Ethical Theory

AS Level Religious Ethics G572

Utilitarianism

The said truth is that it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong. Bentham

Utilitarianism Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of: The classical forms of Utilitarianism from Bentham and Mill; The principle of Utility; The differences between the Utilitarianism of Bentham and of Mill; The Hedonic Calculus, higher and lower pleasures, quantity v. quality, and Act and Rule Utilitarianism; The Preference Utilitarianism of Peter Singer. Candidates should be able to discuss critically these issues and their strengths and weaknesses. Lesson 1. To understand Benthams version of utilitarianism. Hedonism, Act utilitarianism, and the principle of utility. 2. To know and understand Benthams Hedonic Calculus. 3. To evaluate Benthams Utilitarianism. 4. To understand John Stuart Mills utilitarianism: Higher and lower pleasure, criterion of competent judges Rule utilitarianism. 5. To evaluate Mills utilitarianism. 6. To understand Peter Singers preference utilitarianism. 7. To evaluate Singers Preference utilitarianism. To summarise the theory of utilitarianism 8. To plan essays on utilitarianism for next lesson 9. To practice writing essays on utilitarianism under timed conditions.

The first official Utilitarian philosophers were Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill their forms of Utilitarianism are called classical utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham (1748- 1832)

Jeremy Bentham devised the theory of utilitarianism. He was an English thinker who worked on legal reform in Georgian times. He wrote The principles of morals and legislation (1789). His Theory has been the philosophical basis for government in many parts of todays world. His intentions for a fairer society are obvious in his theory. Utilitarianism can be said to be a hedonistic theory (from the Greek Hedone, meaning pleasure). Hedonism is the pursuit of pleasure. Bentham argued that ultimately humans are motivated by pleasure and pain. Pleasure is the sole good, and pain the sole evil. Nature has placed mankind under the government of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure...they govern us in all we do, in all we say, in all we think Benthams beliefs about moral action can be summarised in the principle of utility (or greatest happiness principle). Utility means usefulness, for Bentham the usefulness and GOODNESS of an action is determined by the amount of pleasure it produces:

The said truth is that it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong. Bentham Good is seen by Bentham as the maximisation of pleasure and minimisation of pain. Or Happiness = pleasure pain Benthams Utilitarianism can be described as ACT UTILITARIANISM. Act Utilitarianism is the Original, and 'official' form of utilitarianism which says that our duty on any occasion is to act in the way which

will produce overall consequences better than (or at least as good as) those that any other act open to us would produce. Therefore the greatest happiness principle should inform any act we undertake.

1. What is a definition of teleological theory? 2. What is hedonism? 3. What does Benthams quote Nature has placed mankind under the government of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure...they govern us in all we do, in all we say, in all we think mean? 4. What is the principle of utility? 5. What is GOOD to Bentham? 6. What is act utilitarianism?

The Hedonic Calculus

Bentham had a quantitative approach to utilitarianism. For him it was the amount of pleasure produced by an action that determined whether it was right or wrong. In order to calculate the expected pleasure (and pain) from an action Bentham devised the Hedonic Calculus. He set out criteria that should be used to ensure that pain was avoided and pleasure sought. Remember Happiness = pleasure pain. Duration length of time -the longer lasting pleasure should be sought Intensity strength of pleasure the more intense pleasure is the most desirable. Propinquity closeness in time - the sooner the better! Certainty sure to happen More certain pleasures are more desirable the possible pleasures. Purity freedom from pain the less plain the better. Fecundity fruitfulness the action should go on producing further pleasure. Extent number of people the more people that benefit from the pleasure produced the better! According to Bentham acting so to produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people will also produce happiness for the person themselves. ????? Try to think of an acronym to help you to remember the criteria of the hedonic calculus ????? According to Bentham the source or the type of the pleasure gained is irrelevant, as long it is pleasure! For a quantitative utilitarian mental pleasures and pains differ from physical ones only in terms of quantity. There are not different types or kinds of pleasure or pain. The pleasure from eating an ice cream cone or reading a classic novel are of the same type. However, reading the classic novel might produce a greater quantity of pleasure due to fecundity or other factors. Quantity of pleasure being equal, push-pin is as good as poetry'

Apply the Hedonic Calculus to the following scenario to determine what a Utilitarian would decide to be morally right or wrong. A four-year-old girl has a life threatening kidney illness and has only a limited chance of survival if she has a kidney transplant. An organ becomes available. The transplant can go ahead. However this is the girls second operation. The first one was unsuccessful because the organ was rejected. The operation costs as much as 100 routine operations all with almost 100% chance of success. The second operation on the girl has little chance of success because the child is very sick. Should the doctors: Give the girl a chance at life with transplant despite the low chance of survival? Or Spend the money on routine operations that are most likely to succeed?

Application of the Hedonic Calculus

Remember to consider pleasure and pain Criteria Duration If the transplant is done If the money is spent elsewhere..

Intensity

Propinquity

Certainty

Purity

Fecundity

Extent

What would a UTILITARIAN conclude is the right thing to do? Do you agree why? Why not?

Example of utilitarianism 24 Season 3

Terrorists have a biological weapon in vials. The have released one with hideous consequences; it leads to a painful death and spreads quickly. Watch the clip of the effects of the weapon. The terrorists have given an order; Jack Bauer must execute the head of the Counter Terrorist Unit, Ryan Chappelle, or they will release another vial of the biological weapon leading to the death of hundreds and wide scale panic.

Considering the hedonic calculus, what is the right thing to do?

Watch the clip of Ryan Chappelles execution. Was this a good act? What is the 6 with problem utilitarianism?

Strengths and Weaknesses of Benthams Utilitarianism Strengths

It is Egalitarian - the moral view that everyone should be treated equally. No one persons pleasure is more valued than any others. It provides people with a decision making procedure - how do they know what is right in any given situation? Seek to maximise happiness. Focuses on the well being of Human beings encouraging people to be kind to others It emphasises Happiness which according to many ethicists is common sense. It recognises the importance of consequence in moral decisions and responsibility

Criticisms
He implies all forms of pleasure or happiness are equal. (A problem later tackled by mill). Please gained by sadistic torture is as desirable as pleasure gained by friendship and knowledge according to Bentham. It is not really possible to know the consequences of our actions so it is foolish to base our decisions on assumptions and uncertainties. When do the consequences cease to be the consequences of your action? Motive has no importance in utilitarianism so it doesnt matter at all why you do something therefore actions that promote happiness are GOOD no matter what! Therefore my motive for my action might be greed or lust but as long as pleasure is the consequence the action is good. Anything is permitted as long as it promotes happiness even blatantly unjust actions, therefore violating the principle of Justice.

This permits obviously immoral actions such as gang rape and murder if people find them pleasurable. Although he provides the hedonic calculus many would argue that you cannot measure pleasure. Nothing has intrinsic worth pleasure makes things acceptable therefore breaking the golden rule from natural law and Kant that evil may not be done so that good may come. Which is the most convincing strength of Benthams utilitarianism? Give reasons for your answer.

Which is the most problematic weakness of Benthams Utilitarianism? Give reasons for your answer.

John Stuart Mill

John Stuart mill was a peer of Benthams. Like Bentham, Mills form of utilitarianism can also be called CLASSICAL UTILITARIANISM He agreed that the moral behaviour should seek to maximise happiness, but he made some important developments to Benthams utilitarianism. He sought in particular to address the absence of Justice in Utilitarianism so far. Higher and Lower Pleasures Mill made the distinction between different types of pleasure that was absent in Benthams version. He recognised that there are different ways of assessing the value of happiness. Whereas Benthams is a QUANTITATIVE approach, Mills is a QUALITATIVE approach to utilitarianism. His basic idea was that pleasures of the mind and the spirit were of more value than pleasures of the body. So pleasures gained by learning, conversations etc were of higher value that eating, drinking and sex (for physical pleasure only). Pleasures of the mind and the spirit are pleasures he attributed as only being available to humans and therefore should be pursued by humans, as to not reduce ourselves to animals. He put it like this: It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.

It is better to seek the higher pleasures and not reach them

Than to strive for lower pleasures- even if it means you are satisfied!

Rate the following actions in order of the happiness value they have for you (1 most, 8 least)

Criterion of competent Judges.

Mill argued that those familiar with both types of pleasure would make an educated judgement to value higher pleasures over lower pleasures. If faced with a wide variety of competing pleasures and asked to conclude their greatest happiness value the higher pleasures will be preferred. He calls this the criterion of competent judges. Those who are familiar with both higher and lower pleasures and choose to those who prefer lower pleasures suffer from, according to Mill, an infirmity of character. Check your answers above - Are you a competent judge or do you suffer from an infirm character!

Rule utilitarianism
Mills version of Utilitarianism can be described as RULE utilitarianism though Mill did not use this term it was a name given later. Precisely because we do not have the time to calculate accurately in every instance (as required by the hedonic calculus), he supposed, we properly allow our actions to be guided by moral rules most of the time. Partly anticipating the later distinction between act and rule utilitarianism, Mill pointed out that principles other than the principle of utility, at the very least, perform an important service by providing ample guidance for every-day moral life. Finally, however, he emphasized that the value of each particular actionespecially in difficult or controversial casesis to be determined by reference to the principle of utility itself.

Action Eating Debating Fighting Learning Playing instrument Getting drunk Kissing Playing Music

Happiness value rating

Rule utilitarianism teaches that we should establish rules based on the greatest happiness principle and then follow these rules. Throughout the experience of life we learn about the kinds of actions that , in the long run, contribute most to human happiness. (Hamilton). Therefore there is no need to decide the greatest happiness in EVERY situation as following the rules should, in general, produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Individual acts can therefore be judged as right or wrong by reference to the rules. Rule utilitarianism can be divided again into strong and weak rule utilitarianism. strong rule utilitarians will not break rules once they have been established, weak rule utilitarians will break a rule if more pleasure is produced by doing so.

1. Explain the difference between Higher and lower pleasures. 2. Explain the quote It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. 3. What is the criterion of competent Judges? 4. What is Rule Utilitarianism? 5. Explain the difference between strong and weak rule utilitarianism.

Most of the weaknesses of Benthams utilitarianism are shared by Mill.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Mills Utilitarianism

Weaknesses

Same as Bentham

Is it really possible to know the consequences of our actions? When do the consequences cease to be the consequences of your action? Motive has no importance in utilitarianism so it doesnt matter at all why you do something therefore actions that promote happiness are GOOD no matter what! Because of its emphasis on pleasures of the mind Mills utilitarianism is often criticised for being INTELLECTUALLY ELITIST and SNOBBISH. It implies that those who are satisfied with their life that is filled with lower pleasures are living the life of an animal. according to the criterion of competent judges they have an infirm character It is not always easy to distinguish between higher and lower pleasures. Getting drunk may be a lower pleasure but what if my pleasure comes from drinking wine that I have spent years learning about and share my knowledge with others etc Sex may also be considered a lower pleasure but surely sex in a loving, committed relationship is a pleasure of the spirit? Strong rule utilitarianism is not based on pleasure (or they would break the rule if more pleasure was produced by doing so) therefore

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what else does it take into consideration? Is it only part utilitarian and part deontological? Hamilton argues that the rule utilitarian should just admit that he or she cares about things other than happiness (Hamilton)

Strengths

Same as Bentham

It is Egalitarian - the moral view that everyone should be treated equally. It provides people with a decision making procedure- how do they know what is right in any given situation? Seek to maximise happiness. Focuses on the well being of Human beings encouraging people to be kind to others It emphasises Happiness which according to many ethicists is common sense. It recognises the importance of consequence in moral decisions and responsibility Mill attempts to address the problem of Justice evident in Benthams theory. It is possible to eradicate some of the injustices on the grounds that Rules will norm decisions and there is a distinction made between higher and lower pleasures. It avoids the time consuming calculations required by the hedonic calculus

Preference Utilitarianism
Preference Utilitarianism is a modern form of Utilitarianism. An Act utilitarian judges right or wrong according to the maximising of pleasure and minimising of pain, A Rule utilitarian judges right or wrong according to the keeping of rules derived from utility, but A Preference utilitarian judges moral actions according to whether they fit in with the preferences (interests) of the individuals involved. This approach to Utilitarianism asks: What is in my own interest? What would I prefer in this situation? Which outcome would I prefer? However, because Utilitarianism aims to create the greatest good for the greatest number, it is necessary to consider the preferences of others in order to achieve this. In the same way as other utilitarian theorists, preference utilitarians define a morally right action as that which produces the most favourable consequences for the people involved . However, preference utilitarians interpret the best consequences in terms of 'preference satisfaction'. This means that 'good' is described as the satisfaction of each person's individual preferences or desires, and a right action is that which leads to this satisfaction . .

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Peter Singers approach In his book Practical Ethics Peter Singer describes what he means by preference utilitarianism. Singer argues that, by its very nature, ethics requires that we consider the interests of others as well as our own. Ethics requires that we go beyond I and You to the universal law, the universal judgement, the standpoint of the impartial spectator ideal observer or whatever we choose to call it. Interests: he explains taking a persons interests to be what, on balance, and after refection on all the relevant facts, a person prefers. Singer suggests that we should take the viewpoint of an impartial spectator combined with a broadly utilitarian approach. He says that our own preferences cannot count for more simply because they are my own and so, in acting morally, we should take account of all the people affected by our actions. These have to be weighed and balanced and then we must choose the action which gives the best possible consequences for those affected. For Singer, the best possible consequences means what is in the best interests of the individuals concerned this is different from Bentham, Mill, as he is not considering what increases pleasure and diminishes pain. This principle of equal consideration of preferences or interests acts like a pair of scales everyones preferences or interests are weighed equally. I must choose the course of action that has the best consequences, on balance, for all affected
Singer writes: The way of thinking I have outlines is a form of utilitarianism. Iit differs from classical utilitarianism in that, best consequences is understood as meaning what, on balance, furthers the interests of those affected rather than merely what increases pleasure and reduces pain. He however concedes: It has however, been suggested that classical Utilitarians like Bentham and Mill used Pleasure and Pain in a broad sense that allowed them to include achieving what one desired as pleasure, and the reverse as pain. If this interpretation is correct the difference between classical utilitarianism and utilitarianism based on interests disappears.

1. How does a Preference Utilitarian judge the rightness or wrongness of an action? 2. What is a right action according to preference Utilitarianism? 3. Outline Singers Preference utilitarianism, including: How a right decision is made? How it differs from Bentham and Mills approaches? How it might be considered the same as classical utilitarianism?

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Evaluation of Preference Utilitarianism

Strengths It is Egalitarian - the moral view that everyone should be treated equally. It is considerate of others. No one persons interests count as any more than the others. It emphasises interests or preferences rather than pleasure or happiness, which eradicates some of the problems of classical utilitarianism e.g. elitism or the swine ethic It avoids the time consuming calculations required by the hedonic calculus It encourages us to consider all things with interests including animals that are capable of pain in our decisionmaking. Weaknesses Is it really possible to know the consequences of our actions? When do the consequences cease to be the consequences of your action? Motive has no importance in utilitarianism so it doesnt matter at all why you do something therefore actions that promote happiness are GOOD no matter what! Singer himself conceded that It has however, been suggested that classical Utilitarians like Bentham and Mill used Pleasure and Pain in a broad sense that allowed them to include achieving what one desired as pleasure, and the reverse as pain. If this interpretation is correct the difference between classical utilitarianism and utilitarianism based on interests disappears. it is no different! How is it possible to know the interests or preferences of others?

Same as Bentham and Mill

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Application of Utilitarianism
Aspect of theory Abortion Euthanasia Gen eng/ Emb Res Right to a child (IVF)

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Principle: Utilitarianism teaches:

Benthams Utilitarianism teaches that the right action is one which creates the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. This is called the principle of utility and is the foundation of utilitarianism

Abortion
It is clear that utilitarianism will favour the practice of abortion on the grounds that it is likely to make many people happy (In 1998 over 187,000 abortions-more than 510 a day were performed therefore chosen by a great number of people!) On the whole utilitarianism will support abortion on the grounds of a womans right to choose. (One could argue that if the foetus is considered a person their happiness is not taken into consideration but utilitarians dont consider the foetus a person). Principles such as duration and propinquity can support abortion using the hedonic calculus. The duration of pain physical in birth and great unhappiness caused by being responsible for a child you do not want, and possibly cant abide, will out weigh the amount of pain caused by abortion. And while you may argue that a woman may grow to love her foetus and baby once it is born the pleasure is too far away to be of value.

Euthanasia
Voluntary Euthanasia can promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people providing it is voluntary and those close to the person agree with their choice.

Genetic engineering
A great number of people will benefit if the potential for genetic engineering is ever realised. E.g. Developing cures for diseases preventing them from developing in foetuses, resilient crops. therefore utilitarianism will support Genetic engineering.

Embryo Research
By developing cures for diseases through embryo research or preventing them from developing in foetuses - a great number of people will benefit therefore utilitarianism will support use of embryo research.

Right to a child

Bentham would argue that providing IVF to childless couples creates the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. (More people are likely to feel strongly about wanting IVF than those who oppose it.?)

Bentham formulated the Hedonic calculus in order to calculate the pleasure and pain caused by an action and therefore conclude if it is acceptable. An action is good if it produces more pain than pleasure in the criteria of the hedonic calculus.

Principles such as Duration and propinquity can support euthanasia as the pain of dying quickly is preferable to a long drawn out death, and the closeness of the pleasure a death by euthanasia is preferable to a far away natural death eventually bringing pleasure. However one could argue that the pleasure is not pure as it does mean killing someone!

If research is correct Genetic engineering has an almost certain chance of leading to greater pleasure therefore fulfilling the criterion of fecundity. The effects of the progress are likely to be long term and therefore in the criterion of duration the pleasure outweighs the pain. Embryo research is the same as gen. eng. in the above criteria however if any place is given to embryos in society they die for this research so it is not pure.

If research is correct Embryo research has an almost certain chance of leading to greater pleasure therefore fulfilling the criterion of fecundity. The effects of the progress are likely to be long term and therefore in the criterion of duration the pleasure outweighs the pain. However if any place is given to embryos in society they die for this research so it is not pure.

The duration of pleasure created by having a child will outweigh the pain of IVF IF the IVF is successful. However waiting for the pleasure that will eventually come from having a child further away than the pain of trying (and possibly failing) IVF. Therefore IVF does not fulfil the propinquity criteria. The intensity of the pleasure is stronger than the intensity of the pain if you really want a child.

Mill adapted Benthams utilitarianism adding the importance of the quality of the pleasure rather than the amount. He valued higher pleasures over lower pleasures and argues any competent Judge will agree.

Although it is not always clear which are higher and lower pleasures we might be able to safely conclude that JS Mill will permit abortion on the grounds of furthering study rather that ones desire to keep their figure. On the most part Mill will permit abortion due to the fact he placed a great emphasis on the Autonomy of Ethics (Self Law) particularly pertaining to private morality.

If a person who is mentally sound but physically disabled feels the pleasure of euthanasia you could argue that the pleasure that feel is a higher pleasure because living in that way is mental torment. But if it is purely to end physical pain that is felt Mill may perhaps consider this to be a lower pleasure and therefore less valid. See private morality point also

It could be argued that genetic engineering can increase the pleasures of the mind by helping to eradicate mental disabilities therefore making people capable of higher pleasures... Those doing the research/engineering are also exercising the use of their mind so presumably this is higher pleasure. Mill may not permit genetic eng for aesthetic reasons.

It could be argued that embryo research can increase the pleasures of the mind by helping to eradicate mental disabilities therefore making people capable of higher pleasures... Those doing the research/engineering are also exercising the use of their mind so presumably this is higher pleasure.

It would be necessary to deduce whether having a child satisfies higher or lower pleasures before it is justified. This is a difficult judgement to make and is a criticism of Mills approach.

Mill favoured a rule utilitarian approach and concluded that general rules could be deduced that would maximise pleasure for the greatest number of people and these rules should be followed. Utilitarianism has been criticised on the grounds that it allows unjust actions to occur

Rule utilitarianism is particularly favourable to the practice of abortion, since it considers both motivation and consequences and consent (not of the foetus). It must be the mother choice and not the case that she is coerced into the abortion by boyfriend / parents etc By basing rules on utilitarian principles Mill may conclude that rules such as abortion can be permitted if chosen by the mother (ruling out forced abortion by the state e.g. China.) The end justifies the means . As long as happiness is the end result Benthams utilitarianism allows any action no matter how unjust it may seem to be

Utilitarians on the whole are likely to support Voluntary euthanasia and therefore this may be a general rule to be observed. Euthanasia can take place if the person feels that their life is not worth living. However as Mill values autonomy and therefore consent it would need to be certain that the person gives their consent arent forced by relatives

The rules should be against the designer baby aspect of gen. eng. due to the fact that the majority will not support it. Where as the majority will benefit from progress in identifying diseases so therefore it can be permitted. Other aspects of genetic engineering e.g. GM crops would have to benefit the majority not just the rich!

The rules should be against the designer baby aspect of embryo research due to the fact that the majority will not support it. Where as the majority will benefit from progress in identifying diseases so therefore it can be permitted

Due to the potential pain created by failed IVF Mill may create rules that Ensure pain is minimalised e.g. limited number of attempts. Also the happiness of the child (once born) must be considered therefore it may be necessary to consider the suitability of the parents who receive IVF.

The end justifies the means . As long as happiness is the end result Benthams utilitarianism allows any action no matter

The end justifies the means Potentially it doesnt matter what is done to achieve the cure or the genetic modification as long as the end result is

The end justifies the means Potentially it doesnt matter what is done to achieve aim of the research e.g. a cure or knowledge of diseases as

The end justifies the means... The child is not a means to make people 17 happy they are a human in themselves and should not be used

In terms of abortion Singer argues that as a At the end of his book, commandment 4 foetus or embryo is not Rethinking Life & Death, is relevant. Only self-conscious does Singer provides five (5) those and who are not have preferences Peter Singer examples of the old wanted should be and, at the put the modern sanctity of life particularly born not simply early stages of commandments and five the command to form of development, does not (5) examples of new reproduce. This utilitarianism feel pain, then abortion is commandments. The ensures the preference morally former is given in entirely bold maximisation of This support utilitarianism type and the latter in acceptable. italic happiness and of a womans right to forward. He sequential, type, in preference choose and abortion is numbered order: 1) treat argues that The satisfaction 9he regardless of the all human of life as of does not believe satisfaction grounds for abortion. equal worth, recognise the foetus is the preferences There is no significant that there are varieties in capable of having difference of thethose worth of humanmoral life; preferences. between a woman involved 2) never makes intentionally Commandment 2 wanting to have an take innocent take also a right moral life; abortion requires as a result of responsibility for the human beings to action. Pain, for rape or consequences of your takebecause the singer includes is deformed or decisions; 3) never foetus take responsibility for simply because she finds not having you your own life and their decision. it inconvenient. preferences always try to prevent Singer would ROSALIND others from taking satisfied and argue this can ROSEHURST objects to theirs; respect a persons involve having an pleasure having Singers liberal approach desire to live or to die; 4) abortion. your to abortion on utilitarian be fruitful and multiply; grounds stating that preferences bring children into the there are good utilitarian satisfied. world only if they are to object to wanted; 5) treatgrounds all abortion as Singer has human beings lives as failed to treat the foetus always more precious as it was ever going to than the lives of other develop. If we kill a animals; do not foetus we know that this discriminate on the basis action, other things of species. being equal, will be to kill a being that, had it not been killed, would have lived happily for 70 years 18 or so.

Singer is a fervent supporter of Singer has spoken out Euthanasia on the in favour of grounds that allowing euthanasia on the people to choose grounds that if when they die will somebody wants to maximise preference end their life it is right satisfaction and to satisfy their therefore limit preferences. He suffering. This belief is favours a quality of expressed in the life approach even commandment 3 of arguing Singers new controversially that commandment. He Euthanasia should be also identifies the administered to those need to recognise who are not capable different qualities of of preferences in the life as of different interests of those value and when life is involved in that of insufficient value it situation who are e.g. can be ended (Singers carers. commandment 1).

In regards to genetic engineering Singer Singer would not object to supports the engineering the genetic modification of of genes in order to plants on the ground that alleviate suffering. It would they are not capable of enable life to be of an having preference and do improved quality the not feel pain. However, as higher quality of life the a champion of animal more valuable rights Singer would object commandment 1. to the modification of The embryos that are animals for the benefit of involved in engineering are human beings as a human not capable of preferences centred approach to therefore do not need to morality to animal be considered. We must experimentation is not according to Singer speciest. allow genetic engineering If however the genetic of animals for human gain modification took place in if we can imagine it is such a way as to satisfy against their preferences. the imagined preferences This, according to of the animal Singer would commandment 5, is not object. He would also speciesist. be in support of the genetic modification of human beings if their preference were satisfied e.g. the eradication of genetic diseases.

In regards to embryo research Singer supports On the grounds that it is the research on embryos impossible to imagine the in order to alleviate preferences of an embryo suffering. It would enable and embryos do not feel life to be of an improved pain during quality the higher experimentation. Singer quality of life the more has no objection to valuable commandment embryo research. He 1. would favour embryo The embryos that are research on the ground involved in engineering that the progress made are not capable of through embryo research preferences therefore do will lead to the preference not need to be satisfaction of a large considered. number of people who might otherwise be affected by the diseases or conditions that the research on embryos find cures for.

According to commandment 4 only As the embryos children that are involved in the IVF wanted should be procedure have no born. Those having preferences according fertility treatment to Singers criteria and obvious want their they also feel no pain babies therefore during the procedure fulfilling this their rights are non commandment. existent in Singers Commandment 2 Preference instructs we must take utilitarianism. The responsibility for our preference of the decisionshaving parent to conceive and fertility treatment and be parents to a child responsibly raising the will be his main children produced concern therefore fulfils this requirement. allowing IVF to go ahead and satisfy the preference of those who want to reproduce.

Evaluate a UTILITARIAN approach to medical ethics. Bare in mind in the exam you could be asked to apply the theory and evaluate it in relation to one or all of the issues

Strengths

Weaknesses

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How could this topic be address in the exam?

a) Describe the theory of utilitarianism (25) b) Utilitarianism has no serious weaknesses discuss (10)
A) Is a straight forward AO1 question. No individual scholar has been identified so you write all you know about the theory of utilitarianism being careful to use technical terms and organise the material properly. B) B) is basically asking whether or not the theory has SERIOUS WEAKNESSES. You argue it has and then it hasnt remember use the words of the question and evidence to answer it.

a) How would a follower of Utilitarianism respond to the issue of .............. (25) b) Utilitarianism is unfair discuss (10)
A)This question tests three things. You know the issue, you know the theory and you understand the theory applied to the issue. You need to write a an aspect of the theory and then apply THAT ASPECT TO THE ISSUE. The exam board expects you to understand this in detail, not just the obvious e.g. gen eng will lead to the happiness for the greatest number maybe so but not enough! B) Again this is an argument but must be specifically linked to whether the theory is UNFAIR or you havent answered the question. Remember to use evidence.

a) Describe the main differences between Bentham and Mills Utilitarianism (25) b) A utilitarian would never object to ............. discuss (10)
A)You should describe an aspect of the thinking of ONE of the scholars and then contrast it with the other. E.g. describe ACT and contrast it with RULE. You are not asked for the similarities or a description of the theories on its own tempting to write all you know but it will actually lower your mark because you will be writing on the general topic not the question itself. B) This is another way of asking whether or not utilitarians would agree with a topic so you need to show two sides. Again use the words of the question and evidence to support your point.

a) Describe, with examples, what is meant by Ethical relativism. b) A relativist approach to medical issues is unhelpful discuss (10)
A)You need to write about relativism in general and then an example of relativism which is utilitarianism. You can then give examples of it in practice e.g. abortion and gen eng. BHere you evaluate a relativist approach in regards to how helpful it is. Stick to relativism in general and then cultural relativism at first to show you know that

utilitarianism isnt the only relativist theory. You can then evaluate whether Utilitarianism is helpful in moral decision making.

How would a follower of Utilitarianism respond to the issue of Euthanasia (25 Marks)
Introduction- introduce the topic and the issue.

Paragraph One: describe an aspect of the theory e.g. the greatest happiness principle. The apply this aspect to the issue

Paragraph Two

Paragraph three

Paragraph Four

Paragraph Five

Paragraph Six

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Conclusion

Utilitarianism will lead unjust decisions being made. (10 marks)

You must use evidence to sustain your argument You must show more than one point of view. Use the words of the question to structure your argument and draw your conclusion Introduction:

Arguments and evidence:

Counter Arguments and evidence:

Conclusion:

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