OTEC and its Thermodynamic Principles The ocean, which occupies nearly 70% of the earth [1], is a very

important energy source because the supply of water is in a constant cycle. The water evaporates from the ocean, travels through the air, rains down on the land and then flows back to the ocean. Therefore, Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) becomes a hot emerging renewable energy source that generates electricity. Normal power plants generate electricity by utilizing the temperature difference between a hot heat source and a cold heat sink with the help of a heat engine [2]. Similarly, OTEC is a heat engine cycle that extract energy from the temperature difference between the warm surface water of ocean (as heat source) and cold deep water of ocean (as heat sink) [3, 4, 5]. There are different types of OTEC cycle, for instance; closed cycle, open cycle and hybrid system [6, 7]. The general thermodynamic principle of OTEC is as following. The warm seawater is drawn into the evaporator containing fluid with a low boiling point. The work boils and form vapor when the heat transferred from the warm water. The resulting vapor passes through a gas turbine to generate power. The vapor (working fluid) leaving the turbine is condensed in condenser by transferring heat to cold water drawn from the ocean depth. The turbine is connected to an electric generator to produce continuous source of electrical power [8]. (Refer to schematic diagram in Appendix A for clearer view of the thermodynamic principle of OTEC). Benefits and Challenges of OTEC Besides generating electricity and power, OTEC demonstrates other benefits which summarized as follow [6, 9, 10]: a) Renewable energy resource: The energy resources are vast and naturally self-renewing. b) Fresh water production: Produce water (by condensation) for industrial, agricultural and residential uses. c) Non-polluting technology: Reduce the greenhouse gas emission (resulting from burning fossil fuels) because it uses natural water. d) Air conditioning/refrigeration: The deep ocean cold water can be used as a chiller fluid in air conditioning system. e) Mineral extraction: Minerals like sodium, chlorine, magnesium can be found dissolved in the water captured. Although OTEC gives a lot of benefits, there are challenges and barriers such as [6, 11]: a) High capital investment: The high cost of building makes many sectors unwilling to invest as there are numerous alternate forms of energy which require less cost. b) Bad effects on tourism: Public and tourists do not want to see OTEC plants when they look at the ocean.

c) Practicability of thermal energy extraction: With a 22C difference, the maximum efficiency is 7%. However, this is only theoretical value and the actual value will be less due to parasitic losses. d) Availability of region: It takes time to investigate the availability of regions with stable thermal gradients. e) Power transmission: The construction of OTEC needs careful engineering analysis. Submarine cables must be strong to withstand rough marine environment. Four Potential OTEC Sites According to Crews [12], several essential factors must be considered in the selection of suitable shore-based sites for OTEC development, namely (1) availability of deep ocean water within the vicinity of the shore (e.g. 10km), (2) supportive and accommodating governments, and (3) availability of sufficient local infrastructure to utilize and accommodate the extra power supply from OTEC. Previously, potential OTEC sites were categorized into 6 main categories, namely Americas (Mainland), Americas (Island), Africa (Mainland), Africa (Island), Indian/Pacific Ocean (Mainland) and Indian/Pacific Ocean (Island) [13]. Potential sites were identified based on requirements such as having suitably stable environment with temperature difference of approximately 20C between the warm surface seawater and cold deep water, at no more than 1km below the sea surface. In general, sites with such temperature difference lie within the latitudes of 20N and 20S, whereby tropical islands have greater potential for OTEC development [14]. These classifications were based on an analysis conducted for the U. S. Department of State in 1981 by Takahashi and Trenka [13]. Based on several factors, i.e. cost of fossil fuel-powered electricity, demand for clean, usable water and overall social and economical benefits introduced by OTEC, OTEC is deemed to have significant potential for development in worldwide markets such as U. S. Gulf Coast and Caribbean regions, Africa and Asia and the Pacific Islands [15]. With respect to the previous literature, four potential OTEC sites that have been identified are Tanzania, India, Philippines and Samoa. Crews [12] stated that Tanzania possesses political and economical climates that are receptive towards foreign investment due to its poor economic development. The agriculture sector is heavily depended upon as source of national income. Suitable sites in Tanzania include Tanga, Dar Es Salam, Lindi, Zanzibar and Pemba. The average distance from resources in Tanzania to shore is 25km, with temperature difference of approximately 20C to 22C [14]. Indias commitment to economic and industrial development through international cooperation is suitable for OTEC development [12]. It has temperature difference of approximately 22C [14]. The Philippines, a nation with many islands, have extensive use of geothermal power and production of petroleum [12]. Its proximity to the seawater (distance of 1km) and temperature difference of 22C to 24C are advantageous for the development of OTEC [14]. Samoa, also an island-nation, has similar characteristics as the Philippines [14]. Based on Appendix B, the estimated work output for the four potential sites is approximately 529kW due to the similarity in temperature difference. For the purpose of the assignment, the Philippines is selected for further development of land-based OTEC. This is due to the general proximity of the country with seawater whereby the distance from the plant to shore is approximately 1km, significantly better than other potential sites. This will reduce the cost related to construction of the plant, in terms of transportation, logistics and safety. To connect the plant with facilities on shore,

undersea cabling is required at a cost of RM12 million per kilometer. With a distance of 1km, OTEC plants in the Philippines can be built with cabling cost of approximately RM12 million per plant, significantly lesser than other sites. The nations poor electricity network and infrastructure can be developed through OTEC with foreign investment by major OTEC companies [12]. In addition, the high costs incurred in generating electricity via diesel can be reduced via OTEC [15]. To conclude, OTEC is a technology that holds great potential for development in countries within the desired regions to generate clean energy. Capital investment must be provided by the government or foreign companies to support and encourage the development of OTEC.

References 1. SavetheSea.org. (2004-2011) Interesting Ocean Facts. Available: http://savethesea.org/STS %20ocean_facts.htm. Last accessed 10th December 2011. 2. Cengel, YA & Boles, MA. (2007) The Second Law of Thermodynamics. In: Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach. 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 284-313. 3. S. K. Wang & T.C. Hung. (2010) Renewable Energy from the Sea - Organic Rankine Cycle using Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion. PEA-AIT International Conference on Energy and Sustainable Development: Issues and Strategies (ESD 2010). pp. 1-8. 4. U.S. Department of Energy. (2011) Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion. Available: http://www.energysavers.gov/renewable_energy/ocean/index.cfm/mytopic=50010. Last accessed 10th December 2011. 5. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. (2008) What is Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion. Available: http://www.nrel.gov/otec/what.html. Last accessed 11th December 2011. 6. Kothapally, A. K. R. (2010). Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (Non-Conventional Source of Energy). Available: http://knol.google.com/k/ocean-thermal-energy-conversion. Last accessed 11th December 2011. 7. Thermalenergy.org. (2008). Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC).Available: http://thermalenergy.org/oceanenergy.php. Last accessed 11th December 2011. 8. William H. A. (2003). Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC). In: Robert A. Meyers Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology. 3rd ed. New York: Academic Press. p123-160. 9. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. (2008). Benefits of OTEC. Available: http://www.nrel.gov/otec/benefits.html. Last accessed 11th December 2011.

10. AI Vin. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion. Available: http://www.orionsarm.com/org/egarticle/48571957d8a5b. Last accessed 11th December 2011. 11. B. Friedman. (2008) Examining the future of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion. Available: http://www.oceanenergycouncil.com/index.php/OTEC-News/Examining-the-future-of-OceanThermal-Energy-Conversion.html. Last accessed 11th December 2011. 12. Crews, R. (1997) OTEC Sites. Available: http://library.greenocean.org/oteclibrary/otecpapers/otec_sites.pdf. Last accessed 11th December 2011. 13. Takahasi, P. K. & Trenka, A. (1996) Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion. Michigan: John Wiley. 14.Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion. (2011) Plant Design and Location. Available: http://www.nrel.gov/otec/design_location.html 15. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion. (2011) Markets for OTEC. Available: http://www.nrel.gov/otec/markets.html 16. Yeroc.us (2010) Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Thermodynamic Analysis. Available: http://yeroc.us/unquantized/otec

Appendix A

Warm Ocean Water (Heat Source)

Qin
Evaporat or

System Boundary

Win
Pum p Working Fluid Feed Pump Condense r

Tur bin e

Wout

Electricity Produce (kW)

Qout
Return to Deep Cold Water (Heat Sink)

Figure A: Schematic Diagram of How OTEC Heat Engine Works Based on Thermodynamic Principles.

Appendix B Analyses are carried out for the four potential OTEC sites that have been identified earlier. It is assumed that the density of seawater, , is 1025kg/m3 and the volumetric flow rate of seawater, V, into the plant is 0.238m3/s [16]. Specific heat, c, is 3850J/(kg C). Efficiency of plant, , is assumed to be 2.5%.

Mass flow rate of seawater, = V = (1025)(0.238) = 243.97kg/s Rate of heat rejection, Q = c(T) = 859.975(3850)(22) = 20.66MJ/s With efficiency of 2.5%, = W/(W + Q) 0.025 = W/(W + 20.66E06) W = 529kJ/s = 529kW