to 100,000 lbf.
Example 16: Calculate the minimum yield strength required for the drill pipe of the previous example.
A stuck pipe is the situation in which the force required to move, or the torque required to rotate the drillstring is larger that its strength.
1
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Solution: The drillstring buoyed weight is 291000 lbf, and 125% of this value (25% of overpull) is 1.25 x 291000 lbf = 363750 lbf. The minimum tensile strength required is 363750 Fy = = 404167 lbf 0.9 If a new 5 in, 19.5 lb/ft (nominal) is used, the minimum yield stress is: Ymin = Fy = As
4
(52
404167 = 76625 psi 4.2762 )
Therefore, a X95 grade pipe is required (Fy = 501087 lbf ). The minimum yield strength in the example is obtained from drill pipe tables, or calculated from the pipe parameters: Fy = 4 OD2 ID2 Ys
where Ys is the yield strength of the material. For the example above we have: Fy = 52 4.2762 95000 = 501087 psi 4
This gure is for new pipe dimensions. For premium pipes (every new pipe is reclassied to premium in the rst time it goes to operation), it should be considered that the wall thickness is reduced to 80% of the original wall thickness. Normally, the worst scenario is used and, in this case, we assume that the thickness reduction occurred in the outside diameter (external wear). Therefore, the new dimensions are: ID = 4.276 in OD = ID + 80% (OD ID) = 4.276 + 80% (5 4.276) = 4.8552 in Therefore, for premium DP, the minimum yield strength is: Fy = 4.85522 4.2762 95000 = 394611 lbf . 4
Note that if a premium DP is considered in the previous example, the X-95, a premium pipe can not be used in that operation. Situations like this suggest the use of tapered drill pipe section. In tapered drill pipe sections, the segment with the lowest capacity is placed right above the drill collar section (or HWDP when used), and the maximum length for that pipe is calculated. Then a higher capacity drill pipe is used and the maximum length for this drill pipe is calculated. The process is repeated until the expected total length (the maximum depth for that drillstring) is reached. For a multi diameter, multi weight, or multi grade drillstring, the topmost joint of each section must be checked for tension.
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Example 17: Calculate the drillstring for the previous example data using premium drill pipes of 5 in19.5 lb/ft and grades E-75, X-95, and G-105. Solution: This problem is simplied by the fact that the total weight of the drillstring is the same, no matter the grade and length of the drillpipe. Using 25% of the buoyed weight, the MOP is M OP = 25% 291000 = 72750 lbf . It is important to realize that any overpull applied to the top of the drillstring will manifest in every element of the drillstring (assuming that the stuck point is in the bit). The minimum yield strength and maximum tensile load for 5 in19.5 lbf/ft (actual 22.28 lbf/ft) drill pipes for the various grades, and using a maximum of 90% as operational limits are: E75: Fy = (4.85522 4.2762 ) 75000 90% = 280382 lbf 4 (4.85522 4.2762 ) 95000 90% = 355150 lbf X95: Fy = 4 (4.85522 4.2762 ) 105000 90% = 392535 lbf G105: Fy = 4 Starting with E75 (on top of the drill collars), the maximum length for this grade is (933 147 + LE75 22.28) 1 9.3 65.5 = 280382 72750
LE75 = 4705 ft The maximum length is 933 + 4705 = 5638 ft, and the partial weight is 933 147 + 4705 22.28 = 241978 lbf . Continuing with the next grade (X95): (241978 + LX95 22.28) 1 9.3 65.5 = 355150 72750
LX95 = 3912 ft The maximum length is 5638 + 3912 = 9550 ft, and the partial weight is 241978 + 3912 22.28 = 329137 lbf . Continuing with the next grade (G105): (329137 + LG105 22.28) 1 9.3 65.5 = 392535 72750
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LG105 = 1956 ft The maximum length is 9550 + 1956 = 11506 ft, enough to reach the depth of 10000 ft. Note that if different DP diameters or different linear weights are used, the nal weight of the drillstring is not known before it has been designed, and the MOP cannot be imposed directly (and an iterative process will be needed). In this case, we can set the MOP absolutely, based, for example in the worst scenario (heaviest DP) or using eld experience.
5.2.2
Maximum Torque
The torque applied to the drillstring is the reaction due to the bit action on the bottom of the borehole, and due to friction forces between the drillstring elements and the borehole wall. In vertical wells, most of the torque comes from the bottom hole assembly (bit, stabilizers, etc.). For directional wells, the torque is distributed along the borehole trajectory below the kick-off point (the point of the trajectory where the borehole leaves the vertical). In any case, the torque accumulates and the point of higher torque is always at the top of the drillstring. The torsional yield strength of a pipe is given by the following expression: J Ty = 0.577 Ys , r where Ty is the torsional yield strength, J is the polar moment of inertia of the circular section, and r is the outside diameter of the section. The coefcient 1 0.577 comes from the von MisesHencky distortion energy theory of fail3 ure of ductile materials, which determines the shear yield strength based on the tensile yield strength. The polar moment of inertia for circular pipes is given by: J= OD4 ID4 . 32 For Ty in ft lbf , the expression for the torsional yield strength is given by: Ty = Ys OD4 ID4 . 105.92 OD
Example 18: Calculate the torsional yield strength for a new and for a premium 5 in19.5 lbf/ft, grade E75 drill pipe. Solution: a) new: Ty = 75000 54 4.2764 = 41166 ft lbf 105.92 5 75000 4.85524 4.2764 b) premium: Ty = = 32285 ft lbf 105.92 5
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The gures in the example above can be found in Tables A.2 and A.4 (API RP7G). Note that the calculation of the torsional yield strength for a premium DP uses the worst scenario for the wall thickness reduction. Although these values represent the maximum torque allowed in the body of the drill pipe, the maximum should not exceed the actual makeup torque of the connection.
5.2.3
Internal (Burst) and External (Collapse) Pressures
The API criteria for internal pressure strength (burst resistance) assumes that drill pipes are thinwalled pipes. Since API accepts pipes with a minimum of 87.5% of the nominal wall thickness, the formula for the internal pressure for new pipes (and also for casing) is: pint = 0.875 2 (OD ID) Ys . OD
If thickwall and von MissesHencky theories are used, the formula is: OD2 ID4 Ys . pint = 3 OD4 ID4 Note that in this formula, the allowed wall reduction to 87.5% has not been considered. Data for internal pressure strength for new and premium drill pipes are shown in Tables A.3 and A.5 (API RP7G) respectively. In operations like drill stem testing, the drill pipe may be subjected to external pressure higher than the internal pressure. The most critical point is the lower end of the drill pipe section. The net collapse pressure is determined by the depth of the uid inside the pipe, the depth of the lower end of the drillstring section, and the density of the uids in the annular and inside the drill pipe. The expression for the net external pressure is: pext = 0.0519 [0 D i (D d)] , where pext is the external net pressure, D is the depth of the lower end of the drill pipe section, d is the depth of the uid surface inside the pipe (make d = D if d > D), o and i are the densities of the uid in the annular and inside the drill pipe. A safety factor of 1.125 is normally used for collapse pressure. The minimum collapse pressure is also in Tables A.3 and A.5. The collapse strength is calculated using API Bulletin 5C3. The discussion of the formulation is beyond the scope of this work, and will be covered in the Casing Design chapter in Advanced Drilling. Collapse pressure is detrimentally affected by tensile force in the drill pipe (the benecial effect in burst resistance is neglected). the combined effect of
tensile load to collapse resistance is obtained using the biaxial (r = 0) expression of the von Misses failure theory:
2 2 z z t + t Ys2
The equality holds when for a given axial stress z , an effective tangential yield stress Ys occurs. Then we have:
2 z Ys t + Y 2 s
= Ys2 .
Solving for the appropriate Ys (tangential stress is compressive for collapse) results in: 2 Ys z z = 13 . Ys 2 Ys 2 Ys API dene 4 types of collapse: yield, plastic, transition, and elastic. All collapse types but the elastic depends on the yield strength (elastic collapse depends on the modulus of elasticity E ). API indicates that the collapse pressure s of drill pipes are reduced due to tensile load by the fraction Y above. Ys
Example 19: Determine the the collapse resistance corrected for tension loading for a premium 5 in19.5 lbf/ft, grade E75 drill pipe subjected to a tensile load of 50,000 lbf. Solution: The outside and inside diameters of the DP are 4.8552 in and 4.276 in respectively (premium DP). Therefore the cross section area is: A= and the axial stress is: z = 50000 = 12037 psi . 4.1538 4.85522 4.2762 = 4.1538 in2 , 4
The ratio of the equivalent yield stress to the nominal yield stress is: Ys = Ys 13 12037 2 75000
2
12037 = 0.9100 . 2 75000
The minimum collapse resistance for the premium pipe is 7041 psi (see Table A.5), and the corrected collapse pressure is 7041 0.9100 = 6407 psi .
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5.2.4
Drillstring Elongation
Due to the weight of the drillstring and the elastic characteristic of the steel (and many other metals and alloys), an elongation occurs when the drillstring is suspended inside the borehole. In addition, if an additional force acts at the bottom end (be it tensile or compressive) additional elongation (or shortening) occurs. The expression for the total elongation of a drillstring of length L is: s g L2 F L + , 2E AE where s is the density of the drillstring metal, E is the longitudinal modulus of rigidity (or modulus of elasticity or Young modulus), F is the force acting on the bottom, and A is the area of the right section of the drillstring. Note that this expression is valid only for a homogeneous drillstring suspended in the air. If the drillstring is submerged in a uid with density f , a hydrostatic pressure will act at the lower end (upward) such that the total elongation becomes: L = L = s g L2 F L f g L2 + , 2E AE E
(s 2f ) g L2 F L + . 2E AE For in lbm/gal, E in psi, L and L in ft, and A in in2 we have: (s 2f ) L2 F L L = 0.0519 + . 2E AE L = This formulation is not considering the effect of the Poissons ratio due to the (varying) pressure acting along the drillstring.
Example 20: Calculate the elongation of 10,000 ft of drill pipe hanging offbottom inside a borehole lled with 10 ppg drilling uid. The modulus of elasticity of the steel is 30 106 psi. Solution: L = 0.0519 (65.5 2 10.0) 100002 = 3.94 ft 2 30 106
For a tapered drillstring we calculate the elongation of each section, considering force acting at the bottom of each section (including pressure effects), and add all contributions.
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Example 21: Calculate the elongation of a drillstring made up off 10,000ft of 5 in19.5 lb/ft drill pipe and 600 ft of 8 in OD, 3 in ID drill collar (147lb/ft), inside a borehole lled with 10 ppg drilling uid and 20,000 lbf of WOB (weight on bit). Solution: a) elongation of the drill collars: ADC = 2 8 32 = 43.197 in2 4
F = 20000 lbf 0.0519 10 ppg 10600 ft 43.197 in = 257644 lbf 65.5 6002 257644 600 + = 0.099 ft 6 2 30 10 43.197 30 106
LDC = 0.0519
b) elongation of the drill pipes: ADC = 2 5 4.3762 = 5.2746 in2 4
F = 257644 lbf + 147 lbf /ft 600 ft + 0, 0519 10 ppg 10000 ft (43.197 5.2746) in2 F = 27373 lbf 65.5 100002 27373 10000 + = 7.40 ft 6 2 30 10 5.2746 30 106 L = DC + DP = 0.099 + 7.40 = 7.30 ft
LDP = 0.0519
Note that in this case (and in most cases), the elongation of the drill collars can be neglected, compared with elongation of the drill pipes.
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Page 514
Chapter 6 Drilling Hydraulics

During most of the drilling operations, the drilling uid is circulating through the circulating system and/or the drillstring is moving with respect to the uid. These dynamic components cause pressure gradients and pressure losses that must be determined, predicted, and controlled in order to perform the drilling operation safely and optimally. The most important parameters to be determined are: The pressure along the borehole while circulating (equivalent circulating density ECD) The pressure along the borehole while moving the drillstring (surge and swab pressures) The optimum circulating parameters and bit nozzle sizes The cuttings transport capacity of the uid (hole cleaning) The pressure along the borehole during well control operations (kick removal) In order to proceed with these studies, we need to use basic physical principles like mass conservation and energy conservation. Also, the ow behavior of the uid must be understood and determined (rheological properties of the uid, laminar and turbulent ow, etc.)
6.1
Mass and Energy Balance
Mass and energy (two different forms of the same thing), can be neither created nor destroyed and, for nonrelativistic scenarios, one cannot be converted into the other. This results in the mass and energy conservation laws.
CHAPTER 6 Drilling Hydraulics Page 61
6.1.1
Mass Conservation
the net ow of mass into any volume is equal to the rate of increase of mass within the volume
This statement is mathematically expressed by (see Figure 6.1):
Figure 6.1: Mass balance
dm =m = i q i o q o . dt where m is the mass within the volume, is density, and q is ow rate. It is evident that a volume under study may have several inuxes and several out uxes so that a general expression can be written: dm =m = dt i q i o q o .
Considering only steady-state conditions (the mass inside the volume under control does not change) this expression reduces to: 0= i q i o q o .
In addition, for incompressible uids (most drilling uids are considered incompressible, except those with gaseous components), this expression reduces further to: 0= qi qo qi = qo . The expression above is important when considering ows other than generated by the uid pumps, like kick inux, uid loss (to underground formations), mud treatment (material addition and uid discard,) et cetera. For a closed, single way system (as the circulating system is considered most of the times) we have: qi = qo = q , that is, the ow rate at any point of the system is constant equal to q (the ow rate). Therefore, it sufces to know the ow area to calculate uid average velocity at any point of the circulating system.
Example 22: A 11 lb/gal uid is being circulated at 280 gal/min. The diameter of the hole is 81 /2 in. The drill collars have 8 in OD and 3 in ID, and the drill pipes have 5 in OD and 4.276 in ID. Calculate the average uid velocities inside the DPs and DCs, and in the annular space opposite to the DPs and DCs. Solution: A 11 lb/gal uid can be consider incompressible. Therefore we can write for the ow rate at any point of the circuit: q=Av v = q A
where q is the uid ow rate, A is the area in the point of interest, and v is the 2 average velocity at the point. or v in ft/s, A in in , and q in gal/min we have: v [ft/s] = q [gal/min] A[in2 ] 231 in2 1 gal 1 min 60s 1 ft 12 in
v [ft/s] = 0.3208 The average velocities are: vDP = 0.3208 vDC = 0.3208 vannDP = 0.3208 vannDC = 0.3208
q [gal/min] A[in2 ]
280 gal/min = 6.26ft/s 2 4 . 276 4 280 gal/min = 12.71ft/s 32 4

4
280 gal/min = 2.42ft/s (8.52 52 )
280 gal/min = 13.86ft/s (8.52 82 )
6.1.2
Energy Conservation
the net ow of energy crossing the boundaries of a system is equal to the rate of increase of the internal energy of the system Energy crosses the boundary of a system as work and/or heat, and internal energy may be of several forms: potential,
kinetic, chemical, thermal, etc. The best way to apply the energy conservation in drilling is using the Bernoullis equation:1 at any point of an ideal steady state incompressible ow system the sum of the specic kinetic energy, the pressure, and the specic potential energy and pressure is constant or, in mathematical terms: 1 v 2 + p + g h = constant , 2 where is the density of the uid (considered incompressible) and h a height with respect to any xed reference. The value of the constant is not relevant, because we can chose any arbitrary reference to the height. Since we will be more concerned to depth instead of height, the following expression for the Bernoulli equation is more appropriate: 1 v 2 + p g D = constant , 2 where D is depth. If we take two points in a ow eld (points 1 and 2), we can write: 1 1 v 2 + p g D = v 2 + p g D . 2 2 2 1 Note that this expression can be used to express hydrostatic pressure as presented before. In this case, the velocities are zero and we have: p2 g D2 = p1 g D1 , p2 = p1 + g (D2 D1 ) . The meaning of the Bernoulli equation is that the total energy at point 1 is equal to the total energy at point 2. This is true for ideal system in which no energy loss occurs in the path between point 1 and point 2. For real systems, however, a loss of energy always occurs because of the internal viscous friction in the uid. This energy loss reveals itself as a friction pressure drop. Therefore, if the uid ows from point 1 to point 2 we have, for real ow: 1 v 2 + p g D 2
1
=
2
1 v 2 + p g D 2
pf .
1
Named after the Swiss physicist and mathematician Daniel Bernoulli.
CHAPTER 6 Drilling Hydraulics
Page 64
Figure 6.2: Schematic of a circulation system. In addition, if between points 1 and 2 we have a pump that increases the pressure by a value we end up with the general energy conservation equation: 1 v 2 + p g D 2 =
2
1 v 2 + p g D 2
+ pp pf .
1
Most frequently we will be interested in calculating the pressure downstream. In these cases we can write: p2 = p1 + g (D2 D1 ) In eld units we have:
2 2 p2 = p1 + 0.0519 (D2 D1 ) 8.073 104 v 2 v 1 + pp pf , (6.2)
1 2 2 v 2 v 1 + pp pf 2
(6.1)
for pressure in psi, density in lb/gal, depth in ft, and velocity in ft/s.
Example 23: Determine the pressure at the lower end of the drillstring if the frictional pressure loss in the drillstring is 1650 psi, the ow rate is 340 gal/min, the mud density is 11 lb/gal, and the well depth is 11500 ft. The internal diameter of the drill collars at the lower end of the drillstring is 213 /16 in, and the pump increases the pressure by 3000 psi. Solution: Consider the simplied diagram beside. We can assume that the velocity of the uid at the tank (point 1) is very low so that v 1 = 0. In addition we have
p1 = 05 psig, D1 = 0 ft, D2 = 11500 ft. The velocity at point 2 is calculated with the mass conservation formula: 340 gal/min vDC = 0.3208 = 17.56ft/s 2.81252 4 Using these values in the expression for the downstream pressure we obtain: p2 = 0+0.0519 11 (11500 0) 8.073 104 11 17.562 02 +3000 1650 p2 = 0 + 6565 2.74 + 3000 1650 = 7912.26 psi 7912 psi
Note the small contribution of the kinetic energy to the pressure at point 2 (2.74 psi.) In most of the situations, we can neglect the kinetic energy term. A situation, however, where we cant neglect the kinetic energy term is in the ow through bit nozzles.
6.2
Flow Through Bit Nozzles
The drilling uid exits the drillstring through nozzles at the bit (normally 3 or 4 nozzles). The nozzles accelerate the uid forming a high-velocity jet below the nozzles, which are hurled against the recently cut formation. The uid jets help to clean the bit cones and to remove the cuttings from beneath the bit (to avoid regrinding them) and so improving the drilling efciency.
Figure 6.3: Longitudinal cut of bit nozzles. (Courtesy SPE) Bit nozzles are made of harderosion resistant materials such as cast tungsten carbide, sintered carbide or a ceramic material.
6.2.1
Pressure Drop Across the Bit
As the uid exits the drillstring through the nozzles, its velocity accelerates from v 1 inside the bit to v 2 at the jet at the expense of a pressure drop across the bit.
Figure 6.4: Pressure drop across the bit. The pressure drop is determined using the mass conservation and the energy conservation laws. The length of the nozzles is very short (about 11 /2 in), so that so that the the potential energy terms can be neglected. In addition, the friction loss is neglected (temporarily), and since there is no other source of pressure, the Equation (6.1) becomes: p2 = p1 1 2 2 v 2 v 1 . 2
The velocity of the uid inside the bit is much less than the velocity in the jet. Therefore we can write for the pressure drop across the bit: pb = p1 p2 = 1 2 v j , 2 (6.3)
where v j is the average velocity of the uid in the jet. The pressure drop across the bit is an important parameter in drilling engineering. If we solve Equation (6.3) for the average nozzle jet velocity, we obtain: 2 pb . v j = This ideal exit velocity, however, is never obtained because of the frictionless assumption made in the beginning of the derivation. The friction pressure loss depends on parameters of the nozzle like the shape, material, and surface roughness. Based on experimental measurements comparing ideal to real nozzle jet velocities, the following expression was proposed: v j = Cd 2 pb , (6.4)
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where the coefcient Cd is called discharge coefcient. Typical values for Cd are in the range 0.95 to 0.98. Using eld units, we can write: v j = Cd pb = 35.2 Cd 8.073 104 pb .
A drilling bit has several nozzles distributed in the bit body (normally equal to the number of cones.) If they have different areas, the total ow q splits to the nozzles depending on their areas. The pressure drop is the same for each nozzle (equal to the pressure inside the bit less the pressure outside the bit), therefore the nozzle velocity is must be the same for each nozzle. Since the ow q is be equal to the sum of the ows in the nozzles we have (assuming 3 nozzles): q = q1 + q2 + q3 = v j A1 + v j A2 + v j A3 = v j (A1 + A2 + A3 ) = v j At , q , At where At is the total area of the bit nozzles. Therefore, the pressure drop across the bit can be expressed by: v j = v j = q = Cd At 2 pb , (6.5)
pb = In eld units we have: pb = 8.310 105
q2 . 2 2 Cd A2 t q2 q2 = , 2 2 Cd A2 12034 Cd A2 t t
(6.6)
for pb in psi, in lbm/gal, q in gpm, and At in in2 .
6.2.2
Hydraulic Power Across the Bit
The power across the bit is obtained by multiplying the pressure drop across the bit by the ow rate: q3 Pb = q pb = . (6.7) 2 2 Cd A2 t
6.2.3
Impact Force of the Jets
The Jet of uid exert a force at the bottom of the hole called jet impact force. It is due to the change in the jet momentum as it hits the bottom. An innitesimal volume dV of uid in the jet with velocity v j has a linear momentum given by (see Figure 6.5):
Figure 6.5: Jet impact force.
dM = dV v j . As this volume hits the surface, the momentum is totally transferred to the surface (the vertical velocity becomes zero), and the force due to this moment transfer is given by: dV dM = v j = q v j . Fj = dt dt Using Equation (6.4) results in: Fj = q Cd 2 pb = Cd 2 q 2 pb ,
Fj = Cd In eld units we have: Fj = Cd 54.85
2 q 2 pb . q 2 pb .
(6.8)
(6.9)
Note that the impact force as derived is only true for nozzles close enough to the formation so that the viscous friction between the uid in the jet and the uid in the vicinity of the bit can be neglected. The sizes of the nozzles are usually measured in 1/32nd of inch (hole diameter), and are reported in thirty-seconds of inch. Nozzles range from 6/32 to 32/32. The area of a #14 nozzle for example is: A(14) = 4 14 32
2
= 0.1503 in2 .
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Example 24: A 12 ppg drilling uid is owing through a bit containing three #13 nozzles. The pump pressure increase is 3000 psi at a ow of 400 gpm. Calculate (a) the pressure drop across the bit, (b) the hydraulic power delivered by the pump, (c) the power spent at the bit, and (d) the hydraulic impact force. (Use 0.95 for the discharge coefcient.) Solution: The total area of the nozzles is: At = 3 A13 =3 4 13 32
2
= 0.3889 in2
The pressure drop across the bit is q2 pb = = 1169 psi 2 12034 Cd A2 t The hydraulic power delivered by the pump is [Equation (2.6)] PH = 3000 400 = 700 hp 1714.29
The power spent at the bit is [Equation (6.7)] Pb = 1169 400 = 272 hp 1714.29
The hydraulic impact force is [Equation (6.8)] Fj = 0.95 12 4002 1169 = 821 lbf 54.85
6.3
Required Hydraulic Power
Consider the expression for the pressure downstream from the uid tank to the bottom of the borehole along the drillstring (see Figure 6.2). If the pressure in the tank is p1 , the pressure at the bottom p2 , after the bit is: p2 = p1 + g (D2 D1 ) 1 2 2 v 1 + pp (pf )ds pb , v 2 2
where pf ds is the frictional pressure drop along the drillstring. Consider now the expression for the pressure downstream from the bottom of the borehole to the uid tank along borehole annular. p1 = p2 + g (D1 D2 )
1 2 2 v 1 v 2 pf ann , 2
Page 610
where pf ann is the frictional pressure drop along the annular. Adding these two equations we obtain: pp = pb + pf , (6.10) where pf = (pf )ds + (pf )ann is the pressure drop along the whole (closed) ow circuit. This expression says that the pressure increase in the pump is equal to the friction pressure drop (considered the whole circuit) plus the pressure drop across the bit. Therefore, since the pump adds energy to the uid system, we clearly see that this energy is spent part in friction, pf , and part to accelerate the uid in the nozzles, represented by the pressure drop across the bit, pb . Multiplying the expression above by the ow rate q , and recalling that power P is equal to q p we obtain the following relation: PH = Pb + Pf where PH is the hydraulic power delivered by the pump to the uid, Pb is the power spent at the bit to accelerate the uid through the nozzles, and Pf is the power spent to overcome viscous friction.
6.4
Bit Hydraulics Optimization
The drilling of a well is made in several phases. A phase is determined by the bit diameter and starts when the rst bit of that size is lowered into the borehole and the rst interval of formation is cut, and ends after the casing or liner is landed and cemented. The common practice is to drill a phase using a drilling uid dense enough to keep the formation uids from entering into the borehole, and light enough to prevent fracturing the formations. The uid density, if correctly determined, is kept constant along the whole phase. When a new bit is lowered into the borehole it is expected that to drill a long interval before it becomes dull. The nozzles of the bit will play an important role in the performance of the bit, and, therefore, must be carefully selected. A wrong selection can be costly. The basic parameter for the bit nozzle selection is the ow rate. A minimum ow rate is required to keep the borehole clean from the cuttings generated by the bit. An unsatisfactory cuttings transport may put the operation at risk. It will be shown later that the frictional pressure drop (also called parasitic pressure loss) in the circulation system can be modeled quite accurately by an expression of the following form: pf = c q m , (6.11)
where c and m are constants that determine the behavior of the pressure drop of the whole circulation system.
The values of both c and m change as the borehole deepens, but not much. The appropriate way to determine the values of c and m (to be used for the next bit) is to run a simple test just before a dull bit is changed. The test consists in circulating the uid at two different ow rates and measuring the pump pressures. Normally one of the ow rates is close to the minimum required to lift the cuttings and the other close to the expected ow rate to be used for the next bit. Using the nozzles sizes of the dull bit and the values of the pump pressures and ow rate, the friction pressure drop is calculated for the two ow rates. Then these two values are used to determine the values of c and m for the next bit run.
Example 25: In a drilling operation, a ow test was performed before start a drillstring trip to change the bit. The following result was obtained: q [gpm] 475 250 pp [psi] 3000 1000
The dull bit has one #13 nozzle and two #12 nozzles. The uid density is 10 ppg. Determine the constants c and m for the next bit run. The discharge coefcient is Cd = 0.95. Solution: The total nozzle area is: At = 4 13 32
2
+2 4
12 32
= 0.3505 in2
For q = 475 gpm we have (Equation [6.6]): pb = 10 4752 q2 = 1691 psi = 2 12034 Cd A2 12034 0.952 0.35052 t pf = 3000 1691 = 1309 psi For q = 250 gpm we have: 10 2502 pb = = 468.4 psi 12034 0.952 0.35052 pf = 1000 468.4 = 531.6 psi Using these values in Equation (6.11) we have: 1309 = c 475m 531.6 = c 250m
Dividing the rst expression by the second expression we obtain: 1309 = 531.6 475 250
m
m = 1.404
Using this result in the rst expression we nd: 1309 = c 4751.404 c = 0.2286
psi gpm1.404
Therefore, for the next bit run, the frictional pressure drop should quite accurately be expressed by: pf = 0.2286 q 1.404
6.4.1
Nozzle Size Selection Criteria
The two most common criteria used to select the nozzles are Maximum hydraulic power at the bit, Maximum jet impact force. 6.4.1.1 Maximum Hydraulic Power at the Bit
The hydraulic power spent at the bit is given by: Pb = PH Pf = pp q pf q . Using the expressions for pf (Equation [6.11])we have: Pb = pp q c q m+1 . Note that the power developed at the bit is function of the ow rate q . To obtain the ow rate of maximum power at the bit, we make dPb = pp (m + 1) c q m = pp (m + 1) pf = 0 . dq Solving for pf gives: pp m = c qopt . m+1 Therefore, the ow rate for maximum power at the bit is: pf = qopt pp = c(m + 1)
1 m
(6.12)
Page 613
The pressure drop at the bit for maximum power is: pb = pp pf = pp pb = m pp . m+1 pp , m+1 (6.13)
6.4.1.2
Maximum Jet Impact Force at the Bit
The jet impact force at the bit is given by (Equation [6.8]): Fj = Cd 2 q 2 pb .
Substituting pb = pp c q m we obtain: Fj = Cd 2 q 2 (pp c q m ) = Cd 2 (pp q 2 c q m+2 ) .
Calculating the derivative of Fj with respect to q and setting to zero, we nd: dFj 2 pp q (m + 2) c q m+1 = Cd = 0, dq 2 (pp q 2 c q m+2 ) which results in 2 pp q (m + 2) c q m+1 = 2 pp q (m + 2) pf q = 0 . Solving for pf gives: 2 pp = c qo ptm . m+2 Therefore, the ow rate for maximum jet impact force is: pf = qopt 2 pp = c(m + 2)
1 m
(6.14)
The pressure drop at the bit for maximum jet impact force is: pb = pp pb = 2 pp , m+2 (6.15)
m pp . m+2
6.4.1.3
Total Bit Nozzle Area
For a given optimum pressure drop at the bit pb (calculated using one of the criteria above), the total nozzle are is calculated using Equation (6.5): pb = q2 , 2 2 Cd A2 t
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(At )opt = In eld units we have: (At )opt =
qopt Cd
. 2 (pb )opt
qopt 109.7 Cd
. (pb )opt
Example 26: For the data of Example 25 and pp = 3000 psi, determine the optimum ow rate, the pressure drop at the bit, and the total nozzle area for (a) maximum hydraulic power at the bit, and (b) maximum jet impact force. Solution: The frictional pressure drop model for Example 25 is pf = 0.2286 q 1.404 . Then we have (a) maximum hydraulic power at the bit pp = c(m + 1) pb =
1 m
qopt
3000 = 0.2286 (1.404 + 1)
1 1.404
= 459 gpm
m 1.404 pp = 3000 = 1752 psi m+1 1.404 + 1 459 = (pb )opt 109.7 0.95 10 = 0.333 in2 1752
(At )otm =
qopt 109.7 Cd
(b) maximum jet impact force 2pp = c(m + 2) pb =

1 m
qopt
2 3000 = 0.2286 (1.404 + 2)
1 1.404
= 587 gpm
m 1.404 pp = 3000 = 1237 psi m+2 1.404 + 2 587 109.7 0.95 10 = 0.506 in2 1237
(At )otm =
Page 615
Figure 6.6: Line of maximum hydraulic power.
6.4.2
Graphical Analysis
The hydraulic condition of a borehole is continuously changing as the borehole deepens. Therefore, it would be necessary to change continuously the nozzle total area to attain optimum condition all the time. Since this is not economically possible, the best we can do is to keep the hydraulic parameters close to the optimum point. It is always desirable to operate the pumps in their maximum power (PH )max . The relationship between hydraulic power, pressure and ow rate is given by PH = p q . 1714.29 (2.6)
Taking the logarithm of this expression and solving for log pp we obtain: log pp = log (1714.29 PH ) log q . For the maximum pump pressure (PH )max , plotting log pp versus logq results in a a straight line with slope -1, as shown in Figure 6.6 (other values for PH plots as lines parallel to the maximum power line). The pump can theoretically operate in any condition below the maximum hydraulic power line. In addition, three other constraints limit the operational area: 1. the maximum allowable surface pressure (pp )max , 2. the minimum ow rate to carry the cuttings qmin ,
Figure 6.7: Additional hydraulic constraints. 3. The maximum ow rate for a given pump liner qmax . These three constraints are shown in the Figure 6.7. The shaded area represents the possible operational conditions. The bold line corresponds to the maximum operational pressure for those constraints. However, in order to be able to operate on both the slanted bold line and on the horizontal bold line (maximum power or maximum pressure) it would be necessary to change the pump liner frequently as the borehole deepens. The common practice, however, is to select a liner to operate the pumps at the maximum allowed surface pressure at the maximum hydraulic power, and use this liner, if possible, in the entire well or, at least, for the whole phase. The maximum ow rate for the maximum surface pressure is given by qmax = 1714.29 (PH )max , pmax
and shown in the graph in Figure 6.8. Under these limitations, the pump should operate such that the surface operational parameters remain on the bold line of the graph in Figure 6.8. That is, the pump will be operating at the maximum ow rate during the shallow portion of the well (the pressure is dictated by the resistance to ow), and at the maximum pressure during the lower portion of the well. The constants c and m, which determine the frictional pressure drop in the uid circuit, depend on the depth (and other factors too). For each depth, an optimum nozzle total ow area At exists, for a given optimization criterion, which depends on the constants c and m. Assuming the constant m will not change
Figure 6.8: Ideal surface operational parameters. too much as the well deepens, the optimum ratio pf (for one of the criteria) p remains quite constant. Therefore, as the pump operational conditions change during the drilling, the optimum condition is that for which the values of the frictional pressure drop pf follows the bold line in Figure 6.9. This line is called the path of optimum hydraulics. Consider now the expression for the pressure drop due to friction, pf = c q m , where c and m depend on the depth. Taking the logarithm of this expression results in the following expression: log pf = log c + m log q Therefore, the graph of log pf log q plots as a straight line with slope m as shown in Figure 6.10. The point where a frictional pressure drop line intercepts the path of optimum hydraulics denes the pair qopt and (pb )opt . These values of optimum ow rate and optimum pressure drop at the bit are used to calculate the total bit nozzle area for the next bit run.
p
Example 27: Determine the proper pump operating conditions and bit nozzle sizes for maximum hydraulic power for the next bit run. The bit currently in use has three #12 nozzles. The driller has recorded that when the 9.8 lbm/gal uid is pumped at a rate of 485 gal/min, a pump pressure of 2900 psig was observed and when the pump was slowed to a rate of 260 gal/min, a pump pressure of 980 psig was observed. The nominal power of the pump is 1250 hp with an efciency of 95%. The minimum ow rate to lift the cuttings is 230 gal/min. The
Figure 6.9: Path of optimum hydraulics. maximum allowable surface pressure is 3000 psig. The uid density will remain unchanged in the next bit run. (Use Cd = 0.95 Solution: The hydraulic power delivered by the pump is (pH )max = 1250 95% = 1188 hp For a maximum surface pressure of 3000 psi, the maximum ow rate is qmax = 1714.29 1188 = 679 gpm 3000
Now we need to calculate the frictional pressure drop for the two owing test points. The total nozzle area is At = 3 4 12 32
2
= 0.3313n2
The pressure drop across the bit and the frictional pressure drop for q = 485 gpm are: q2 9.8 4852 pb = = = 1934 psi 2 12034 Cd A2 12034 0.952 0.33132 t pf = pp pb = 2900 1934 = 966 psi The pressure drop across the bit and the friction pressure drop for q = 260 gpm are: 9.8 2602 = 556 psi pb = 12034 0.952 0.33132 pf = 980 556 = 424 psi
Figure 6.10: Frictional pressure drop lines. Therefore, we have for c and m: 966 = c 485m 424 = c 260m m = 1.321 c = 0.2741
psi gpm1.321
For the maximum hydraulic power criterion, the optimum pressure drop due to friction and the optimum pressure drop across the bit are: (pf )opt = (pb )opt = 3000 pp = = 1292 psi m+1 1.321 + 1
m 1.321 pp = 3000 = 1708 psi m+1 1.321 + 1
which denes the optimum hydraulics for the maximum hydraulic power at the bit. A plot of the path of optimum hydraulics, the line of frictional pressure drop line (the straight line passing at the two test points), and the optimum operational point are shown in the graph in Figure 6.11. The frictional pressure drop line intercepts the path of optimum hydraulics at 1292 psi. The optimum ow rate is calculated from the frictional pressure drop model for the condition of the operation: 1292 = 0.2741 q 1.321 q = 603 gpm
Figure 6.11: Graph for Example 27. Therefore, the pressure drop across the bit is pb = 1708psi at the ow rate of 603 gpm. The total nozzle bit area is calculated from: (At )otm = Sets of nozzles to use are (13, 14, 14) At = 0.403 in2 (12, 14, 15) At = 0.434 in2 (11, 14, 15) At = 0.438 in2 603 109.7 0.95 9.8 = 0.4383 in2 1708
Page 621
Page 622
Chapter 7 Introduction to Drilling Fluids

The objective of a drilling operation is to drill, evaluate, and complete a well that will produce oil and/or gas efciently. Drilling uids perform numerous functions that help make this possible. The responsibility for performing these functions is held jointly by the mud engineer and those who direct the drilling operation. The duty of those charged with drilling the hole including the oil company representative, drilling contractor, and rig crew is to make sure that the correct drilling procedures are conducted. The chief duty of the mud engineer is to assure that mud properties are correct for the specic drilling environment. The mud engineer should also recommend drilling practice changes that will help reach the drilling objectives.
7.1
Functions of Drilling Fluids
Drilling uid (also called drilling mud) is a mixture of water, oil, clay, and various physical chemical additives. It performs various functions in drilling and contributes with a large portion to the total well cost. In this way the drilling uid system (or mud program) has to be carefully designed to ensure a successful drilling project. The drilling uid serves many purposes, which may not all be achieved simultaneously for all parts of the well. In this way, an individual prioritization has to be followed. Below is a summary of some main drilling uid functions: 1. Transport the drilling cuttings from the bottom of the hole to the surface. For this, a higher uid circulation velocity and a higher uid viscosity are favorable. 2. Create an overbalanced drilling condition to control the formation pressure. Fluid density (or mud weight) is increased with additives like barite, iron oxide, etc, to maintain a hydrostatic pressure inside the well which is slightly higher than the formation pressure. Normally, an overbalance of 100 to 200 psi has proven to be adequate to establish safe drilling.
CHAPTER 7 Introduction to Drilling Fluids Page 71
3. Reduce chemical and physical interactions with formation. This avoid or reduce the occurrence of formation swelling, formation cavein, and problems associated with cementing. The invasion of uid, ltrate, or small solids into the formation can cause damage to the formation and result is less productivity 4. Produce an impermeable and thin seal (mud cake) along the walls of permeable formations to reduce uid and ltrate loss to the formations, reducing the damage potential of the uid. This function is obtained by adding bentonite to the uid, and by appropriate chemical treatment to enhances deocculation and solids distribution. 5. Cool and lubricate the drilling bit and drillstring to minimize wear. Bentonite, oil, various emulsifying agents, graphite, and others favor the cooling and/or lubrication capacity of the uid. 6. Allow efcient solids control at the surface (separation of cuttings, formation gas, etc, from the uid) by using appropriate solids control equipment. (To be recirculated, a maximum of 2% of sand contends are allowed to avoid early wear of mud pumps and drilling equipment in general.) 7. Hold drilling cuttings in suspension when circulation is interrupted. Failure of this function would allow cuttings to fall down the hole and settle around the drillstring possibly causing pipe sticking problems. The thixotropic 1 behavior of drilling uids determines its capacity to keep solids in suspension (including weighting material). 8. Produce buoyancy force to partly support the weight of the drillstring and casing string. An increase in mud weight, which increases buoyancy, results in smaller surface hoisting equipment requirements. 9. The drilling uid should not interfere with logging measurements. 10. Transmit he hydraulic power to the bit and allow maximum penetration rates. 11. Minimize the torque and drag of the drillstring to reduce wear and failure of drillstring. 12. As a mean to transmit data between bottom hole equipment and surface equipment.
7.2
Types of Drilling Fluid
The composition of a particular drilling uid system depends on the actual requirements of the individual well or well section. Wells are drilled through different formations, which require different mud properties to achieve optimum
The ability of a uid, such as cement or drilling mud, to develop gel strength over time when not subject to shearing, and then to liquefy when agitated.
1
CHAPTER 7 Introduction to Drilling Fluids
Page 72
penetrations and stable borehole conditions. Economics, additives (cost and availability), temperature prole, contamination, and environment are some important factors that determine the design of the drilling uid. The basic classication of drilling uids is (subclassications exist): 1. Waterbase uids (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Clear water and native muds Inhibitive waterbased muds calcium muds Dispersed muds lignosulfonate muds Nondispersed muds KCL/Polymer muds Flocculated muds Saltsaturated muds
2. Oilbase uids and Emulsion uids (a) Oilinwater emulsion (b) Waterinoil emulsions 3. Synthetic Fluids 4. Aerated uids (a) Gaseous uids (air, nitrogen, CO2 , natural gas) (b) Foams (c) Mists
7.2.1
WaterBase Fluids
Waterbase uids are any drilling uid in which the continuous phase, where some materials are in suspension and others are dissolved, is water. Thus any waterbase uid system consists of a water phase, inert solids, reactive solids phase, and chemical additives. Each of these parts contribute to the overall uid properties. The individual contributions are: water: create initial viscosity, inert solids: (low-gravity solids like sand and chert, and high-gravity solids like barite and lead suldes) produce required mud weight, reactive solids: ( low-gravity solids like bentonite and attapulgite clays) cause additional viscosity and gel, chemical additives: (thinners [phosphate, chrome, lignosulfonate, lignites, surfactants] and thickeners [lime, cement,polymers]) provide control to viscosity, yield point, gel strength, uid loss, pH, ltration behavior, etc. Caustic soda (NaOH) is used to keep a high pH required to control corrosion, hydrogen embrittlement and the solubility of Ca2 + and Mg2 +.
7.2.1.1
Clear Water and Native Muds
To drill compact formations which are normally pressured2 , fresh water and saltsaturated water can be used as drilling mud. Native muds are the result of mixing water and clays or shales from the cuttings drilled. Here the clays or shales are dissolved by the water and returned to the surface. Clear water and native muds are the cheapest mud systems since no additional material is needed to form the mud. They are also environmentally best accepted. 7.2.1.2 Inhibitive WaterBase Muds Calcium Muds
When swelling and hydration of clays and shales are expected, inhibitive water base muds can be used. Calcium muds are best suited to drill formations that contain gypsum and hydrite. A subclassication of inhibitive waterbase muds distinguishes seawater muds, saturated saltwater muds, lime muds, and gypsum muds. 7.2.1.3 Dispersed Muds Lignosulfonate Muds
Dispersed muds are used when the following characteristics are required: relative high mud weight (larger than 14 ppg), tolerance to moderately high formation temperatures, low ltration loss high tolerance for contamination by drilling solids. Some of the disadvantages of dispersed muds are sloughing of shales and formation damage due to dispersing of formation clays in the presence of lignosulfonate. Dispersed mud systems consist of: fresh or salty water, bentonite, lignosulfonate, caustic soda colloidal polymers (carboxymethylcellulose or stabilized starch). In general, these mud systems exhibit better control of viscosity, higher solids tolerance, and better control of ltration than nondispersed muds.
2
Formation with pore pressure gradient equal to brine density
Page 74
7.2.1.4
NonDispersed Muds KCL/Polymer Muds
To drill sloughing shales and water sensitive rocks such as productive sands, which are prone to formation damage, fresh water nondispersed muds are used. Commonly, nondispersed muds are associated with low mud weights and low solid concentrations. Nondispersed mud systems consist of: fresh water or brine, potassium chloride (KCl), inhibiting polymer, viscosier, stabilized starch or carboxymethyl cellulose, caustic soda, lubricants. Lowsolids polymer mud systems are widespread in the industry since they offer advantages like increased penetration rate, hole stability, shear thinning ability, hole cleaning with maximum hydraulics, and lower equivalent circulation density over conventional deocculated muds. Besides these advantages, they also have disadvantages like instability at temperatures above 250 F, irreversible absorption of the polymer on clay, higher dilution, the requirement of adequate solids removal equipment, and the fact that they are more corrosive. 7.2.1.5 Flocculated Muds
Flocculated muds generally causes a dynamic increase in ltration, viscosity, and gel strength. Flocculation refers to a thickening of the mud due to edge toedge and edgetoface association of clay particles. The occulation is commonly caused by high active solids concentration, high electrolyte concentration, and high temperature. To reduce the occulating tendency of the mud, chemical additives, also called deocculants or thinners, are used. Thinners like phosphates, tannin, lignin, and lignosulfonate are used to lower the yield point and gel strength. When deocculants are added, the pH is controlled by NaOH. 7.2.1.6 SaltSaturated Muds
Several mud systems have been included in this classication. Saturated salt systems have a chloride concentration near 190,000 mg/l (saturated) and are
used to drill salt formations. Saltwater systems have a chloride content of 10,000 to 190,000 mg/l. The lower levels are usually referred to as brackish or seawater systems. Saltsaturated muds are used to drill through salt domes and salt sections. These mud systems are saturated with sodium chloride (NaCl), which prevents severe hole enlargements due to washouts of the salt formations. Swelling of bentonitic shales is controlled by adding of polymer. Various specialty products, such as attapulgite, CMC, starch, and others, are used to increase viscosity for holecleaning properties and to reduce uid loss.
7.2.2
OilBase Muds
In oilbase mud systems, crude or diesel oil forms the continuous phase in the waterinoil emulsion. In this way oilbase mud can have as little as 3% to 5% or as much as 20% to 40% (invert emulsions) of water content. Oilbase mud systems are used when: 1. Drilling sensitive production zones or troublesome shales, 2. Directional drilling and slim hole drilling, 3. Drilling of depleted reservoirs, 4. Drilling salt sections and formations that contain hydrogen sulde, 5. High risk of pipe sticking problems, 6. Drilling formations with higher temperatures. Lowgravity solids content has to be monitored closely when drilling with oil base muds. The reason is because there is no hydration of solids (clays), which frequently causes the contents of lowgravity solids to exceed acceptable levels. This results in reduction of penetration rate, increase risk of formation damage, and increase risk of differential sticking. Since oilbase muds contain substantially less colloidal particles, they exhibit an increased spurt uid loss 3 . Due to the higher ltration rates, the monitoring of highpressure/hightemperature ltration and the drilling conditions are important to ensure that excessive ltration or lter cake buildup does not lead to drilling problems.
The instantaneous volume (spurt) of liquid that passes through a lter medium prior to deposition of a competent and controlling lter cake.
3
Page 76
7.2.3
Synthetic Fluids
Synthetic uids are designed to mirror oilbased mud performance without the environmental hazards. Primary synthetic uids are esters, ethers, poly alpha olen and isomerized alphaolen. They are environmentally friendly, can be discharged offshore, and are nonsheening and biodegradable.
7.2.4
Aerated Fluids
Four basic operations are included in this specialized category. These include: 1. Dry air drilling, which involves injecting dry air or gas into the wellbore at rates capable of achieving annular velocities that will remove cuttings; 2. Mist drilling, which involves injecting a foaming agent into the air stream that mixes with produced water and coats the cuttings to prevent mud rings, allowing drill solids to be removed; 3. Foam uses surfactants and possibly clays or polymers to form a high carrying-capacity foam; 4. Aerated uids rely on mud with injected air (which reduces hydrostatic head) to remove drilled solids from the wellbore. These uids are discussed in details in advanced drilling courses (air drilling, underblanced drilling, etc).
7.3
Laboratory Tests
The API has recommended standard methods of conducting eld and laboratory tests for drilling uids and detailed procedures may be found in the API publication, Recommended Practice: Standard Procedure for Field Testing WaterBased (OilBased) Drilling Fluids, API RP13B1, 13B2 and supplements (also see 13I for Laboratory Testing Drilling Fluids, 13J for Testing Heavy Brines and supplements).
7.3.1
7.3.1.1
WaterBase Mud Tests

Density of Fluid (Mud Weight:)
The density or weight of the mud may be determined by the use of any instrument of sufcient accuracy to permit measurement to within 0.1 lb/gal (0.5 lb/ft3 or 5 psi/1000 ft of depth).
Figure 7.1: A mud balance.
Figure 7.2: A Marsh funnel.
For all practical purposes, density means weight per unit volume and making a density test means weighing the mud. The weight of mud may be expressed as a hydrostatic pressure gradient in psi/1000 ft of vertical depth, as a density in lb/gal, lb/ft3 , or specic gravity.
7.3.1.2
Marsh Viscosity:
The Marsh funnel is used for routine eld measurement of the viscosity of drilling mud. It is a simple device for indicating viscosity on a routine basis. When used with a measuring cup, the funnel gives an empirical value for the consistency of a uid.
7.3.1.3
Dynamic Viscosity, Gel:
The rotary viscometer is used to supplement the information obtained from the Marsh funnel, particularly with respect to the gel characteristics of the mud. It is capable of giving the apparent viscosity, plastic viscosity, yield point, and gel strengths (initial and timed). Drilling uid contained in the annular space between two concentric cylinders is sheared by the rotation of the outer cylinder (rotor sleeve) at a constant RPM (rotational velocity). The torque at the rotor sleeves is transmitted by the uid to the inner cylinder (bob). A torsion spring restrains the movement of the bob, and a dial indicates displacement of the bob. Instrument constants are adjusted so that plastic viscosity and yield point are obtained by using readings from rotor sleeve speeds of 600 and 300 RPM. A six-speed model (600, 300, 200, 100, 6, and 3 rpm) can be used to fully characterize a uid.
7.3.1.4
API Fluid Loss:
Determines the ltration properties of drilling muds and cement slurries. Generally consists of a mud reservoir mounted in a frame, a pressure source, a ltering medium, and a graduated cylinder for receiving and measuring ltrate.
Figure 7.3: A rotational viscometer (rheometer). Working pressure is 100 psi and the ltering area is 7.1 in2 , as specied by the American Petroleum Institute (API RP13B1 and RP13B2).
7.3.1.5
HTHP Filtration:
Similar to API lter press (with half ltration area), but can be used in pressures up to to 1200 psi and temperatures up to 500 F.
Figure 7.4: A API lter press.
Figure 7.5: A HTHP lter press.
Page 79
Figure 7.6: Sand content sieve. 7.3.1.6 FilterCake Compressibility:
Figure 7.7: Retort.
This is not yet an API test. The purpose is to determine some mechanical properties of the mud cake like penetration resistance, adherence, compressibility, etc.
7.3.1.7
Solid Contents:
A retort is used to determine solid contents including dissolved ions.
7.3.1.8
Sand Content:
Determines sand content by sieve analysis. The volume of sand, including void spaces between grains, is usually measured and expressed as a percentage by volume of the drilling uid.
7.3.1.9
Methylene Blue Capacity:
Determines the capacity of a clay to absorb cations from a solution, and thereby predict how the clay will react in its intended use. The clay may be component of a drilling uid, a binder in foundry sand, or a clay used for some other purpose. The Methylene Blue Test is based on the property of clays known as base exchange capacity, that is, clays can exchange some of their ions for the ions of certain other chemicals. The number of ions available for this exchange varies with different types of clay.
Flocculant Efciency Test:

Figure 7.8: Methyl blue capacity test kit. 7.3.1.10 pH:
Figure 7.9: A pH meter.
Indicator sticks and/or pH meter are used to determine the hydrogen ion concentration in the mud and in the ltrate. 7.3.1.11 Chemical Analysis of WaterBase Fluids (Titration)
Alkalinity (Pf, Mf, Pm and Lime Content) Garrett Gas Train (GGT) Test for Carbonates Chloride (Cl) Calcium Qualitative Total Hardness Hardness in Dark Filtrates Sulfate Potassium (K+) Nitrate Ion Concentration PHPA Polymer Concentration
7.3.1.12
Chemical Analysis Relating to Corrosion
SULF-X (ZnO) and Basic Zinc Carbonate (ZnCO3 Zn(OH)2 ) Iron Sulde Scale (Qualitative) Hydrogen Sulde (H2 S) Phosphate
Figure 7.10: A titration kit.
Figure 7.11: A permeameter kit. Oxygen Scavenger: SO3 2- Content Resistivity Resistivity of the mud, ltrate and lter cake is sometimes needed in order to help evaluate the electric logs.
7.3.1.13
Permeability Plugging Test
The Permeability Plugging Apparatus (PPA) is designed to provide accurate simulation and measurement of downhole static ltration. The PPA is very useful in predicting how a drilling uid can form a permeable lter cake to seal off depleted/under pressure intervals. The PPA utilizes a conventional HTHP Heating Jacket to simulate reservoir temperature.
7.3.2
7.3.2.1
Oil-Base Mud Testing

Aniline Point Determination
The test indicates if an oil is likely to damage elastomers that come in contact with the oil. It is the lowest temperature (F or C) at which equal volumes of aniline (C6 H5 NH2 ) and the oil form a single phase. A low AP is indicative of higher aromatics, while a high AP is indicative of lower aromatics content.
Figure 7.12: An aniline point kit. 7.3.2.2 Electrical Stability:
Figure 7.13: Electrical stability tester.
Indicates the emulsion and oilwetting qualities of the sample. The test is performed by inserting the ES probe into a cup of 120 F (48.9 C) mud and pushing a test button. The ES meter automatically applies an increasing voltage (from 0 to 2000 volts) across an electrode gap in the probe. Maximum voltage that the mud will sustain across the gap before conducting current is displayed as the ES voltage. 7.3.2.3 Chemical Analysis of Oil-Base Drilling Muds:
Alkalinity (Pom) (VSAAPI) Salinity Chlorides Whole Mud Calcium Calculation Suldes
7.4
Fluid Density and Viscosity Calculations
Additives are added to the drilling uid in order to bring the uid parameters to the required values. Density and viscosity are the two most basic parameters to control. The drilling uid technician or engineer should carry some calculations, and laboratory measurements and tests to determine the correct additive and the correct amount to be mixed to the uid system. Fluid volumes are normally measured in barrels. Useful conversion factors are: 1 bbl = 42 gal 1 gal = 231 in3 1 ft3 = 1728 in3 1 in3 = 2.543 cm3
1 lbm = 453.59 g Powder and dry additives are normally measured in pounds, and liquid additives are normally measured in gallons or barrels. Pilot tests are laboratory (small scale) tests that aim to determine the amount of additive required to bring some uid parameters to determinate values. Small scale tests are fast and cheap to perform. A handy conversion for is that of lbm/bbl to g/cm3: 1 lbm bbl 453.59g 1lbm 1bbl 42gal 1gal 231in3 1in3 2.543 cm3 = 1g 350cm3
Therefore, in a pilot test with 350 ml of uid, 1 gram of added additive corresponds to the addition of 1 lbm of dry additive to 1 barrel of uid. A similar conversion shows that 25 ml of liquid additive in 350 ml or uid corresponds to 3 gallons of additive per barrel of uid.
7.4.1
Density Calculations
It is frequently necessary to compute the density of a mixture from the amount of the substances in the mixture. It is also important to be able to calculate the amount to be added of a given substance in order to increase or decrease the density of the mixture. The density and specic gravity of some common substances used in drilling uids are shown in the following table: Substance Specic Gravity water 1 Diesel oil 0.86 bentonite 2.6 attapulgite 2.89 sand 2.63 barite 4.2 drilling cuttings 2.6 cement 3.14 CaCl2 1.96 NaCl 2.16 Density (lbm/gal) 8.33 7.2 21.7 24.1 21.9 35 21.7 26.2 13.3 18.0
The assumption that the mixture is ideal, that is, that the volume of the mixture is equal to the volume of the components (not valid for highly soluble substances like NaCl in water) facilitates the volumedensity calculations. The relations are: Vmix = Vi , where Vmix is the volume of the mixture and Vi is the volume of the component i of the mixture, and Mmix = mix Vmix =
Mi =
i Vi ,
Page 714
where M is mass and is density. In general, the nal density of a mixture of substances (assuming ideal mixture) is: mix = i Vi . Vi
Example 28: Calculate the volume and density of a uid composed of 25 lbm of bentonite, 60 lbm of barite, and 1 bbl of fresh water. Solution: The volume and the mass of the mixture are: Vmix = 1bbl 42gal 1bbl 42gal 1bbl mix = + 25lbm 60lbm + = 44.87gal 21.7lbm/gal 35lbm/gal lbm + 25lbm + 60lbm = 434.9lbm gal
Mmix = 1bbl
8.33
434.9lbm = 9.69 lbm/gal 44.87gal
7.4.2
Density Treatment
The density control of a drilling uid is obtained usually with the use of barium sulfate (BaSO4) commonly called barite. The specic gravity of pure barite is 4.5, and the average specic gravity of API barite is 4.2 or 35 lbm/gal. To keep the barite in suspension, a minimum gel strength of 3 lbf/100ft2 is required and normally obtained with waterbentonite uid. The bentonite itself adds viscosity and density to the water. The most common weight treatment is that of increasing the density of the uid by adding barite. Four basic different procedures exist and must be understood. They are: 1. Increase uid density by adding barite (no volume limit). In this case it is not necessary to discard part of the original uid. 2. Increase uid density by adding barite (volume limit). In this case it is necessary to discard part of the original uid before adding barite to the system. We assume that the nal volume is equal to the original volume. 3. Increase uid density by adding barite and water (no volume limit). In this case, hydration water is added to avoid increasing the viscosity.
4. Increase uid density by adding barite and water (volume limit). In this case it is necessary to discard part of the original uid before adding barite and hydration water. 5. Reduce uid density by adding water and bentonite (no volume limit). 6. Reduce uid density by adding water and bentonite (volume limit). 7.4.2.1 Increase Density No Volume Limit No Hydration Water
Let V1 and 1 be respectively the volume and the density of the uid before the treatment. The required density of the uid after treatment is 2 . Since there is no limit for the nal volume V2 , no discard of uid is needed before the treatment. Using volume and mass continuity we have: V1 + VB = V2 , 1 V1 + B VB = 2 V2 , where VB and B are respectively the volume and density of the barite. Solving for VB in terms of V1 we get: VB = 2 1 V1 . B 2 (7.1)
The barite is added to the uid in mass quantity (usually in lbm), and since mB = B VB we can write: mB = B VB . (7.2) This is the mass of barite needed to add to obtain a uid with density 2 . The nal volume V2 is given by: V2 = V1 + VB . (7.3) 7.4.2.2 Increase Density Volume Limit No Hydration Water
In this case, since the volume is limited (and assumed to be the initial volume V1), it is necessary to discard a volume Vd before increasing the density. Using volume and mass continuity we have: V1 Vd + VB = V1 Vd = VB , 1 V1 1 Vd + B VB = 2 V1 . Note that the discarded volume will be equal to the volume of barite added to increase the density. Substituting Vd for VB in the second equation and factoring out Vd we obtain: 2 1 Vd = VB = V1 . (7.4) B 1 With VB , the mass of barite to be added is given by mB = B VB .
(7.5)
Page 716
7.4.2.3
Increase Density No Volume Limit Hydration Water
If barite is added to the mud, a part of the free water in the mud will be adsorbed by the particles of barite (particle sizes in the silt and ne sand range - 2 m to 100 m). The water will come from the uid and, as consequence, an increase of viscosity will occur. To avoid this increase in viscosity, a volume of water is added along with the barite to serve as hydration water, and thus keeping the viscosity under control. The amount of water added depends on the amount of barite added. Normally, 2 to 3 gallons of water are required for 100 lbm of barite. Let vh be volume of hydration water per mass of barite, and Vw and w the volume and density of the hydration water. Then we have: V1 + VB + Vw = V2 , 1 V1 + B VB + w Vw = 2 V2 . The volume of water and the volume of barite are related by the specic volume vh : Vw = mB vh = B VB vh . Substituting this value in the system above we get: V1 + (1 + B vh ) VB = V2 , 1 V1 + (1 + w vh ) B VB = 2 V2 . Solving for VB in terms of V1 we get: VB = 2 1 V1 . (1 + w vh ) B (1 + B vh ) 2 (7.6)
With VB , the mass of barite, volume of water, and the nal volume are given by: mB = B VB , Vw = mB vh , V2 = V1 + VB + Vw . 7.4.2.4 Increase Density Volume Limit Hydration Water (7.7) (7.8) (7.9)
The nal volume is V1 , and a volume Vd must be discarded before the treatment. The continuity equations are: V1 Vd + VB + Vw = V1 Vd = VB + Vw , 1 V1 1 Vd + B VB + w Vw = 2 V1 . Using Vw = B VB vh and the rst equation above gives: Vd = (1 + B vh ) VB .
Substituting these two results in the second equation and solving for VB results in: 2 1 V1 . (7.10) VB = (1 + w vh ) B (1 + B vh ) 1 With VB , the volume to discard, the mass of barite, and the volume of hydration water are: Vd = (1 + B vh ) VB , (7.11) mB = B VB , Vw = mB vh . (7.12) (7.13)
Example 29: It is required to increase the density of 300 bbl of a drilling mud from 9.3 ppg to 10.5 ppg. Calculate the amount of barite and the suitable procedure (discard, hydration water, etc) for the four cases above. (Assume B = 35 ppg, vw = 2.4 gal/100 lbm of barite, and w = 8.34 ppg.) Solution: Case 1: No volume limit, no hydration water. Using Equations 7.1 to 7.3: VB = mB = 35 10.5 9.3 300 bbl = 14.69 bbl 35 10.5 42 gal 1 bbl = 21, 600 lbm
lbm 14.69 bbl gal
V2 = 300 + 14.69 = 314.69 bbl 315 bbl Case 2: Volume limit, no hydration water. Using Equations 7.4 and 7.5: Vd = VB = 10.5 9.3 300 = 14.01 bbl 35 9.3
mB = 35 14.01 42 = 20, 591 lbm The nal volume is equal to the original volume, i.e., 300 bbl. Case 3: No volume limit, hydration water. Using Equations 7.6, to 7.9: VB = 1 + 8.34
2 .4 100
10.5 9.3 35 1 + 35
2 .4 100
10.5
300 = 15.87 bbl
mB = 35 15.87 (42) = 23, 328 lbm 2.4 = 560 gal = 13.33 bbl 100 V2 = 300 + 15.87 + 13.33 = 329.2 bbl 329 bll Vw = 23, 328 Note that the volume of barite is larger than in case 1 because its density is reduced by the hydration water.
Case 4: Volume limit, hydration water. Using Equations 7.10 to 7.13: VB =

2 .4 100
1 + 8.34
10.5 9.3 35 1 + 35
2 .4 100
2 .4 100
9.3
300 = 14.46 bbl
Vd = 1 + 35
14.46 = 26.6 bbl
mB = 35 14.46 (42) = 21, 258 lbm Vw = 21, 258 2.4 = 510 gal = 12.15 bbl 100
7.4.3
Initial Viscosity Treatment
Bentonite is a clay mineral that is composed principally of threelayer clays, such as montmorillonite, and widely used as a mud additive for viscosity and ltration control. Commercial bentonite ores vary widely in amount and quality of the swelling clay, sodium montmorillonite. Ores of lower quality, those with more calciumtype montmorillonite, are treated during grinding by adding one or more of the following: sodium carbonate, longchain synthetic polymers, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), starch, or polyphosphate. These help make the nal product meet quality specications. Clays, in general when ground to colloidal size (less than 2m in diameter) and, mixed with water, form a colloidal suspension that causes the increase in viscosity and gel strength. Different clays produce different levels of viscosity. The term yield is used to specify the quality of a clay according to the number of barrels of 15 cP viscosity mud (measured at 600 RPM in a API standard rotational viscometer) that one ton of the clay would produce (sometimes it is used 30 cP). Clays can be classied as high, medium or lowyield. A bentonite produces at least 85 bbl of mud per ton. Highyield clays produced 30 to 50 bbl/ton, and lowyield clays produced 15 to 30 bbl/ton. The graph in Figure 7.14 shows typical performances for different types of clay. We can clearly see that bentonite can produce large viscosities with low densities. With the right selection of clay and other additives (like barite) a wide range of viscosity/density can be obtained. It is important to stress that viscosity is also affected by other additives, and pilot tests are always required to obtain the correct properties.
Example 30: It is required to produce 350 bbl of a waterbase drilling uid with 15 cP and 9.4 ppg using premium clay and barite. Specify the amount of material needed. Assume the same material properties of the Example 29. Solution:
From the graph in Figure 7.14, we see that premium clay produces 15 cP mud at the density of 8.94 ppg. We have 3 continuity equations and 1 relationship to solve: Final mud volume and mass equations: Vw + Vc + Vh + VB = Vm w Vw + c Vc + w Vh + B VB = m Vm Mass of the initial mud (water and premium clay): i (Vw + Vc ) = w Vw + c Vc Hydration water requirement: Vh = B VB vh With numbers (watch out for the units): Vw + Vc + Vh + VB = 350 8.34 Vw + 21.7 Vc + 8.34 Vh + 35 VB = 9.4 350 Mass of the initial mud (water and premium clay): 8.94 (Vw + Vc ) = 8.34 Vw + 21.7 Vc Hydration water requirement: Vh = 35 VB Solving the system we nd: Vw = 323.21 bbl Vc = 15.2 bbl Vh = 5.29 bbl VB = 6.3 bbl Therefore, the total water volume, and the mass of clay and barite are: Vt = 323.21 + 5.29 = 328.5 bbl mc = 15.2 21.7 (42) = 13, 851 lbm mB = 6.3 35 (42) = 9, 261 lbm 2.4 100
Page 720
Figure 7.14: Clay performance for viscosity.
Page 721
Page 722
Chapter 8 Rheology and Rheometry

Rheology is the science that study the ow behavior of uids. Rheometry is the process or processes to measure the various rheological parameters of a uid. Both are important to the study of drilling uids.
8.1
Rheological Classication of Fluids
All uids encountered in drilling and production operations can be characterized as either Newtonian uids or nonNewtonian uids. Newtonian uids, like water, gases, and thin oils (high API gravity) show a direct proportional relationship between the shear stress and the shear rate , assuming pressure and temperature are kept constant. They are mathematically dened by: = , (8.1) where is shear stress, is shear rate. The proportionality coefcient is the (dynamic) viscosity of the uid. A dimensional analysis shows that dynamic s = viscosity has the dimension [F L2 T ] or [M L1 T 1 ]. Typical units are N m2 lbf s P a s, P (poise in regard to Poiseuille), cP (centipoise), and f t2 . Conversion factors are: g 1P=1 , cm s Ns 1 2 = 10 P = 1000 cP , m 1 lbf s 1 cP = . 47880.259 ft2 A plot of versus produces a straight line that passes through the origin and has a slop . Viscosity usually changes with pressure and temperature. (See Figure 8.1). Most uids encountered at drilling operations like drilling mud, cement slurries, heavy oil, and gelled fracturing uids do not show this direct relationship between shear stress and shear rate. They are characterized as non Newtonian uids. To describe the behavior of non-Newtonian uids, various
CHAPTER 8 Rheology and Rheometry Page 81
Figure 8.1: Typical graph of Newtonian uids.
models like the Bingham plastic and the Power Law uid models (two parameter models), the HerschelBulkley and the RobertsonStiff uid models, which are timeindependent models. There exist timedependent uid models, which present change of viscosity and other parameters based in time and shear history. Timedependent uids model are sub-classied as thixotropic (time thinning) and rheopetic (time-thickening). It shall be understood that all the models mentioned above are based on different assumptions that are hardly valid for all drilling operations, thus they are valid to a certain extend only. Most commonly drilling uids are treated behaving either aa a Bingham plastic or a powerlaw uid. These two models can describe relatively well most of the common drilling uid for all ordinary drilling operations.
8.1.0.1
BinghamPlastic Fluid Model:
The Bingham plastic uid model is a linear model (although not proportional), and is expressed mathematically as follows.
>0 = y + p = y + p <0 =0 y y
(8.2)
The constant y is called the yield point usually denoted YP and y is called plastic viscosity, usually denoted PV. The typical graph of a Bingham plastic uid is shown in Figure 8.2.
Figure 8.2: Typical graph of Bingham-plastic uids. 8.1.0.2 PowerLaw Fluid Model:
The power law uid model is nonlinear and do not present a yield stress, and can be expressed as follows. = K ( )n 0 = K ( )n <0 (8.3)
The constant K is called the consistency index and n is called behavior index.The typical graph of a powerlaw uid is shown in Figure 8.3.
Figure 8.3: Typical graphs of powerlaw uids. When the plot is done on a loglog scale it results in a straight line. Here the slope determines the ow behavior index n and the intercept with the vertical the value of the consistency index (log K ). The ow behavior index, which ranges from 0 to 1.0, declares the degree of nonNewtonian behavior, where n = 1.0 indicates a Newtonian uid. Mathematically n can be greater than 1.0, but drilling uids do not present this characteristic. Another characteristic (erroneously shown in the graph) is that the powerlaw presents an innite slope at = 0. This, and other experimental results lead to the proposal of other uid models. The consistency index K on the other hand gives the thickness uid,
where larger K represent thicker (more viscous) uids. It should be understood, however, that K has not the dimension of viscosity. Consistency index K is usually expressed in equivalent viscosity units.
8.2
Rheometry
To determine the rheological properties of a particular uid a rotational viscometer or rheometer is commonly used. Rheometers may have two, six, or continuous (variable) speeds. The typical rotational rheometer (see Figure 7.3 has an arrangement of two concentric cylinders in which the outer cylinder rotates and the inner cylinder actuate a torsion spring with a dial, as depicted in Figure 8.4.
Figure 8.4: Arrangement of a rotational viscometer.
The rotation of the rotor (external cylinder) shears the uid between the rotor and the bob (internal cylinder), which transmits torque from the rotor to the bob. The torque causes a deection of the dial (proportional to the torque), against the resistance of the torsion spring. The wide use of rheometers in the eld leaded to the design of special dimensions that made easy the measurement of uid parameters.
8.2.1
Viscosity of Newtonian Fluids
The dimensions of the rotor and bob, and the coefcient of the torsion spring are determined such that the viscosity of a Newtonian uid in centipoise (cP) is obtained directly by reading the deection of the dial in degrees, when the rotor rotates at 300 rpm.
8.2.2
Parameters of BinghamPlastic Model Fluids
Two measurements at different rotation speeds are required. The parameters are obtained with the following formulas (please note the units): p = 300 (N 2 N 1 ) N2 N1 [cP]
N1 p [lbf /100 ft2 ] 300 Note that any two rotation speeds can be selected, but 300 rpm and 600 rpm lead to the simplication of the calculation, in addition to cover a range of shear rates that typically occurs in drilling operations. The simplied expressions for N1 = 300 rpm and N2 = 600 rpm are: y = N 1 p = 600 300 y = 300 p [cP] (8.4) [lbf /100 ft2 ]
The general formulas are useful to determine the parameters in other ranges of interest (too small or too large).
8.2.3
Parameters of PowerLaw Model Fluids
The parameters are obtained with the following general formulas: n= log (N 2 /N 1 ) log (N2 /N1 ) 510 N (1.703 N )n [1]
K=
[eq.cP]
Again, any two rotation speeds can be selected. For 300 rpm and 600 rpm the expressions reduce to: n= log (600 /300 ) log 2 510 300 511n [1] (8.5) K= [eq.cP]
CHAPTER 8 Rheology and Rheometry
Page 85
Example 31: A uid rheometry test results in dial readings of 300 = 13 and 600 = 22. Calculate the parameters using powerlaw and Binghamplastic models Solution: (a) Powerlaw log (22/13) = 0.759 log 2 510 13 = 58.3 eq.cP K= 5110.759 n= (b) Bingham p = 22 13 = 9 cP y = 13 9 = 4 lbf /100 ft2
8.2.4
Gel Strength
Gel strength is the shear stress measured at low shear rate after a mud has set quiescently for a period of time (10 seconds and 10 minutes in the standard API procedure, although measurements after 30 minutes or 16 hours may also be made). To measure the gel strength a rheometer with low rotary speed (3 rpm) is needed. The sample is sheared at 600 rpm for a period (1 to 5 minutes) and set to rest for the determined time (10 seconds or 10 minutes). Then the shear is applied at 3 rpm and the maximum deection of the dial is read. The value indicates the gel strength at 10s or 10m in lbf/100ft2 .
CHAPTER 8 Rheology and Rheometry
Page 86
Chapter 9 Flow in Pipes and Annuli

This chapter discuss the ow of uids, Newtonian and nonNewtonian, both in pipes and concentric annuli, for the laminar and turbulent regimes. It is assumed also that the ow is steady (not time dependent). We will be primarily dpf interested in calculating the frictional pressure drop gradient dL as function of the ow rate q or vice-versa. The formulas to be presented are valid for horizontal conduits but since the ow potential gradient is equal to the frictional pressure drop gradient they can also be used for inclined and vertical conduit. To force a uid to ow inside a horizontal conduit, it is required a pressure differential between upstream and downstream points along the conduit. Or, conversely, if a uid ows on a horizontal conduit, a pressure differential occurs between an upstream and a downstream points. This pressure differential is viewed as a friction pressure drop.
9.1
Laminar Flow in Pipes and Annuli
For this, we need to understand the concept of ow potential. Considering the Bernoulli equation for real ow, we have: p2 = p1 + g (D2 D1 ) 1 2 2 v 2 v 1 + pp pf . 2 (6.1)
If there is no pump between points 1 and 2, and if the conduit has constant cross section, we can write for the friction pressure drop: pf = p1 p2 + g (D2 D1 ) = (p g D) . For incompressible uids (constant density) the expression can be written as: pf = (p g D) . The term (p g D) is called ow potential, which is responsible for the ow. In a conduit, it is balanced by the frictional pressure drop as shown in the
CHAPTER 9 Flow in Pipes and Annuli Page 91
equation. If the ow is horizontal, the gravitational term is zero and the friction pressure drop between two points along the ow path is equal to the pressure differential between the upstream and downstream points. What characterizes a uid is its ability to continuously deform when submitted to a shear stress (some restrictions apply for some nonNewtonian uids). The continuous deformation is called shear rate and there should exist a functional relationship between and , = f ( ) , which characterizes the uid behavior and is called the rheological model or constitutive equation of the uid. Several rheological models were presented in Chapter 8. Independently of the rheological model, however, there exist a relationship involving the forces acting on the owing uid, associated directly with the geometry of the conduit. This is the equilibrium equation of the ow (also called eld equation) and we will be interested in the eld equation for pipes and annuli and open slots.
9.1.1
Equilibrium Equations
The following equilibrium equations can be easily obtained from the balance of forces acting in an innitesimal element of uid. The only forces considered are due to the pressure between the uid and its surroundings and shear stresses between the uid and conduit. Body forces due to mass are irrelevant for steady state situations. 9.1.1.1 Equilibrium Equation for Pipes
The equilibrium equation is 1 dpf r, (9.1) 2 dL where is the shear stress at any radial distance r from the axis of the conduit. For constant area conduits and incompressible uids, it is assumed that dpf /dL is constant. Figure 9.1 (left) shows the velocity prole of laminar ow in pipes. The dashdot line corresponds to the axis of the pipe. = 9.1.1.2 Equilibrium Equation for Annuli
The equilibrium equation is = 1 dpf c r+ , 2 dL r (9.2)
where is the shear stress at any radial distance r from the axis of the conduit, and c is a constant to be determined. Note that the equilibrium equation for
pipes can be obtained from the equilibrium equation for annuli, in which, since the radius can be zero, the value of c must be zero. Figure 9.1 (right) shows the velocity prole of laminar ow in annuli. The dashdot line corresponds to the axis of the annulus.
Figure 9.1: Velocity proles of laminar ow.
9.1.1.3
Equilibrium Equation for (open) Slots
Although an open slot is not a typical cross section for drilling uid conduits, in some situations, it is advisable to approximate an annulus by an slot. This assumption simplies the expressions for frictional pressure drop gradient for non-Newtonian uids. It is usually accepted that slot approximation are accurate enough for annuli in which Di /Do 30%. By open slots we mean that only the upper and lower surfaces of the slot are subjected to shear stresses. The lateral surfaces are free of shear stress. The equilibrium equation is = dpf y. dL (9.3)
where is the shear stress at any distance y from the axis of the slot. Figure 9.2 shows the velocity prole of laminar ow in a slot. The dashdot line corresponds to the plane in the median of the slot.
9.1.2
Continuity Equations
In was seen in Chapter 6 that the average velocity of the uid in a conduit is given by q v = , A and this expresses the assumption that every particle of uid in a given section of the ow has the same velocity. This average velocity is a very good representation of the ow velocity in a given section if all we want is to calculate
Figure 9.2: Velocity prole of laminar ow in a slot. the kinetic energy of the uid at that point of the ow path. Since the velocity of any interior particle of uid in a cross section is the same, no shear exists in the uid. In Figures 9.1 and 9.2, the dotted lines correspond to the average velocity prole. However, the real uid velocity a section varies with the position of the in the section. In special, the uid velocity adjacent to the wall of the pipe is zero, otherwise the shear rate at that point would be innite. If at the contour of the section the velocity is zero, and in order to have a nonzero average velocity (the uid is owing), then the ow should present a nonzero continuous velocity prole inside the cross section. It the velocity prole is known, then the ow rate can be calculated using the expression q=
A
v dA
where v is the velocity prole of the ow and dA is an innitesimal area of the ow cross section. Due to the axial symmetry of pipes and annuli, we can write dA = 2 r dr. For pipes we integrate from r = 0 to r = R:
R
q = 2
0
v r dr .
If this equation is integrated by parts gives:(Note that v (R) = 0.)

R R R
q = 2
0
v r dr =
R vr2 0
dv dr
dr =
0
r2
dv dr
dr .
(9.4)
For annuli we integrate from r = Ri to r = Ro

Ro
q = 2
Ri
v r dr .
CHAPTER 9 Flow in Pipes and Annuli
Page 94
Integrating by parts gives: [v (Ri ) = v (Ro ) = 0.]

Ro
q =
Ri
r2
dv dr
dr .
(9.5)
For slots of width w and thickness t, DA = w dy and we integrate from t/2 to t/2:
t/2
q=w
t/2
vdy .
Integrating by parts gives: [v (t/2) = v (t/2) = 0.]

t/2
q = w
t/2
dv dy
dy .
(9.6)
The shear rate is in general dened for pipes annuli as = For slots is is dened as = dv . dr dv . dy
The minus sign is an arbitrary choice, and its purpose is to produce positive shear rates in pipes and outer ow regions of annuli and slots. On the other hand, the inner ow regions for annuli and slots will have negative shear rates. All expressions so far are completely general and independent of the uid. In the following, constitutive equations of uids are coupled with equilibrium equations of conduits to produce various ow models. The whole process will be presented for Newtonian uids. Only the nal expressions will be presented for nonNewtonian uids, but the steps are basically the same.
9.1.3
Newtonian Flow in Pipes Poiseuilles Equation
A Newtonian uid is expressed by Equation (8.1) = = dv . dr
Considering the equilibrium equation for ow in pipes [Equation (9.1)] we obtain: dv 1 dpf = = r, dr 2 dL dv 1 dpf = r. dr 2 dL
To obtain the ow rate (and ultimately the relationship with the pressure drop gradient) we use the expression for dv and Equation (9.4): dr
R
dpf q= 2 dL
0
r3 dr =
dpf 4 R , 8 dL
The area of the pipe is A = R2 , and we can write: q= Solving for

dpf dL
A dpf 2 R . 8 dL
we obtain the Poiseuilles equation: dpf 8q , = dL A R2
or, in terms of average velocity dpf 8v 32v . = 2 = 2 dL R D In eld units this expression is written as: dpf v , = dL 1500 D2 for
dpf dL
(9.7)
(9.8)
in psi, in cP, v in ft/s, and D in inches.1
9.1.4
Newtonian Flow in Concentric Annuli Lambs Equation
Considering the equilibrium equation for ow in annuli [Equation (9.2)] we obtain: dv 1 dpf c = = r+ , dr 2 dL r 1 dpf C dv = r + . dr 2 dL r Separating variables and integrating, and considering that for pipes the velocity is zero for r = Ri , we obtain:
v (r ) r
dv =
0 Ri
C 1 dpf r + 2 dL r
dr ,
v (r) =
1
1 dpf 2 r 2 r Ri C ln . 4 dL Ri
A more accurate gure for the conversion factor is 1496.26.
Page 96
Using the fact that v (R0 ) = 0, we can determine the value of the constant C : v (Ro ) = 0 = 1 dpf Ro 2 2 Ro Ri C ln , 4 dL Ri
2 2 Ri 1 dpf Ro o 4 dL ln R Ri dv dr
C=
(9.9) and Equation (9.5):
To obtain the ow rate we again use the expression for

Ro
q=
Ri 2 2 q = Ro Ri
1 dpf 3 r +C r 2 dL 1 dpf 8 dL
dr ,
2 2 Ro + Ri +
C 2
2 2 Since (Ro Ri ) is the area of the annulus, and using the denition of the average velocity for annuli and the value of the constant C [Equation (9.9)] yields: R2 R2 1 dpf 2 2 Ro + Ri o Ro i v = 8 dL ln Ri
Solving for
dpf ,results dL
in the Lambs equation: 1 dpf 8 dL

2 2 Ro + Ri 2 2 Ro Ri o ln R Ri
v =
dpf 8v = 2 + R2 dL Ro i
2 R 2 Ro i o ln R R i
32v
2 + D2 Do i
2 D 2 Do i o ln D D i
(9.10)
In eld units this expression is written as: dpf = dL

dpf dL
v 1500
2 Do
,
2 D 2 Do i o ln D D i
(9.11)
2 Di
for
in psi, in cP, v in ft/s, and Do and Di in inches.
Example 32: A 9 lbm/gal Newtonian uid having a viscosity of 15 cp is being circulated in a 10,000 ft well containing a 7 in ID casing and a 5 in OD, 19.5 lb/ft drill pipe at a rate of 250 gal/min. Compute the pump pressure and the equivalent circulation density (ECD) at the bottom of the well. Assume laminar ow regime, and slick drill pipes (no effect of tool joints. Solution:
The pump pressure in a typical circulation system is governed by Equation (6.10), pp = pb + pf , (6.10)
where pf = (pf )ds + (pf )ann . There is no bit (pb = 0), and we need the frictional pressure drop along the drillstring and along the annulus. Then we have: Pressure drop gradient in the drillstring: [Equation (9.8)] v = q 250 gal/min = A (4.276 in)2 4 dpf dL =
ds
231 in3 1 gal
1 min 60 s
1 ft 12 in
= 5.585 ft/s
15 5.585 = 0.00305477 psi/ft 1500 4.2762
The pressure drop across the drillstring is (pf )ds = 10, 000 ft 0.00305477 psi/ft = 30.55 psi Pressure drop gradient in the annulus: [Equation (9.11)] v = dpf dL
4
250 (72 52 ) =
231 60 12
= 4.255 f t/s
15 4.255 1500 72 + 52
72 52 7 ln 5
= 0.015927psi/ft
ds
The pressure drop across the annulus is (pf )ann = 10, 000 ft 0.015927 psi/ft = 159.27 psi The total frictional pressure drop is pf = 30.55 + 159.27 = 189.82 psi 190 psi The ECD is the density of a ctitious uid whose hydrostatic pressure is equal to the circulating pressure at a given depth. The circulating pressure at the bottom is obtained using the Bernoullis Equation:
2 2 p2 = p1 + 0.0519 (D2 D1 ) 8.073 104 v 2 v 1 + pp pf , (6.2)
0 = p1 + 0.0519 9 (0 10, 000) 159.27 p1 = 4830 psi The ECD is given by: 4830 = 0.0519 ECD 10, 000 ECD = 9.31 ppg
Page 98
9.1.5
Slot Approximation for Newtonian Fluids
Lambs equation is an explicit exact formulation for the ow of Newtonian uids in concentric annulus. The purpose of this section is to obtain the slot approximation, and compare it with the exact formulation. The reason is to establish the procedure to be applied for nonNewtonian uids since, in general, models for ow in annulus for non-Newtonian uids result in implicit formulation. A slot approximation of an annulus is such that the thickness t of the slot is equal to the radial clearance of the annulus, and the areas are equal. This is shown in Figure 9.3. Therefore, the thickness and width of an approximating slot are given by: t = (R o R i ) , w = (Ro + Ri ) . Considering the equilibrium equation for ow in annuli [Equation (9.3)] we obtain: dv dpf = = y , dy dL 1 dpf dv = y. dy dL To obtain the ow rate we use the expression for
t/2 dv dy
and Equation (9.6):
w dpf q= dL
t/2
y 2 dy =
w dpf 3 t , 12 dL
Solving for
dpf dL
and using average velocity we obtain: 12v dpf = 2 , dL t
Using t = Ro Ri gives dpf 12v 48v = = 2 . 2 dL Ro Ri (Do Di )2 (9.12)
Figure 9.3: Slot approximation of an annulus.

In eld units this expression is written as: v dpf = , dL 1000 (Do Di )2 for
dpf dL
(9.13)
in psi, in cP, v in ft/s, and Do and Di in inches.2
Example 33: Calculate the frictional pressure drop in the annulus of Example 32 using the slot approximation model and compare the results. Solution: Using the Equation (9.13) we have: dpf 15 4.225 = = 0.015957 psi/f t dL 1000 (7 5)2 The pressure drop for 10,000 ft is (p )ann = 10, 000 ft 0.015957 psi/ft = 159.56 psi Comparing with the result using exact approximation (159.27 psi) we see that the difference is of less than 0.2%.
9.1.6
Pressure Drop Gradient for NonNewtonian Fluids
The derivation of the expressions for the pressure drop gradient in pipes and annuli (slot approximation) for both powerlaw and Binghamplastic uids is beyond the scope of this work. The derivations, however follow basically the same steps presented before (for pipes and slot approximation), with some peculiarities, which result in the expressions presented next. One peculiarity (shared by all uid models that present yield point) is the fact that for Binghamplastic uid model there exist a region of the cross section where the uid moves as a plug (no shear between the adjacent layers). 9.1.6.1 Pressure Drop Gradient for PowerLaw Fluids in Pipes
The expression in eld units is: Kv n dpf = dL 143, 640 Dn+1

dp
24
3n + 1 n
(9.14)
f in psi, K in equivalent centipoises, v in ft/s, and D in inches (n is dimenfor dL sionless).
A more accurate gure for the conversion factor is 997.51.
Page 910
9.1.6.2
Pressure Drop Gradient for PowerLaw Fluids in Annuli (Slot Approximation)
The expression in eld units is: dpf Kv n = dL 143, 640 (Do Di )n+1 for
dpf dL
48
2n + 1 n
(9.15)
in psi, K in equivalent centipoises, v in ft/s, and Do and Di in inches. Pressure Drop Gradient for BinghamPlastic Fluids in Pipes
9.1.6.3
The expression in eld units is: dpf p v y = + 2 dL 1500 D 225 D for

dpf dL
(9.16)
in psi, p in cP, y in lbf/100 ft2 , v in ft/s, and D in inches. Pressure Drop Gradient for BinghamPlastic Fluids in Annuli (Slot Approximation)
9.1.6.4
The expression in eld units is: p v dpf y = 2 + dL 200 (Do Di ) 1000 (Do Di ) for
dpf dL
(9.17)
in psi, p in cP, y in lbf/100 ft2 , v in ft/s, and Do and Di in inches.
Example 34: Calculate the pressure loss across a 10,000 ft long annulus with 8.5 in OD, 5 in ID. The uid follows a powerlaw model with behavior index of 0.3, and consistency index of 850 eq.cP. The ow rate is 250 gpm (assume laminar ow.) Solution: The average velocity is: v = 231 60 12
4
250 = 2.161 ft/s (8.52 52 ) 48 2 0.3 + 1 0.3

0 .3
dpf 850 2.1610.3 = dL 143, 640 (8.5 5)0.3+1
= 0.00772 psi/ft
pf = 10, 000 0.00772 = 77.22 psi
Page 911
9.2
Turbulent Flow in Pipes and Annuli
All formulas for uid ow in the previous section were developed assuming that the ow is laminar. In a laminar ow, the particles of the uid move in orderly layers (laminae), although the velocities may change between those layers. The particle velocities along the conduit change with regularity, and there is no eddies or streamline crosses. If a dye is carefully poured in the ow it ows as a streamline. On the other hand, in a turbulent ow, particles follows irregular paths, with large change in velocity and ow direction compared with other near particles. Eddies and vortices may occur, and if a dye is poured in the ow, it promptly looses it streamline shape and get mixed with the owing uid. Factors that govern the laminar ow are: 1. the velocity of the uid, 2. its density, and 3. the size, shape, and surface roughness of the conduit. There is a transition between laminar and turbulent ow. In these transition periods or regions, the ow is normally turbulent in the central portion of the ow section but may remain laminar close to the boundaries. Flow equations for laminar ow exist for various conduit shapes and uid types. However, analytical mathematical models for turbulent ow have not yet been suitably developed. Studies of turbulent ow of Newtonian uids in pipe have been extensively done. Most results are empirical and the subject is still not exhausted, although the results are quite accurately. Treatment for other geometries (annulus, open channels, slots, etc), and also for non-Newtonian uids is normally made by some analogy with Newtonian uid in pipes. Therefore, it is important to study the latter case in detail, and then to extend the results for other cases (in particular to those related to drilling engineering).
9.2.1
9.2.1.1
Turbulent Flow of Newtonian Fluids in Pipes

Reynolds Number
An important step is to determine or at least to evaluate the boundary between laminar and turbulent ow. In a series of classical experiments in 1883, Reynolds3 showed that the ow would remain laminar (continuous dye streak) if a dimensionless group
3
Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912), scientist, engineer.
Page 912
now called Reynolds number (Re) is less than 2000, and that the ow will be turbulent if Re greater than 3000. The Reynolds number is given by Re = v D , (9.18)
where D is the diameter of the pipe in cm (glass pipe in Reynolds experiments), v is the average velocity of the uid in the conduit in cm/s, is the density in g/cm3 , and is the dynamic viscosity in poises. A dimensional analysis will conrm that the expression is dimensionless: In eld units the expression for the Reynolds number is: Re = 928 v D , (9.19)
for D in inches, v in ft/s, in lbm/gal, and in cP. Another common notation for Reynolds number is NRE . The value of Re for a particular situation serves as an indicative of the ow regime. In most scenarios the ranges [0 to 2000] for laminar, [2000 to 3000] for transitional, and [3000 to innite) are reasonably correct.
Example 35: Determine the ow pattern for a brine of 8.9 ppg and 1.1 cP owing inside a 5 in drillpipe (4.276 in ID) at 480 gpm. Solution: The average velocity is: v = 231 60 12
4
480 = 10.73 ft/s 4.2762
8.9 10.73 4.276 = 252, 630 1.5 Note that the Reynolds number is far above 3000, which indicates that the ow inside the drillpipe is clearly turbulent. Re = 928
9.2.1.2
Friction Factor, Fanning Equation, and Colebrook Equation
When a uid ows in a pipe, the resistance to the ow, measured by the pressure drop gradient, is caused by the effect of the boundary of the pipe (its internal wall) upon the uid, more specically, by the shearing stress occurring in the the uid in contact with the pipe wall. A dimensionless group that relates shear stress at the surface between a length of uid in a circular conduit and the specic kinetic energy ek (energy per
Figure 9.4: Fluid particle owing in a pipe. unit of volume) is the friction factor f (because it relates the resistance to ow to the velocity of ow), which is dened by the following relation: f= ek (9.20)
Figure 9.4 shows a uid element of length L owing with average velocity v = q/Ap . The force equilibrium in the ow direction results in the following expression relating the shear stress and the pressure drop gradient: 0= F = Pp P dpf L dL
p
Ac ,
where Ap = D2 is the crosssectional area of the pipe and Ac = D L is 4 the lateral area of the uid element. Simplifying we obtain: = 1 dpf D. 4 dL
The specic kinetic energy ek of the uid element is: ek = Ek = V

1 2
mv 2 1 = v 2 . V 2
where is the density of the uid. Substituting these two expressions into the expression for the friction factor and solving for the pressure drop gradient we obtain: 1 dpf D 1 dpf D 4 dL f= = 1 = , 2 ek 2 dL v 2 v 2 dpf 2v 2 = f. dL D This is called the Fanning equation. In eld units we have dpf v 2 = f, dL 25.8 D
(9.21)
(9.22)
Page 914
Figure 9.5: Stanton chart. for

dpf dL
in psi/ft, in lbm/gal, v in ft/s, and D in inches.
If we compare (and equate) the Fanning equation with Equation (9.7) (Poiseuilles equation) we obtain: 32 v 2v 2 dpf = = f, dL D2 D 16 16 f= = (9.23) v D Re This expression for the friction factor f is valid only if the ow is laminar. For turbulent ow, however, the friction factor must be determined experimentally. Extensive series of experiments performed by Nikuradse in 1933 resulted in an empirical correlation obtained by Colebrook 4 for the friction factor f , which depends on the Reynolds number Re and on the pipe relative roughness D , where is the absolute roughness (the average depth of the microscopic irregularities of the internal surface of the pipe). The empirical correlation called modied Colebrook equation, is an implicit formula given by: 1 = 4 log10 f /D 1.255 1 + 3.7 Re f . (9.24)
This implicit expression requires an iterative solution. A loglog plot of this expression for various values of relative roughness, called Stanton chart, is shown in Figure 9.5. The solution of the implicit expression, however results in much more accurate values for the friction factor and should. The Stanton chart also include the curve for the friction factor for laminar ow.
4
Cyril Frank Colebrook, Turbulent ow in pipes
Page 915
Example 36: Calculate the friction factor with four gures for Re = 125, 500 and ( /D) = 0.0037. Compare the result with the Stanton chart. Solution: Substituting the value for the Reynolds number and relative roughness into the modied Colebrook equation, and simplifying we obtain: 1 = 4 log10 f 1.255 1 0.0037 + 3.7 125, 500 f
Any value can be used to start the iterative process. A reasonable guess is f0 = 16 16 = = 0.00012749 Re 125500
Starting and proceeding the iterations we obtain: f 0.0001275 0.0084196 0.0071572 0.0071746 0.0071744 f 0.0084196 0.0071572 0.0071746 0.0071744 0.0071744
f = 0.0071744 Comparing this value with the Stanton chart we notice that a much higher degree of accuracy is obtained with the iterative procedure. In most drilling situations, the relative roughness is less than 0.0004 and the Reynolds number is less than 100,000. For these conditions we can consider the ow as occurring in a hydraulically smooth pipe, and the simplied equation is 1.255 1 1 = 4 log10 . (9.25) Re f f Attention: It is common in the industry another denition of friction factor whose value is four times the value obtained with the modied Colebrook equation. The log-log plot of this friction factor is called the Moody chart. If this chart is used to obtain the friction factor, it must be divided by four before it is is used in the pressure drop gradient formula obtained previously. 9.2.1.3 Alternative Expressions for the Friction Factor
Blasius Formula An approximation for the friction factor for 2100 < Re < 100000 and hydraulic smooth pipes was presented by Blasius, and is given by: f=
0.0791 . Re0.25
(9.26)
Page 916
This expression is shown in the Stanton chart (Figure 9.5), where the curves for the various relative roughnesses converge to the Blasius approximation in the range mentioned. The range of applicability of Blasiuss approximation covers quite well most conditions in drilling. If this expression is used in Equation (9.21) (Fanning equation) gives: dpf 2v 2 0.0791 2v 2 = = dL D Re0 .25 D 0.0791
v D 0.25
= 0.1582
0.25 0.75 v 1.75 . D1.75
Expressing v in terms of ow rate we obtain: 0.25 0.75 q 1.75 dpf = 0.2414 . dL D4.75 In eld units we have: dpf 0.25 0.75 q 1.75 . = dL 8624 D4.75 (9.27)
(9.28)
f for dL in psi/ft, in cP, in ppg, q in gpm, and D in inches. This expression for the frictional pressure drop gradient for turbulent ow in pipes was the motivation of the general expression
dp
pf = c q m used to determine the total frictional pressure drop in our study of nozzle optimization. The reason for using "m" in place of the theoretical value 1.75 is for the various different ow regime (turbulent, laminar, transition) that occurs in the circulation system.
SwameeJain Formula Another explicit expression for the friction factor is given by SwameeJain for 106 < D < 102 and 5, 000 < Re < 108, 000 which differs less than 1% from the value obtained with the modied Colebrook implicit formula: 1 (9.29) f= 2 . /D 5.74 4 log10 3 + .7 Re0.9
Example 37: Calculate the pressure loss across a 5,000 ft of 5 in OD, 4.276 in ID drillstring. The uid (assumed Newtonian) has density 9.3 ppg and viscosity 20 cP. The ow rate is 370 gpm. Calculate the friction factor using (a) the modied Colebrook formula, (b) the Blasius approximation, and (c) the Swamee and Jain explicit formula. Solution:
The rst step is to conrm if the ow is turbulent. The average velocity inside the pipe is: 231 370 v = = 8.266 ft/s 60 12 4 4.2762 Re = 928 9.3 8.266 4.276 = 15, 253 20
This in an indication that the ow is turbulent. (a) Assuming smooth pipe, we determine by iterative calculation the value for the Colebrook friction factor: 1 = 4 log10 f Starting with f0 =
16 15253
1.255 1 15, 253 f
= 0.0010490, and proceeding iteratively we obtain: f 0.0010490 0.0092807 0.0066380 0.0069644 0.0069162 0.0069231 0.0069221 0.0069223 0.0069222 f 0.0092807 0.0066380 0.0069644 0.0069162 0.0069231 0.0069221 0.0069223 0.0069222 0.0069222
f = 0.0069222 In this case (Colebrook) the frictional pressure drop gradient using Equation (9.22) (Fanning equation) is dpf v 2 9.3 8.2662 = f= 0.0069222 = 0.03987 psi/ft , dL 25.8 D 25.8 4.276 and the pressure drop for 5,000 ft is: pf = 5, 000 0.03987 = 199 psi (b) Using the formula resulting from Blasius approximation [Equation (9.27)] we have: dpf 0.25 0.75 q 1.75 200.25 9.30.75 3701.75 = = = 0.04100 dL 8624 D4.75 8624 4.2764.75 and the pressure drop for 5,000 ft is: pf = 5, 000 0.04100 = 205 psi
Figure 9.6: Selection of the correct pressure drop value. (c) Using Swamee and Jain approximation [Equation (9.29)] we have: f= 4 log10 1
0 3 .7 5.74 152530.9 2
= 0.0069163
In this case the frictional pressure drop gradient using Equation (9.22) is dpf 9.3 8.2662 = 0.0069163 = 0.03984 psi/ft , dL 25.8 4.276 and the pressure drop for 5,000 ft is: pf = 5, 000 0.03984 = 199 psi
9.2.2
Criterion for Laminar Transition Turbulent Flow
One of the questions usually raises is the criterion for laminar, transition, and turbulent ow for pressure drop calculation. The best procedure is to calculate the friction factor using the laminar relation, and using one of the turbulent friction factors (Colebrook, Blasius, Swamee and Jain, etc) and use the larger to obtain the frictional pressure drop gradient using the Fanning formula. This is depicted in the graph in Figure 9.6. In fact, it sufces to select the larger of the friction factors and use Fanning equation.
It is important to stress that this approach does not determine the correct ow regime. In some situations, as for example in cementing operations, it is desirable that during the cement displacement the ow regime of the ush5 in the annulus is turbulent.
9.2.3
Other Geometries Turbulent Flow in Annuli (Newtonian)
A large amount of experimental data has been obtained for pipes, but relatively few have been obtained for other geometries, in special for annuli. There are several empirical procedures to apply the results for pipes to other geometries. All these empirical procedures try to determine an equivalent pipe diameter Deq of the ow cross section geometry, and use this value to determine the equivalent Reynolds number and in the Fanning equation. Note, however, that the average velocity must be calculated using the real area of the cross section. Three criteria are used to determine the equivalent diameter Deq : 1. The hydraulic radius 2. Exact annulus to pipe analogy 3. Slot annulus to pipe analogy
9.2.3.1
Hydraulic Radius
One approach to calculate pressure drop for other conduit geometries is using the hydraulic radius concept. The hydraulic radius rH is dened as the ratio of the area of ow to the wetted perimeter. For a circular pipe, the hydraulic radius is: R2 R D (rH )pipe = = = . 2R 2 4 For a concentric annulus, the hydraulic radius is: (rH )annulus =
2 2 (Ro Ri ) Ro Ri Do Di = = . 2 (Ro + Ri ) 2 4
The concept states that sections with the same hydraulic radius are equivalent for turbulent ow calculation purposes. Therefore, equivalent diameter is Deq = Do Di . (9.30)
The ush is a special uid displaced in front of the cement to help remove mud and mud cake in the annulus to improve the bonding between the cement sheath and the formation.
5
Page 920
9.2.3.2
Exact Annulus to Pipe Analogy
An equivalent diameter is obtained if we compare (and equate) Equation (9.7) for pressure drop in pipes (Poiseuilles equation) with Equation (9.10) for pressure drop in annuli (Lambs equation). The purpose is to determine the diameter of the pipe that will produce the same pressure drop gradient for the same average velocity (for laminar ow). dpf 32v 32v = = 2 . 2 2 2 + D 2 Do Di dL D Do D o i ln
Di
Therefore, the equivalent diameter is: Deq =

2 + D2 Do i 2 D2 Do i . o ln D Di
(9.31)
9.2.3.3
Slot Annulus to Pipe Analogy
In this criterion (useful for nonNewtonian uids) we compare (and equate) Equation (9.7) for pressure drop in pipes (Poiseuilles equation) with Equation (9.12) for slot approximation of the pressure drop in annuli. 32v 48v dpf = . = 2 dL D (Do Di )2 Therefore, the equivalent diameter is: Deq = 2 (Do Di ) = 0.8165 (Do Di ) . 3 (9.32)
Example 38: Calculate the frictional pressure drop gradient using the three criteria above for the following ow condition: 9.2 ppg brine with 8 cP viscosity, circulating in an annulus of 81 /2 in OD and 5 in ID, at a ow rate of 280 gpm. Use the Blasius formula for the friction factor. (Compare with the friction factor for laminar ow.) Solution: The average velocity in the annulus is: v = 231 60 12
4
280 = 2.421 ft/s (8.52 52 )
a) Hydraulic radius criterion: Deq = Do Di = 8, 5 5 = 3.5 in

Re = 928 f=
9.2 2.421 3.5 = 9043 8
0.0791 0.0791 = = 0.008111 0 . 25 Re 90430.25

16 9043
Comparing with laminar, f =
= 0.001769, we see that turbulent dominates.
dpf v 2 9.2 2.4212 = f= 0.008111 = 0.004844 psi/ft dL 25.8 D 25.8 3.5 b) Exact annulus to pipe analogy: Deq =
2 + D2 Do i 2 D2 Do i = Do ln Di
8.52 + 52
8.52 52 = 2.864 in .5 ln 85
Re = 928 f=
9.2 2.421 2.864 = 7400 8
0.0791 16 = 0.008529 > = 0.002162 0 . 25 7400 7400
dpf 9.2 2.4212 = 0.008529 = 0.006224 psi/ft dL 25.8 2.864 c) Slot annulus to pipe analogy: Deq = 2 (Do Di ) = 3 2 (8.5 5) = 2.858 in 3
Re = 928 f=
9.2 2.421 2.858 = 7384 8
16 0.0791 = 0.008533 > = 0.002167 0 . 25 7384 7384
dpf 9.2 2.4212 = 0.008533 = 0.006240 psi/ft dL 25.8 2.858
9.2.4
Turbulent Flow for NonNewtonian Fluids
Turbulent ow for nonNewtonian uids is treated by analogy with the results for Newtonian uids. The approach is similar for Binghamplastic uids and powerlaw uids. The key problem is to determine the Reynolds number and the criterion for turbulence.
9.2.4.1
Pressure Drop Gradient for Bingham Fluids
To calculate the Reynolds number we need to determinate an apparent viscosity for the uid at a given condition. One approach is comparing the expressions for the pressure drop gradient for Newtonian and Bingham uids and determine the apparent Newtonian viscosity a that would cause the same pressure drop gradient (for laminar ow). The strategy is to determine the viscosity of a Newtonian uid that would cause the same pressure drop as the Bingham uid under the same ow conditions. Bingham Fluids in Pipes: Comparing and equating Equation (9.8) (Poiseuilles equation in eld units) with Equation (9.16) (pressure drop gradient in pipes for Bingham uids) gives: v p v y = + 2 2 1500 D 1500 D 225 D Solving for the dynamic viscosity and renaming for apparent viscosity a we obtain: y D (9.33) a = p + 6.66 v The apparent viscosity is used to calculate the Reynolds number and then the friction factor using the same procedure for Newtonian uids, and then the pressure drop gradient using Fanning equation. Bingham Fluids in Annulus: Comparing and equating Equation (9.13) (pressure drop gradient in annuli for Newtonian uids slot approximation), with Equation (9.17) (pressure drop gradient in annuli for Bingham uids slot approximation) gives: p v y v 2 = 2 + 200 (Do Di ) 1000 (Do Di ) 1000 (Do Di ) Note that here we opted in using the slot approximation formula for Newtonian uid for consistency, since there is no explicit exact formula for Bingham uid in annuli. Solving for the dynamic viscosity and renaming for apparent viscosity a we obtain: y (Do Di ) (9.34) a = p + 5 v For consistency also, we should choose to use the equivalent diameter for annulus based on the slot approximation [Equation (9.32)]. The apparent viscosity and the equivalent diameters are used to calculate the Reynolds number, and then the friction factor using the same procedure for Newtonian uids, and then the pressure drop gradient using Fanning equation.
Page 923
Example 39: Calculate the frictional pressure drop gradient for the following lbf ow condition: 10 ppg Bingham uid with p = 40 cP and y = 15 100 , circuft2 3 1 lating in an annulus of 6 /4 in OD by 4 /2 in ID, at a ow rate of 600 gpm. Use the Colebrook formula for the friction factor (assume smooth pipe). Solution: The average velocity in the annulus is: v = 231 60 12
4
600 = 9.683 ft/s (6.752 4.52 )
The apparent viscosity for the uid at this ow conditions is: a = p + 5 y (Do Di ) 15 (6.75 4.5) = 40 + 5 = 57.43 cP v 9.683
The equivalent diameter is: Deq = 2 (Do Di ) = 3 2 (6.75 4.5) = 1.837 in 3
The Reynolds number is: Re = 928 v Deq 10 9.683 1.837 = 928 = 2874 a 57.43
16 The laminar friction factor is f = 2874 = 0.0056672. This is used to start the iterative process and to compare with the converging value. Using the Colebrook equation for smooth pipe [Equation (9.25)] we have:
1 = 4 log10 f Proceeding iteratively gives: f 0.0056672 0.0124949 0.0107768 0.0110702 0.0110160 0.0110259 0.0110241 0.0110244
1.255 1 2874 f
f 0.0124949 0.0107768 0.0110702 0.0110160 0.0110259 0.0110241 0.0110244 0.0110244
f = 0.0110244 The pressure drop gradient is: dpf v 2 10 9.6832 = f= 0.0110244 = 0.2181 psi/ft dL 25.8 Deq 25.8 1.837
Page 924
9.2.4.2
Pressure Drop Gradient for PowerLaw Fluids
Here a procedure similar to Bingham uids is conducted. The only difference is that the Colebrook formula (and consequently Blasius and SwameeJain) does not provide an accurate calculation of the friction factor. An special formulation is Needed. The friction factor must be calculated with the following implicit formula:
n 1 4 0.395 = 0.75 log10 Re f 1 2 1.2 n n f
(9.35)
This implicit formula was developed by Dodge and Metzner for hydraulic smooth pipe, and is acceptable for most drilling situations. PowerLaw Fluids in Pipes: We calculate the apparent viscosity equating Equation (9.8) (Poiseuilles equation in eld units) with Equation (9.14) (pressure drop gradient in pipes for powerlaw uids): v Kv n = 1500 D2 143, 640 Dn+1 3n + 1 24 n
n
Solving for the dynamic viscosity and renaming for apparent viscosity a we obtain: n 3n + 1 Kv n1 24 a = (9.36) 95.9 Dn1 n The apparent viscosity is used to calculate the Reynolds number and then the friction factor using Dodge and Metzner formula, and then the pressure drop gradient using Fanning equation. PowerLaw Fluids in Annulus: We calculate the apparent viscosity equating Equation (9.13) (pressure drop gradient in annuli for Newtonian uids slot approximation) with Equation (9.15) (pressure drop gradient in annuli for powerlaw uids slot approximation): Kv n v = 1000 (Do Di )2 143, 640 (Do Di )n+1 2n + 1 48 n
n
Again we need to use the slot approximation formula for Newtonian uid for consistency, since there is no explicit exact formula for powerlaw uid in annuli. Solving for the dynamic viscosity and renaming for apparent viscosity a we obtain: n Kv n1 2n + 1 a = 48 (9.37) n 143.9 (Do Di )n1 Again we should choose to use the equivalent diameter for annulus based on the slot approximation [Equation (9.32)].
The apparent viscosity and the equivalent diameters are used to calculate the Reynolds number, and then the friction factor using Dodge and Metzner formula, and then the pressure drop gradient using Fanning equation.
Example 40: Calculate the frictional pressure drop gradient for the following ow condition: 10 ppg uid with K = 205eq cP and n = 0.7885, circulating in an annulus of 63 /4 in OD by 41 /2 in ID, at a ow rate of 600 gpm. (The uid has the same 600 and 300 of Example 39.) Solution: The average velocity in the annulus is: v = 231 60 12
4
600 = 9.683 ft/s (6.752 4.52 )
The apparent viscosity for the uid at this ow conditions is: Kv n1 a = 143.9 (Do Di )n1 2n + 1 48 n
n
= 2 0.7885 + 1 48 0.7885
0.785
205 9.6830.78851 = 143.9 (6.75 4.5)0.78851 The equivalent diameter is: Deq = 2 (Do Di ) = 3
= 56.34 cP
2 (6.75 4.5) = 1.837 in 3
The Reynolds number is: Re = 928 v Deq 10 9.683 1.837 = 928 = 2930 a 56.34
16 The laminar friction factor is f = 2874 = 0.0054608. This is used to start the iterative process and to compare with the converging value. Using the (Dodge and Metzner) equation [Equation (9.35)] we have:
0.7885 0.395 4 1 = log10 2930 f 1 2 0 . 75 0.78851.2 0.7885 f Proceeding iteratively gives:
f 0.0054608 0.0110749 0.0092606 0.0096750 0.0095711 0.0095966 0.0095903 0.0095918 0.0095915

f 0.0110749 0.0092606 0.0096750 0.0095711 0.0095966 0.0095903 0.0095918 0.0095915 0.0095915

Page 926
f = 0.0095915 The pressure drop gradient is: dpf v 2 10 9.6832 = f= 0.0095915 = 0.1898 psi/ft dL 25.8 Deq 25.8 1.837
Page 927
Page 928
Chapter 10 Drilling Bits

The bit is the active drilling tool. Different from any other drilling equipment, it is designed to perform (drill a length of formation in an economical time), and eventually it wears out and is discarded. The average life of bits (depending on the diameter and drilling conditions) can be as short as hours and they may cost tens of thousand Dollars. The drill bit performance is a very important issue in drilling design and operation. There is an extremely large variety of bit types and models made currently by the bit industry, each one suitable to one or more different kind of rocks and drilling conditions. Formation rocks can be roughly classied as 1. Soft (low compressive strength, high drillability). 2. Medium soft/hard (low compressive strength, medium drillability). 3. Hard (high compressive strength. low drillability). 4. Abrasive (high compressive strength, low drillability). 5. Plastic (low compressive strength, low drillability). Drill bit selection is in general a complicated process but, when performed properly, has a major impact on the total well cost. First in this chapter, the different types of drill bits are discussed. Then, applying their classication and wear considerations, a drill bit selection is presented. Finally, various parameters that inuence the rate of penetration are discussed.
10.1
Drill Bit Types
Different bits perform differently in different rocks. Bits can be generally classied in two major groups: roller cone bits, and xed cutter bits (drag bits).
CHAPTER 10 Drilling Bits Page 101
Figure 10.1: Typical roller cone bits.
10.1.1
Roller Cone Bit
Roller cone bits are designed to crush rock efciently while incurring a minimal amount of wear on the cutting surfaces. Invented by Howard Hughes, the roller cone bit has conical cutters or cones that have spiked teeth around them. As the drillstring is rotated, the bit cones roll along the bottom of the hole in a circle. As they roll, new teeth come in contact with the bottom of the hole, crushing the rock immediately below and around the bit tooth. As the cone rolls, the tooth then lifts off the bottom of the hole and a high-velocity uid jet strikes the crushed rock chips to remove them from the bottom of the hole and up the annulus. As this occurs, another tooth makes contact with the bottom of the hole and creates new rock chips. Thus, the process of chipping the rock and removing the small rock chips with the uid jets is continuous. The teeth intermesh on the cones (but with no interaction), which helps clean the cones and enables larger teeth to be used. There are two main types of roller-cone bits, steel milled-tooth bits and tungsten carbide insert bits. Typical roller cone bits are shown in Figure 10.1. Figure 10.2 shows a cut view it a roller cone bit. The basic elements in a roller cone bit are the bit body, the bearings, and the cutting cones.
10.1.1.1
Bit Body
The bit body is composed of the following parts: Connection pin: API thread of various sizes depending on the size of the bit.
Figure 10.2: Cut view of a roller cone bits. Bit legs: 3 elements welded together to form the bit body. Each leg has a pin in the shirttail with a bearing where the cone is mounted. Fluid channels: Flow ways for the drilling uid. They end in the nozzles. Most bits have 3 nozzles (each between two cones.) Some bits have 4 nozzles. In this case, the fourth nozzle is centered with the bit, located above the cones and, in most of the cases, it is not interchangeable (xed nozzle area). The bit body may also contain a lubricant reservoir (only in sealed bearings). 10.1.1.2 Bearings
There are basically three types of bearings for tricone bits: 1. nonsealed roller bearing, 2. sealed roller bearing, 3. sealed journal bearing. The type of bearing and sealing will determine the range of weight on bit, rotary speed, life, and also the price of the bit. All three types have a ball bearing whose function is to support axial load and keep the cone connected to the bearing pin. Roller bearing bits normally operate in medium load and medium to high speed ranges.
Figure 10.3: Cut view of a nonsealed bearing bit. Nonsealed Roller Bearing Bits Nonsealed roller bearing bits are the simplest and cheapest of all bits. A channel connects the outside of the bit leg to inside the bearing. The drilling uid penetrates in the roller compartment, which helps to cool down the parts, but also causes wear in the parts due to the solids in suspension in the uid. The uid also lubricates the bearing parts. Nonsealed roller bearing bits are manufactured normally with steel teeth. Figure 10.3 shows a cut view of a nonsealed bearing bit.
Sealed Roller Bearing Bits Sealed roller bearing bits have a seal between the internal side of the cones (where the bearings are located) and the outside. Drilling uid cannot penetrate in the bearing. A lubrication system keeps the bearing lubricated. The lubrication system has a reservoir holding a supply of lubricant located in the upper ank of each bit leg. A passage in the bit body extends from the reservoir to the bearing to allow ow of lubricant to the bearing. A diaphragm at the reservoir provides pressure compensation between the lubricant and the drilling uid in the annulus between the bit and the wellbore. The lubrication system increases signicantly the life of the bearings. Sealed bearing bits are in the intermediate range of price. The life expectancy however, in most cases, compensates the higher price compared to a similar nonsealed bearing bit. Figure 10.5 shows a cut of a sealed roller bearing cone. In roller bearings (both sealed and non-sealed) the rollers are responsible to support the radial force of the cones, and consequently the axial force applied to the bit. The ball bearing prevents the cone from falling. As the rollers wear, however, part of the radial load is transferred to the ball baring. Ball bearing
Figure 10.4: A sealed bearing bit.Figure 10.5: Cut view of a roller bearing cone. is not designed to work under radial forces, and if the balls wear out, the cone may fall out from the bit. Therefore, it is very important to keep the drilling parameters within the working range and monitor the bit performance so that a worn bit is changed before extreme wear causes the fall of the cones. Sealed bearing type roller cutter bits further have a lubrication system including a reservoir holding a supply of lubricant. A passage in the bit body extends from the reservoir to the bearing to allow ow of lubricant to the bearing. A seal is disposed between the roller cutter and the bearing journal that holds lubricant in the bit. A diaphragm at the reservoir provides pressure compensation between the lubricant and the drilling uid in the annulus between the bit and the wellbore.
Journal Bearings Bits In bits with Journal bearings, the internal surface of the cones maintains direct contact with the bearing pin of the bit legs. An extremely rigorous tolerance and special metallurgical treatment are required in this type of bearing, in addition to permanent lubrication. In higher priced bits, a silver alloy is deposited in the internal surface of the cone, increasing the radial capacity of the bearing. Journal bearing bits are expensive but have longer life compared to roller bearing bits. Since Journal bearings are more compact than roller bearings, more room exists to increase the cone wall thickness and pin diameter so that the bit can be designed with more robust specications (larger weight on bit rating). Figure 10.6 shows a cut of a sealed roller bearing cone.
10.1.1.3
Cutting Cones
The cutting cones are of fundamental importance in the performance of the bits. In general, two things determine the type of cone: The cutting structure
Figure 10.6: Cut view of a journal bearing cone. (steel teeth or tungsten carbide inserts,) and the cone offset.
Steel (Milled) Teeth Bits In steel teeth cones, the teeth are machined in the cone and normally receive heat and surface treatment. These bits are very robust and tolerate severe drilling conditions but wear out relatively quickly. From this reason they are not well suited for deeper wells where tripping constitutes a large time factor. A typical milled teeth bit is shown in the left side of Figure 10.1. Large teeth are designed for soft to medium hard formations. Steel teeth bits for hard formations have smaller and more robust teeth (shorter, and wider base). The teeth are distributed circularly in the cones in an intermeshing fashion but without interference. This promotes a better teeth cleaning action.
Tungsten Carbide Inserts Bits Tungsten carbide, WC or W2C, is a chemical compound containing tungsten and carbon. Tungsten carbide insert is a powder metallurgy technology in ne powder of tungstan carbide cristal are cemented together using tough cobalt as agglutinant in a process called sintering. Tungsten carbide insert bits designed to drill soft formations have large and chisel shaped chips, and those designed to drill hard formations have small and round shaped inserts. Inserts are mounted in the steel cones by pressing the compacts in precisely bored holes on the cone surface. These bits do not tolerate shock loadings but they can drill long sections before being worn out. In general, insert bits of the same bit size are more expensive than milled tooth bits. Coating the inserts with a thin layer (about 5 m) of titanium carbide made by chemical vapour deposition (CVD) process may improved the lifetime of tools
Figure 10.7: Geometry of bit cones. by a factor of 2 to 5. 10.1.1.4 Cone Geometry
The cone geometry affects the selectivity and action of the bit. Three parameters are important in the cone geometry: 1. cone angle (or angles), 2. offset angle, 3. offset distance. The shape of the cone is determined by one or more angles (normally two). The cone angles and the pin angle will dene the crown prole of the bit. The pin angle (relative to hole bottom) is reduced for softer bits and increased for harder bits. This alters the cone prole which in turn affects tooth action on the hole bottom and gage cutter action on the wall of the hole. Softer bits have more highly proled cones than harder bits. This increases the scraping action of both bottomhole and gage teeth. The scraping action is benecial for drilling soft formations but it will result in accelerated tooth and gage wear if the formation is abrasive. Scraping action is minimized on hard formation bits where strength and abrasion resistance are emphasized in the design. (See Figure 10.7.) The bit prole also affects the direction tendency of the bit (to cut straight for straight drilling, or for direction changes in directional drilling). Concave crown proles tend to keep the drilling straight, and more atten crown proles favor to direction change (some other important drilling parameters like bit tilt and lateral force dene the actual tendency of the bit). During operation, the cones are subjected to two rotations. One about its own axis, and one due to the rotation of the cone axis itself about the axis of
Figure 10.8: Cone offsets. the bit, as the bit rotates. The cone offset determines basically the action of the teeth on the formations. The offset is a measure of the distance of the cone apexes to the center of the bit.(See Figure 10.8.) If the offset is zero, the cones roll as the bit rotates and the teeth crushes the formation. This is suitable to hard formations. If an offset exists, in addition to roll, the cones tend to scrape the formation. This is suitable to soft to medium hard formations. The offset distance is the distance of the cone centerline to the bit centerline. This distance also increase the scrape action of the teeth.
10.1.2
Air Drilling Bits
Bits used for air drilling have special design. In particular, air drilling is appropriated for hard to very hard formations. Therefore, these bits have zero cone offset, small and round tungsten carbide inserts and nonsealed bearings. A system of channels conducts part of the drilling gas (air, N2 , or natural gas), through the bearings. In addition to cool the moving parts, the owing gas keeps the bearings clean from small abrasive particles. A screen in the entrance of the channels lters the gas from large particles, which could damage the bearings. Figure 10.9 shows a cut of an air drilling bit.
10.1.3
Fixed Cutter Bits (Drag Bits)
Drag bits have an integral cutting element and no moving parts. In the beginning of the drilling industry, the bits were all of the drag type, with cutters (or blades) made out of hardened steel. Drag bits cut the formations plowing the rock by the blades under the action of axial force and rotation. It is the same mechanism used in drill bits to bore holes in metal and masonry. The fact that drag bits have no moving parts reduces the possibility of leaving junks in the borehole.
(a)
(b)
Figure 10.9: Air drilling bits. 10.1.3.1 Steel Blade Bits
Steel drag bits works well in soft formations, but wear rate increases rapidly in medium and hard formations, making them inappropriate for deep drilling. With the advent of the roller cone bits early last century, the steel blade drag bits becomes obsolete and drag bits, in general, were banned from the drilling industry (except diamond drag bits for hard and abrasive formations and for coring operations) until recently with the introduction of PDC bits. (See Figure 10.10). 10.1.3.2 Diamond Bits
Until early 70s, diamond bits were used exclusively in hard and abrasive formations and for coring. They take advantage of the properties of the (natural) diamonds like extreme hardness, compressive strength, and thermal conductivity. Nowadays, however, with the advance of the manufacturing technology, diamond bits have been designed and made to drill also medium hard formations. The body of diamond bits is made from sintering powdered tungsten carbide using copper or cobalt as agglutinating agent. A graphite cast with diamonds suitably distributed on the internal surface is lled with powdered tungsten carbide. A hollow rod is positioned centered with the cast creating the way for the drilling uid. The cast is put in a high temperature (1050 C to 1170 C) and the molten agglutinant inltrates under pressure in the pores of the powder. After the brazing process, a larger rod is welded to the previous one and the pin is lathed. When properly operated (right formation and right drilling parameters), only
Figure 10.10: Steel blade drag bits.
Figure 10.11: A diamond bit.
CHAPTER 10 Drilling Bits
Page 1010
Figure 10.12: Schematic and nomenclature of diamond bit. the diamonds contact the formation, letting a narrow space between the body of the bit and the formation. Drilling uid ows from the central hole of the bit and across groves molded in the body of the bit, and then across these narrow spaces, cooling the diamonds and carrying the small rock fragments. The number, size, and distribution of the diamonds in the bit determine its characteristics. Bits designed for medium hard formations have fewer and larger stones (0.75 to 2 carats) than bits designed for hard formations (0.07 to 0.125 carats.) The distribution of the diamonds is also important (manufacturers have their own design), and the shape of the cutting face (crown prole) basically determines the drilling characteristics (concave for straight holes, long taper to build and drop angle in directional drilling, etc). Figure 10.12 presents a typical schematics and the nomenclature of a diamond bit. Note that some grooves serve to conduct the uids from inside the bit to the borehole, and others collect and drive the ground rock from below the bit. Since diamond bits have no nozzle, the hydraulic calculation is quite different from that for bits with nozzles. Experimental results from different manufacCHAPTER 10 Drilling Bits Page 1011
turers indicate that the ideal hydraulic parameters should be 2.0 to 2.5 hp/in2 and pressure drop between 500 to 1000 psi across the face of the bit to properly cool and clean the diamonds. Since the pressure drop depends on the area open to ow, which in turns depends of the groves distribution and the distance of the bit body to the formation (and therefore on the weight on the bit and formation hardness), the pressure drop is determined by the difference between the pressure when the bit is off the bottom and when weight is applied to the bit. The hydraulic pressure is determined using Equation (10.1) Pb = pb q , 1714.29 (10.1)
where pb is the pressure increase when the bit is forced against the formation. Manufacturers provide tables with the estimate required ow rate and pressure drop for different bit models and formations.
Example 41: A 81 /2 in diamond bit is used to drill a hard formation at 9000 ft. The ow rate required to suitably carrying the cuttings is 400 gpm. How should the driller apply the weight on the bit. Solution: Using the criterion of 2 to 2.5 hp/in2, the power developed at the bit must be in the following range: 8.52 = 113.4 hp 4 Pmax = 2.5 [hp/in2 ] 8.52 = 141.9 hp 4 The pressure drop across the bit for these power rates are: Pmin = 2 [hp/in2 ] pmin = pmax = 1714.29 113.4 hp = 486 psi 400 gpm 1714.29 1141.9 hp = 608 psi 400 gpm
Assuming that a minimum of 500 psi is required to properly cool and clean the diamonds, the driller should apply weight so that the pump pressure increase remains between 500 psi and 608 psi.
10.1.3.3
PDC Bits
Since late 70s, bits using articial diamonds, called Polycrystalline Diamond Compact (PDC), have been used with increasing success in the drilling industry.
Figure 10.13: PDC bits.
A PDC cutter is made of a thin layer of synthetic diamond particles, bonded in a sintered tungsten carbide chip (in a process very similar to the construction of a diamond bit, but in a small scale). Important properties of the PDC chips are abrasion resistance and impact resistance. These properties are inuenced primarily by the size distribution of the synthetic diamonds particles, with large sized chips being more resistant to impact forces, and small sized chips more resistant to abrasive wear. In steel base PDC bits, the chips are inserted under pressure in holes bore in the bit body, and in tungsten carbide bits the chips are welded in steel supports in the bit body because the temperature of the sintering process is too high and may cause destabilization of the diamonds layer. Figure 10.14 presents a typical schematics and the nomenclature of a PDC bit. Some PDC bits (all steel base and most carbide base) have interchangeable nozzles. The hydraulic optimization criteria are similar to those for roller cone bits, when provided with nozzles. However, some carbide base PDC bits have structure of groves similar to those in natural diamond bits and the same criteria (hp/in) and pressure drop apply (manufacturers also provide tables of parameters.) Other important aspects of the PDC bit performance is the number, size, position (back rake and side rake angles), and shape of the chips, as well as the shape of the bit body itself. More aggressive back angle is used for soft to medium formation, and less aggressive back angle is used for hard formations. These angles are depicted in Figure 10.16.
Figure 10.14: Schematic and nomenclature of a PDC bit.
Figure 10.15: Nozzles in a PDC bit.
Figure 10.16: Back rake and side rake angles in PDC bits.
Page 1014
10.2
Bit Classication
In 1987, the IADC (International Association of Drilling Contractors) published a classication system for roller cone bits, revised in 19921 . The purpose of the system is provide a convenient method for categorizing rock bits according to their design features and intended application. The 1992 IADC roller bit classication standard denes a 4character design related code. The rst 3 characters are numeric and the character is alphabetic. The sequence of numeric characters is dened as series, type, and bearing/gage. The alphabetic 4th character describes features available. Roller Bits can be listed on a reference chart according to the digits in the IADC code. The chart form (see Figure 10.17) is explained as follows: 1. First Character Cutting Structure Series (1 to 8): Eight categories or series numbers describe general formation characteristics. Series 1 through 3 refer to steel tooth (milled tooth) bits. Series 4 through 8 refer to insert (tungsten carbide) bits. Within the steel tooth and insert groups, the formations become harder and more abrasive as the series numbers increase. 2. Second Character Cutting Structure Types (1 to 4): Each Series is divided into 4 types or degrees of hardness. Type 1 refers to bits designed for the softest formation in a particular series. Type 4 refers to the hardest formation within the series. 3. Third Character Bearing/Gage: Seven categories of bearing design and gage protection are dened as bearing/gage. Categories 8 and 9 are reserved for future use. 4. Fourth Character Features Available (Optional): Sixteen alphabetic characters are used to indicate features available as shown in the chart. This includes special cutting structures, bearings, hydraulic congurations, and body gage protection. Series and types are arranged in numericallyincreasing rows from top to bottom. Bearing/Gage categories are arranged in numericallyincreasing columns from left to right. This creates 224 spaces with an additional 64 spaces reserved for future use. Thus, the code 111 indicates a steel tooth bit equipped with standard non sealed roller bearings and a cutting structure designed to drill the very softest formations. At the opposite corner of the chart, an 847 code indicates an insert bit equipped with sealed friction bearings and gage protection, designed for the very hardest abrasive formations. Every roller cone bit can be assigned an exact position on the IADC classication chart. A comparison of the bits in each manufacturers product line is
1
SPE/IADC paper number 23937, February, 1992.
Page 1015
Figure 10.17: IADC roller cone bit classication chart. thus obtained. It is the manufacturers responsibility to assign the most appropriate IADC code to each bit. The fact that each bit has a distinct IADC code does not mean that it is limited to drilling only the narrow range of formations dened by a single box on the chart. All bits will, within reason, drill effectively in both softer and harder formations than specied by the IADC code. Also, competitive products with the same IADC code are built for similar applications but they may be quite different in design detail, quality, and performance. The optional 4th character describe features of the roller cone that are not indicated by the rst 3 characters in the IADC code. Such features are important since they can affect bit cost, application, and performance. The current alphabetic characters are shown in Table 10.1. Some bit designs may have several combination of features available. In such cases, the most signicant feature should be listed. Following are representative examples of four character IADC roller bit codes. (1) 124E a soft formation, sealed roller bearing steel tooth bit with extended jets
Table 10.1: IADC codes for roller cone bits.

Code A B Additional Feature Air Application Special Bearing Seal Description Identies a bit specically for applications with air as the drilling uid. Seal conguration that provides special application advantages such as high RPM capability. C Center Jet Larger diameter bits are sometimes equipped with center jets (Fig. 5) to provide a more uniform distribution of ow and hydraulic energy beneath the bit. Almost all extended nozzle bits have center jets to provide a benecial toothcleaning action that might otherwise be lost by concentrating all of the hydraulic energy on the bottomhole. Some manufacturers use diffusertype center jets while others use standard rock bit jet nozzles. The pressure drop through these two types of jets is different and should be taken into consideration when doing hydraulic calculations for bits equipped with center jets. D E Deviation Control Extended Jets Cutting structure specically designed to minimize deviation. Extended jets (nozzles) are used mainly on soft formation bits for improved bottomhole cuttings removal. Higher jet impact energy is delivered to the hole bottom by extended jets. Extended jets (Fig. 6) are generally available on bits larger than 9.5 inches. Miniature extended jets are not included in the E designation. G Gage/Body Protection Welded tungsten carbide deposits (hardfacing) or carbide inserts added to the shirttail to protect the seal and/or body in special applications such as geothermal and directional drilling (Fig. 7). H J Horizontal/Steering Application Jet Deection Designed specically for horizontal and steerable applications. These bits are used for making trajectory changes where the formations are soft enough to be uid-eroded. Such bits usually contain two standard jet nozzles and one large jet nozzle and can be oriented to preferentially excavate the hole in a desired direction (Fig. 8). L Lug pads Steel pads with tungsten carbide inserts applied to the bit body. These pads generally are very close to gage diameter (Fig. 9). M R S T Motor Application Reinforced welds Standard Steel Tooth Two-Cone Bits Two-cone bits are relatively uncommon but sometimes utilized for obtaining an acceptable combination of deviation control and penetration rate W X Y Z Enhanced Cutting Structure Chisel Tooth Insert Conical Tooth Insert Other Shape Inserts Specically designed for application on downhole motors.
Page 1017
(2) 437X a soft formation, sealed friction bearing insert bit, with gage protection and chiselshaped teeth.
10.2.1
PDC Bit Classication System
Four characters are used in a prescribed order to indicate seven xed cutter bit design features: cutter type, body material, bit prole, uid discharge, ow distribution, cutter size, and cutter density. These design traits were selected as being most descriptive of xed cutter bit appearance. The fourcharacter bit code is entered on an IADCAPI Daily Drilling Report Form as shown in Fig. 2. The space requirements are consistent with the fourcharacter IADC roller bit classication code. The two codes are readily distinguished from one another by the convention that diamond bit code begin with a letter, while roller bit codes begin with a number. Each of the four characters in the IADC xed cutter bit classication code are further described as follows: First Character Cutter Type and Body Material: The rst character of the xed cutter classication code describes the primary cutter type and body material (Fig. 1). Five letters are presently dened: D natural diamond/matrix body, M PDC/ matrix body, S PDC/steel body, T TSP/matrix body, 0 other. The term PDC is dened as polycrystalline diamond compact . The term TSP is dened as thermally stable polycrystalline diamond . TSP material are composed of manmade polycrystalline diamond which has the thermal stability of natural diamond. This is accomplished through the removal of trace impurities and in some cases the lling of lattice structure pore spaces with a material of compatible thermal expansion coefcient. The distinction of primary cutter types is made because xed cutter bits often contain a variety of diamond materials. Typically one type of diamond is used as the primary cutting element while another type is used as backup material. Second Character Prole: The numbers 1 through 9 in the second character of the xed cutter classication code refer to the bits longitudinalsectional prole (Fig. 3). The term prole is used here to describe the longitudinal section of the cutter/bottomhole pattern. This distinction is made because the
Table 10.2: Range for IADC bit prole.

G Gage height High C > D/4 1 4 7 C Cone height Medium D/4 C D/8 2 5 8 Low D/8 > C 3 6 9
High: G > 3D/8 Med: 3D/8 G D/8 Low: D/8 > G
cutter/bottomhole prole is not necessarily identical to the bit body prole. Nine basic proles are dened by arranging two prole parameters outer taper (gage height) and inner concavity (cone height) in a 3 x 3 matrix (see Table 10.2). The rows and columns of the matrix are assigned high, medium, and low values for each parameter. Gage height systematically decreases from top to bottom. Cone height systematically decreases from left to right. Each prole is assigned a number. The ranges are based on the bit diameter D. Third Character Hydraulic Design: The numbers 1 through 9 in the third character of the xed cutter classication code refer to the hydraulic design of the bit. The hydraulic design is described by two components: the type of uid outlet and the ow distribution. A 3 x 3 matrix of orice types and ow distributions denes 9 numeric hydraulic design codes (see Table 10.3. The orice type varies from changeable jets to xed ports to open throat from left to right in the matrix. The ow distribution varies from bladed to ribbed to open face from top to bottom. There is usually a close correlation between the ow distribution and the cutter arrangement. Table 10.3: Range for IADC bit hydraulic design. changeable jets xed ports open throat bladed 1 2 3 ribbed 4 5 6 open face 5 8 9 The IADC has not explicitly dened the difference between the three ow distribution categories but working denitions are offered as follows. The term bladed refers to raised, continuous ow restrictors with a standoff distance from the bit body of more than 1.0 inch. In most cases cutters are afxed to the blades so that the cutter arrangement may also be described as bladed. The term ribbed refers to raised continuous ow restrictors with a standoff distance from the bit body of 1.0 inch or less. Cutters are usually afxed to most of the ribs so that the cutter arrangement may also be described as ribbed. The term open face refers to non-restricted ow arrangements. Open face ow designs generally have a more even distribution of cutters over the bit face than with bladed or ribbed designs. A special case is dened: the numbers 6 and 9 describe the crowfoot/water
course design of most natural diamond and many TSP bits. Such designs are further described as having either radial ow, crossow (feeder/collector), or other hydraulics. Thus, the letters R (radial ow), X (crossow), or O (other) are used as the hydraulic design code for such bits.
Cutter Size and Placement Density The numbers 1 through 9 and 0 in the 4th character of the xed cutter classication code refer to the cutter size and placement density on the bit. A 3 x 3 matrix of cutter sizes and placement densities denes 9 numeric codes (see Table 10.4. Table 10.4: Range for IADC cutter size and density. Density light medium heavy large 1 2 3 medium 4 5 6 small 5 8 9 The placement density varies from light to medium to heavy from left to right in the matrix. The cutter size varies from large to medium to small from top to bottom. The ultimate combination of small cutters set in a high density pattern is the impregnated bit, designated by the number 0.
10.3
Drill Bit Selection and Evaluation
Since a well is drilled only once and each well penetrated the formations at different locations with different drilling parameters, a selection of a best bit can not be performed. The next best way to nd an optimum bit is to compare bit performances of drilling bits when they were run under similar conditions. Then a costperfoot value of each bit application can be calculated. Along with this criteria, the individual bit wear are evaluated. This knowledge is applied to the well to be drilled (length, inclination, drillability, abrasiveness, etc of the different sections). In practice, when the well is planned, bits that have been used previously in this area (by this drilling team) are evaluated according to their applicability. Sometimes when a bit manufacturer has developed a new bit, it is introduced to the industry with an expected minimum performance. Thus, when such a new bit is applied and the proposed performance is met (usually better than ones of already applied bits), the operator has increased the pool of possible bits to use for future wells. In case the performance proposed by the manufacturer is not met, agreements that the bit is given at reduced cost to the operator are common. Another way of bit evaluation is the determination of the specic energy
Figure 10.18: Tooth wear diagram for milled tooth bits. using Equation (10.2). e= 2N T W OB + , Ah Ah ROP (10.2)
where W OB is the weight applied to the bit, Ah is the crosssectional area of the hole, N is the rotary speed, T is the torque at the bit, and ROP is the rate of penetration. Here the cuttingperformance of various bits are compared to each other. For this, the mechanical energy of the bit is related to the drilled rock volume. It should be noted that a bit selection considering the specic energy may not lead to the nding of the most economic bit. In all practical cases, to evaluate previously applied bits, the so called bit records are studied. These bit records include all available information (bit size, type, manufacturer, nozzles used, rotation time, applied WOB, applied RPM, etc) about the bits applied within drilled wells.
10.3.1
Tooth Wear
With tooth wear, the reduction of tooth height is graded after a bit was run. The grading is reported in nearest eighth, thus a bit whose teeth are worn out to half of its original height, is reported as T4. Normally the tooth wear of a bit is not even distributed over the bit, some teeth are worn more than others, some are broken out. Broken teeth are generally remarked as BT. The reported wear is an average one based on the most severely worn teeth. Reporting of the tooth wear is possible when the teeth are measured before and after the bit was run. In general, tooth wear has no direct relationship with the drilling rate realizable. For insert bits, tooth wear occurs, due to the hardness of the teeth, as breaking or losing of them. Thus a T-4 graded insert bit may have half of its teeth broken or lost. A diagram of tooth wear for milled bits is shown in Figure 10.18.
10.3.2
Bearing Wear
Evaluation of bearing wear in the eld is difcult since the bit would need to be disassembled for inspection. Thus it is mainly determined if the bearings are intact or failed. Failed bearings is the situation that the cones are stuck (no rotation possible), or that they are worn out and the bearings are exposed. The classication is similar to the tooth wear, using a B instead of T. Thus a bit which bearings are worn to 7 is marked as B7.
Often the bearing wear is reported based on the total bit running hours. Thus, when a bit is expected to have a rotation time of 40 hours and was rotating on bottom for 10 hours, the bearing wear is reported as B-2.
10.3.3
Gage Wear
When the gauge diameter of a bit is worn, the drilled hole will be undergage (and tapered) with may lead to damage of the next bit and stuck pipe. Measurement of the gauge wear is performed with the help of a calliper and a ruler. The loss of diameter in eighth of inches is reported, denoting with the letter O for out of gage. In this way, a bit which diameter is reduced by 0.5 in is reported as GO4 . When the bit is in gauge, it is reported using the letter I. In addition to the wear gradings listed above, the bit record commonly includes a column of comments. Here the bit conditions are commonly remarked.
10.4
Factors that Affect the Rate Of Penetration
Although throughout the text various aspects that inuence the ROP are mentioned whenever appropriate, the following considerations are often applied to determine the recommended drilling parameters.
10.4.1
Bit Type
The type of bit used to drill a certain formation has a large impact on the achieved penetration rate. Roller cutting bits with long teeth exhibit commonly the highest penetration rates but they are only applicable at soft formations. At hard formations where PDC bits dominate, the realized ROP is mainly a function of size and amount of cutters, along with an optimum combination of drilling parameters.
10.4.2
Formation Characteristics
The most important formation properties that determine the penetration rate are the elastic limit and the ultimate rock strength. The strength of a formation is usually estimated using the Mohr failure criteria. When drilling is initiated, a threshold force or bit weight
W db
has to be
t
overcome. This threshold force can be found when plotting drilling rates as a function of bit weight per diameter and then extrapolated to zero drilling rate. A correlation between threshold and shear strength is shown in Figure 10.19.
Figure 10.19: Correlation between rock strength and threshold WOB. Another formation property that has a large inuence to the realized ROP is the permeability. In rocks with high permeability, the drilling mud ltrates into the rock ahead of the bottom of the hole and thus reduces the differential pressure. Other rock properties like its abrasiveness and gummy clay minerals content contribute indirectly to the ROP by inuencing the drilling bit (wear, dulling, etc).
10.4.3
Drilling Fluid Properties
Among the various drilling uid properties, the following are identied as inuencing the penetration rate: [(a)] 1. drilling uid density, 2. rheological ow properties, 3. ltration characteristics, 4. solids content and distribution,
Figure 10.20: Variation of ROP with different uid properties. 5. chemical composition. Penetration rate in general decreases with increasing uid density, viscosity, and solids content, and increases with increasing ltration rate. This latter is mainly caused by the reduction of the differential pressure in the formation right below the bottom of the hole. The drilling uid viscosity controls the frictional pressure losses along the drillstring and thus reducing the available hydraulic energy at the bit. Solids particles with size less than 1 m (colloid size) inuence the ROP dramatically since they tend to plug off the porous of the rock, reducing the ltration below the bit. The effects of these various parameters are loosely shown in Figure 10.20. The penetration rate is largely dependent on the differential pressure as seen in Figure 10.21. The effective differential pressure at the bottom has several implications in reducing the ROP. The rst is the chip holddown effect. The second is the increase of the conning pressure, which increases the strength of the rock. If the rate of penetration versus pressure differential is plotted in a semi log paper, a reasonable linear relationship can be obtained, as seen in Figure 10.22. An expression for the relationship can then be written as: log R = m (pbh pf ) , R0
where R is the rate of penetration at a particular overbalance, R0 is the rate of penetration for zero overbalance, m is the slope or the regressed line, pbh is the
Figure 10.21: Effect of differential pressure in the ROP. bottom hole pressure, and pf is the formation pore pressure at the bottom hole depth.
10.4.4
Operating Conditions
The effects of changes in the operating conditions, namely WOB and rotary speed, are shown in Figure 10.23. Ideally, the ROP should increase linearly with the WOB (for a xed rotary speed), as shown in the segment abc in the graph . However, eld tests show that above a given value the response departs from the linear behavior, and an increase in WOB does not correspond to the expected increase in ROP, as in the segment cd. In situations as in the segment de, the rate of penetration may even reduce. This behavior is called oundering. Two factors contribute to the oundering behavior. One is the reduction of hole cleaning capacity due to the increase of ROP (assumed the hydraulics is kept constant). The second is the complete imbedding of the cutters (teeth or inserts) into the formation. It is important, therefore to nd the onset of the oundering region. Drillers conduct a variety of tests to optimize performance. The most common is the drill rate test, which consists of simply experimenting with various WOB and
Figure 10.22: Exponential relationship between of differential pressure and ROP.
(a)
(b)
Figure 10.23: Effect of WOB (a) and rotary speed (b) in the ROP. RPM settings and observing the results. The parameters are then used that resulted in the highest ROP. In some sense, all optimization schemes use a similar comparative process. That is, they seek to identify the parameters that yield the best results relative to other settings. Another scheme is the drilloff. In the drilloff test, the driller applies a high WOB and locks the brake to prevent the top of the string from advancing while continuing to circulate and rotate the string. As the bit drilled ahead, the string elongated and the WOB declined. ROP was calculated from the change in the rate of drill string elongation as the weight declined. The point at which the ROP stops responding linearly with increasing WOB is dened as the ounder point. This is taken to be the optimum WOB. This process has enhanced performance, but does not provide an objective assessment of the true potential drill rate, only the ounder point of the current system.
10.4.4.1
Bit Wear
As the bit is worn during drilling, the penetration rate decreases. This reduction of ROP is generally less severe for insert bits as for milled tooth bits. 10.4.4.2 Bit Hydraulics
Practice has shown that effective bit hydraulics can improve the penetration rate dramatically. The enhanced jetting action promotes a better cleaning of the teeth as well as the bottom of the hole. To improve the cleaning capacity of the bit extended nozzles are often used where the discharging nozzle ends are closer to the hole bottom. Extended nozzles usually requires the use of a 4th central nozzle, to guarantee a suitable cleaning of the cones, particularly in gummy formations As discussed in well hydraulics, maximum hydraulic horsepower and maximum jet impact force are the most used criteria to optimize hydraulics. When a low WOB is applied and drilling rates are low, the required hydraulics for efcient hole cleaning is small. When the WOB is increased and the well is drilled faster, efcient hydraulic programs have to be followed to realize the higher penetration rates.
Page 1027
CHAPTER Drilling Bits
Page 28
Appendix A Drill Pipe Dimensions (as in API RP7C)
CHAPTER A Drill Pipe Dimensions
Page A1
Table A.1: New Drill Pipe Dimensional Data

(1) Size OD in. D (2) Nominal Weight Threads and Couplings, lb/ft 4.85 6.65 6.85 10.40 9.50 13.30 15.50 11.85 14.00 15.70 13.75 16.60 20.00 22.82 16.25 19.50 25.60 19.20 21.90 24.70 25.20 27.70 (3) Plain end Weight lb/ft 4.43 6.26 6.16 9.72 8.81 12.31 14.63 10.46 12.93 14.69 12.24 14.98 18.69 21.36 14.87 17.93 24.03 16.87 19.81 22.54 22.19 24.22 (4) Wall Thickness in. 0.190 0.280 0.217 0.362 0.254 0.368 0.449 0.262 0.330 0.380 0.271 0.337 0.430 0.500 0.296 0.362 0.500 0.304 0.361 0.415 0.330 0.362 (5) ID in. d 1.995 1.815 2.441 2.151 2.992 2.764 2.602 3.476 3.340 3.240 3.958 3.826 3.640 3.500 4.408 4.276 4.000 4.892 4.778 4.670 5.965 5.901 (6) Section Area Body of Pipe sq. in. A 1.3042 1.8429 1.8120 2.8579 2.5902 3.6209 4.3037 3.0767 3.8048 4.3216 3.6004 4.4074 5.4981 6.2832 4.3743 5.2746 7.0686 4.9624 5.8282 6.6296 6.5262 7.1227 (7) Polar Sectional Modulus cu. in. Z 1.321 1.733 2.241 3.204 3.923 5.144 5.847 5.400 6.458 7.157 7.184 8.543 10.232 11.345 9.718 11.415 14.491 12.221 14.062 15.688 19.572 21.156
23 8 27 8 31 2
41 2
51 2
65 8
Page A2
Table A.2: New Drill Pipe Torsional and Tensile Data. Courtesy API
Page A3
Table A.3: New Drill Pipe Collapse and Internal Pressure Data. Courtesy API
Page A4
Table A.4: Premium Drill Pipe Torsional and Tensile Data. Courtesy API
Page A5
Table A.5: Premium Drill Pipe Collapse and Internal Pressure Data. Courtesy API
Page A6

Drilling Engineering Fundamentals (Jorge H.B. Sampayo)

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Drilling Engineering Fundamentals (Jorge H.B. Sampayo)

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Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

2 Rotary Drilling System

6.1 Mass and Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

6.2 Flow Through Bit Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Figure 1.1: Rig Classication.

Drilling Rig Types

(a) Jackknife rig.

(b) Portable mast.

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Drilling

(c) A cantilever rig on a barge.

(d) A selfcontained platform.

(e) A tender assisted platform.

(f) A submersible platform.

(g) A JackUp rig

(h) Semisubmersible vessel.

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Drilling

(j) A tensionleg platform.

(k) Caisson vessel (also called spar buoy).

(l) Diagram of a sparbuoy.

Personnel at Rig Site

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Drilling

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Drilling

Chapter 2 Rotary Drilling System

Figure 2.2: A simplied drillstring.

Figure 2.3: Making a connection.

Energy, Work, and Efciency

CHAPTER 2 Rotary Drilling Systems

For T in ft lbf and N in RPM we have: N [RPM] that is P [hp] =

1 hp 550 lbf ft/s

N [RPM] T [ft lbf] . 5252

Figure 2.7: Stand of doubles along the mast.

CHAPTER 2 Rotary Drilling Systems

Figure 2.8: Onshore rig drawworks.

Figure 2.9: Brake belts and magnication linkage.

The Block & Tackle

Mechanical advantage and Efciency

300, 000 lbf W = nE 8 0.841

Ff = 44, 590 lbf

550 lbf ft/s 1 hp

= 231, 550 lbf ft/s = W vb = 300, 000 lbf vb

Load Applied to the Derrick

Therefore, the total load applied to the derrick is: FD = W + W W (n + 1)E + 1 + = W . nE n nE

W , 4 W W nE + 2 + = W . Legs C and D : 4 2nE 4nE

CHAPTER 2 Rotary Drilling Systems

CHAPTER 2 Rotary Drilling Systems

Drilling Fluid Circulation System

See Section 2.4.1 for details.

CHAPTER 2 Rotary Drilling Systems

(a) Piston scheme (double action).

(b) A duplex unit.

Figure 2.15: Duplex pumps.

(a) Piston scheme (single action).

(b) A Triplex unit.

For both types of PDP, the ow rate is calculated from: q = N Fp .

For PH in hp, p in psi, and q in gpm we have: PH = p q . 1714.29 (2.6)

The ow rate at N = 76spm is: q = N Fp = 78spm 4.44gps = 337.44gpm

Figure 2.17: Surge dampener.

CHAPTER 2 Rotary Drilling Systems

Solids Control Equipment

Figure 2.18: Solids control system.

CHAPTER 2 Rotary Drilling Systems

Figure 2.19: Shale shaker congurations.

Figure 2.20: A twoscreen shale shaker. 2.3.2.1 Shale Shakers