MARINE ENVIRONMENT

Contents

Marine environment Oceans &seas Division of the Marine Environment Sea state Douglas Sea Scale Beaufort scale

MARINE ENVIRONMENT- INTRODUCTION

The word "marine" comes from the Latin word "mar" or "mare," meaning sea or ocean. Today, the term marine environment would refer to bodies of salt water and any plants, animals and other objects that exist in the body of water Marine environments are diverse and can change rapidly depending on tidewaters and currents. They include many unique animals and plants, such as corals and bi-valves, and many unique habitats, such as underwater volcanoes. Marine ecosystems are most often crossing national borders, and research and management of local and regional seas need substantial international co-ordination. Oceans cover about 71% of the Earth's surface, and because of their depth they contain about 300 times the habitable volume of the terrestrial habitats on Earth.

Marine protected area

Marine protected areas, like any protected area, are regions in which human activity has been placed under some restrictions in the interest of conserving the natural environment, its surrounding waters and the occupant ecosystems, and any cultural or historical resources that may require preservation or management. Marine protected areas' boundaries will include some area of ocean, even if it is only a small fraction of the total area of the territory. Natural or historic marine resources are protected by local, state, territorial, native, regional, or national authorities and may differ substantially from nation to nation. This variation includes different limitations on development, fishing practices, fishing seasons and catch limits, moorings, bans on removing or disrupting marine life of any kind.

Marine habitats
Marine habitats can be divided into coastal and open ocean habitats. Coastal habitats are found in the area that extends from the shoreline to

the edge of the continental shelf. Most marine life is found in coastal habitats, even though the shelf area occupies only seven percent of the total ocean area. Open ocean habitats are found in the deep ocean beyond the edge of the continental shelf.

CORAL REEFS
Coral reefs are underwater structures made from calcium carbonate secreted by corals. Coral reefs are colonies of tiny animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups. The polyps are like tiny sea anemones, to which they are closely related. Unlike sea anemones, coral polyps secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons which support and protect their bodies. Reefs grow best in warm, shallow, clear, sunny and agitated waters.

MANGROVE
Mangroves are various types of trees up to medium height and shrubs that grow in saline coastal sediment habitats in the tropics and subtropics mainly between latitudes 25 N and 25 S. It Found in warmer, tropical areas.Inlets and bays are covered by mangrove trees.Mangrove swamps protect the shore from erosion.Mangrove swamps act like giant sponges and absorb the impact of storms and high waters.

wetland
A wetland is a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally, such that it takes on the characteristics of a distinct ecosystem. Primarily, the factor that distinguishes wetlands from other land forms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation that is adapted to its unique soil conditions

OCEANS &SEAS
OCEANS
An ocean is a massive body of salt water, encircling a planet, that contains large, continuous body of salt water. Ocean covers nearly 71% of the Earth's surface and is divided into major oceans and smaller seas. They are considered to be ancient formations in the morphology of the earth and are mainly separated from each other by the continents. The three principal oceans, the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian, are largely delimited by land and submarine topographic boundaries. The word "sea" is often used interchangeably with "ocean", but strictly speaking a sea is a body of saline water (possibly a division of the World Ocean) partly or fully enclosed by land.

Physical properties
The total mass of the hydrosphere is about 1,400,000,000,000,000,000 metric tons (1.51018 short tons) or 1.41021 kg, which is about 0.023 percent of the Earth's total mass. Less than 3 percent is fresh water; the rest is saltwater, mostly in the ocean. The area of the World Ocean is 361 million square kilometers (139 million square miles), and its volume is approximately 1.3 billion cubic kilometers (310 million cu mi).

Sea
The sea is the connected body of salt water that covers 70 percent of the Earth's surface. The sea is important in the earth's climate, in providing food and oxygen, in its enormous diversity of life, and for navigation. The study of the sea is called oceanography. Seawater is characteristically salty, containing as its main salt sodium chloride but also chlorides of potassium and magnesium. The temperature of the sea is dependent on the amount of solar radiation falling on the surface.

Sea water has a freezing point of about 1.8 C (28.8 F). Sea water is slightly alkaline and during historic times has had a pH of about 8.2. There is no sharp distinction of seas from oceans, though generally seas are smaller, and are often partly (as Marginal seas) or wholly (as inland seas) bordered by land. Similarly, seas are generally larger than lakes. The law of the sea states that the entire ocean is "sea The differences between ocean and seas are: Seas are smaller than oceans and are usually located where the land and ocean meet. Typically, seas are partially enclosed by land. The following table lists the world's oceans and seas, according to area and average depth, including the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, Arctic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, and Bering Sea.
Greatest known depth m 4,028 3,926 3,963 ft. 30,246 24,460 m

Area Name Pacific Ocean sq. mi. sq. km 60,060,700 155,557,000

Average depth ft. 13,215 12,880 13,002

Place of greatest known depth

36,198 11,033 Mariana Trench 9,219 Puerto Rico Trench 7,455 Sunda Trench 7,235 South Sandwich Trench 5,625 7745'N; 175W 4,632 Off Cape Matapan, Greece 6,946 Off Cayman Islands 5,016 West of Luzon 4,773 Off Buldir Island 3,787 Sigsbee Deep 3,658 14610'E;

Atlantic Ocean 29,637,900 76,762,000 Indian Ocean Southern Ocean1 Arctic Ocean Mediterranean Sea2 Caribbean Sea South China Sea Bering Sea Gulf of Mexico Okhotsk Sea 26,469,500 68,556,000

7,848,300 20,327,000 13,100 16,400 5,427,000 14,056,000 1,144,800 2,965,800 3,953 4,688

4,000 23,736 5,000 1,205 1,429 18,456 15,197

1,049,500 895,400 884,900 615,000 613,800

2,718,200 2,319,000 2,291,900 1,592,800 1,589,700

8,685 5,419 5,075 4,874 2,749

2,647 1,652 1,547 1,486 838

22,788 16,456 15,659 12,425 12,001

4650'N East China Sea Hudson Bay Japan Sea Andaman Sea North Sea Red Sea Baltic Sea 482,300 475,800 389,100 308,000 222,100 169,100 163,000 1,249,200 1,232,300 1,007,800 797,700 575,200 438,000 422,200 617 420 4,429 2,854 308 1,611 180 188 128 1,350 870 94 491 55 9,126 600 12,276 12,392 2,165 7,254 1,380 2,782 2516'N; 125E 183 Near entrance 3,742 Central Basin 3,777 Off Car Nicobar Island 660 Skagerrak 2,211 Off Port Sudan 421 Off Gotland

Division of the Marine Environment

The marine ecosystem is the largest aquatic system on the planet. Its size and complexity make it difficult to deal with as a whole. As a result, it isconvenient to divide it into more manageable arbitrary subdivisions Open ocean can be subdivided vertically and horizontally. The entire area of the open water is the pelagic realm; pelagicorganisms are those that live in the open sea away from the bottom. This is in contrast to the benthic realm, which is a general term referring to organisms and zones of the sea bottom. Horizontally Division - , the Pelagic Realm This can be divided into two zones. - The neritic zone - encompasses the water mass that overlies the continental shelves.

The oceanic zone includes all other open waters

Vertical Division, the pelagic realm This can be further subdivided. Two schemes are possible. - The first is based on light penetration. The photic or euphotic zone is that part of the pelagic realm that is lighted. - Generally, the lower boundary is between 100 and 200m. - A synonym for this zone is the epipelagic zone. Because it is the zone of primary production in the ocean, it is of major importance. - The permanently dark water mass below the photic zone is the aphotic zone. Some scientists prefer to recognize a transition zone between the photic and aphotic called the disphotic zone.

The pelagic part of the aphotic zone can be subdivided into zones that succeed each other vertically. - The mesopelagic is the uppermost of the aphotic areas. Its lower boundary in the tropics is the 10oC isotherm, which ranges from 700 to 1000m, depending on the area. - Next is the bathypelagic, lying between 10 and 4oC, or in depth between 700 and 1000m and between 2000 and 4000m. - Overlying the plains of the major ocean basins is the abyssal pelagic, which has its lower boundary at about 6000m. - Hadal pelagic - The open water of the deep oceanic trenches between 6000 and 10,000m is called the hadal pelagic.

Corresponding to the last three pelagic zones are three bottom or benthic zones. The bathyal zone is that area of bottom encompassing the continental slope and down to about 4000m. - The abyssal zone includes the broad abyssal plains of the ocean basins between 4000 and 6000m. - The hadal is the benthic zone of the trenches between 6000 and 10,000m. - The benthic zone underlying the neritic pelagic zone on the continental shelf is termed the sublittoral or shelf zone.

SEA STATE CONDITIONS Sea state

In oceanography, a sea state is the general condition of the free surface on a large body of water with respect to wind waves and swell at a certain location and moment. A sea state is characterized by statistics, including the wave height, period, and power spectrum. The sea state varies with time, as the wind conditions or swell conditions change. The sea state can either be assessed by an experienced observer, like a trained mariner, or through instruments like weather buoys, wave radar or remote sensing satellites. Sea conditions are identified by two geographical sectors; East and West. In deep water, sea state is determined by the mean wind speed, the fetch (the distance over which it blows), and the duration of the wind over the open water. A sea state is generally described by significant wave height, which is the average height of the one-third highest waves.

The following variables are made available within the Sea State Condition service:
Significant wave height Mean wave period Wind 10 meters

In order to determine sea state:

Use the sea state photo guide and descriptions. Use binoculars to make an accurate assessment. Look into the wind to record the greatest sea state observed within the observation area. Discount coastal surf. Record your final assessment one minute before shore watch start time. Make a discrete decision on the sea state, i.e. 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4, and avoid using a range of sea states i.e. 2 to 3.

Douglas Sea Scale

The Douglas Sea Scale is a scale which measures the height of the waves and also measures the swell of the sea.The Douglas Sea Scale, also called the International Sea and Swell Scale, was devised in the 1920s by Captain H.P. Douglas.

State of the sea (wind sea)

Degree Height (m)

Description Calm (Glassy)

no wave

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0 - 0.10

Calm (Rippled)

0.10 - 0.50 Smooth 0.50 - 1.25 Slight 1.25 - 2.50 Moderate 2.50 - 4.00 Rough 4.00 - 6.00 Very Rough 6.00 - 9.00 High 9.00 - 14.00 Very High 14.00+ Phenomenal

Swell Degrees Description No Swell Very Low (short and low wave) Low (long and low wave) Light (short and moderate wave) Moderate (average and moderate wave) Moderate rough (long and moderate wave) Rough (short and heavy wave) High (average and heavy wave) Very high (long and heavy wave) Confused (wavelength and height indefinable)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Wave length

Short wave 100 m Average wave 100 200 m Long wave 201 m +
Wave height

Low wave 2 m Moderate wave 2 4 m High wave 4.01 m +

Beaufort scale
The Beaufort scale is an empirical measure that relates wind speed to observed conditions at sea or on land. Its full name is the Beaufort wind force scale, although it is a measure of wind speed and not of "force" in the scientific sense of the word. There are 0-12 sea state conditions according to beaufort scale.

Modern scale

Beaufo Wav rt Descriptio Wind e Sea numbe n speed heigh conditions r t < 1 km/h 0 Calm < 1 mph < 1 knot < 0.3

Land conditions

Sea state photo

Associated Warning Flag

0m Flat. 0 ft Calm. Smoke rises vertically.

m/s 1.1 5.5 km/ 00.2 h m 1 3 mph Ripples without 1 3 crests. knot 0 1 ft 0.3 1.5 m/s

Light air

Smoke drift indicates wind direction. Leaves and wind vanes are stationary.

5.6 11 km/h 4 7 mph 4 6 knot 1.6 3.4 m/s 12 19 km/h

Light breeze

0.2 Small 0.5 m wavelets. Crests of glassy appearance , not 1 breaking 2 ft

Wind felt on exposed skin. Leaves rustle. Wind vanes begin to move.

Gentle breeze

0.51 Large m wavelets. 8 Crests 12 mph begin to 710 break; knot scattered 2 whitecaps 3.5 ft 3.5 5.4 m/s 1 2 Small

Leaves and small twigs constantly moving, light flags extended.

Moderate 20

Dust and loose paper

breeze

28 km/h m 13 17 mph 1116 knot 5.5 7.9 m/s 29 38 km/h 18 24 mph

waves with raised. Small breaking branches begin to crests. move. Fairly frequent whitecaps.

3.5 6 ft

2 3 m

Fresh breeze

1721 knot 8.0 10.7 m/ s 39 49 km/h 6 9 ft

Moderate waves of some length. Many whitecaps. Small amounts of spray.

Branches of a moderate size move. Small trees in leaf begin to sway.

Strong breeze

Long waves 34 begin to form. m 25 White 30 mph foam crests are very 2227 frequent. knot Some 9 airborne 10.8 13 ft spray is 13.8 m/ present. s

Large branches in motion. Whistling heard in overhead wires. Umbrella use becomes difficult. Empty plastic bins tip over.

50 High 45.5 Sea heaps Whole trees in 61 km/h wind, up. Some motion. Effort m moderate foam from needed to walk 31

gale, 38 mph near gale 2833 knot

breaking against the wind. waves is blown into streaks along wind 13 direction. 13.9 19 ft Moderate 17.1 m/ amounts of s airborne spray. 62 74 km/h

Moderately 5.5 high waves 7.5 m with 39 breaking 46 mph crests forming 3440 spindrift. knot WellGale, marked fresh gale streaks of foam are 18 blown 17.2 25 ft along wind 20.7 m/ direction. s Considerab le airborne spray. 75 88 km/h High waves whose 710 crests m 47 sometimes 54 mph roll over. Dense 4147 foam is knot 23 blown 32 ft along wind 20.8 direction. 24.4 m/ Large

Some twigs broken from trees. Cars veer on road. Progress on foot is seriously impeded.

Strong gale

Some branches break off trees, and some small trees blow over. Construction/tempor ary signs and barricades blow over.

amounts of airborne spray may begin to reduce visibility.

89 102 km/ 9 h 12.5 m 55 63 mph

10

Storm,[6] whole gale

Very high waves with overhangin g crests. Large patches of foam from 4855 wave crests knot give the sea a white appearance . Considerab le tumbling 29 of waves 24.5 41 ft with heavy 28.4 m/ impact. s Large amounts of airborne spray reduce visibility. 103 Exceptional 117 km/ ly high 11.5 h waves. 16 m Very large 64 patches of 73 mph foam, driven 5663 37 before the knot 52 ft wind, cover much of 28.5

Trees are broken off or uprooted, saplings bent and deformed. Poorly attached asphalt shingles and shingles in poor condition peel off roofs.

11

Violent storm

Widespread damage to vegetation. Many roofing surfaces are damaged; asphalt tiles that have curled up and/or fractured due to age may break away completely.

32.6 m/ s

the sea surface. Very large amounts of airborne spray severely reduce visibility. Huge waves. Sea is completely white with foam and 14 spray. Air is m filled with driving spray, greatly reducing visibility.

118 km/ h

12

Hurricane
[6]

Very widespread damage to vegetation. Some windows may break; mobile homes and poorly constructed sheds and barns are damaged. Debris and unsecured objects are hurled about.

Corrosive environment

Corrosion is the gradual destruction of material, usually metals, by chemical reaction with its environment. In the most common use of the word, this means electrochemical oxidation of metals in reaction with an oxidant such as oxygen. Rusting, the formation of iron oxides, is a well-known example of electrochemical corrosion.

Corrosion is the destructive attack of a material by reaction with its environment. The serious consequences of the corrosion process have become a problem of worldwide significance. In addition to our everyday encounters with this form of degradation, corrosion causes plant shutdowns, waste of valuable resources, loss or contamination of product, reduction in efficiency, costly maintenance, and expensive overdesign. It can also jeopardize safety and inhibit technological progress.

Step 1 iron + oxygen --> iron oxide Step 2 iron oxide + water --> hydrated iron oxide (rust)

Corrosion is the atmospheric oxidation of metals. That means that oxygen combines with the metal and forms a new layer. This layer can be good or bad. By far the most important form of corrosion is the rusting of iron and steel.

Rusting is a process of oxidation in which iron combines with water and oxygen to form rust, the reddish-brown crust that forms on the surface of the iron. Because iron is so widely used, e.g., in building construction and in tools, its protection against rusting is important. Rusting can be prevented by excluding air and water from the iron surface, e.g., by painting, oiling, or greasing, or by plating the iron with a protective coating of another metal. Many alloys of iron are resistant to corrosion. Stainless steels are alloys of iron with such metals as chromium and nickel; they do not corrode because the added metals help form a hard, adherent oxide coating that resists further attack.

Corrosion in marine Environments

Seawater systems are used by many industries such as shipping, offshore oil and gas production, power plants and coastal industrial plants. The main use of seawater is for cooling purposes but it is also used for fire fighting, oil field water injection and for desalination plants. The corrosion problems in these systems have been well studied over many years, but despite published information on materials behavior in seawater, failures still occur.

Galvanic corrosion is the most frequent cause of unexpected corrosion failures in seawater. It has caused failures of ship fittings and deckhouse structures, fasteners, hull plating, propellers, shafts, valves, condensers, and piping. In sea atmospheres, galvanic corrosion causes failures of roofing, gutters, and car trim. The reason that galvanic corrosion causes so many failures is that it can occur any time that two different metals are in electrical contact in seawater. Since most structures and devices are made of more than one kind of metal, this diversity of materials is common and frequently overlooked in corrosion prevention activities. (reference)

Types of Corrosion Uniform Corrosion Galvanic Corrosion Crevice corrosion Pitting corrosion Intergranular corrosion Selective corrosion (dealloying) Graphitic corrosion

THE CONSEQUENCES OF CORROSION Reduction of metal thickness leading to loss of mechanical strength and structural failure or breakdown. When the metal is lost in localised zones so as to give a cracklike structure, very considerable weakening may result from quite a small amount of metal loss. Hazards or injuries to people arising from structural failure or breakdown (e.g. bridges, cars, aircraft). Loss of time in availability of profile-making industrial equipment. Reduced value of goods due to deterioration of appearance. Contamination of fluids in vessels and pipes (e.g. beer goes cloudy when small quantities of heavy metals are released by corrosion). Perforation of vessels and pipes allowing escape of their contents and possible harm to the surroundings. For example a leaky domestic radiator can cause expensive damage to carpets and decorations, while corrosive sea water may enter the boilers of a power station if the condenser tubes perforate. Loss of technically important surface properties of a metallic component. These could include frictional and bearing properties, ease of fluid flow over a pipe surface, electrical conductivity of contacts, surface reflectivity or heat transfer across a surface.

 Mechanical damage to valves, pumps, etc, or blockage of pipes by solid corrosion products. Added complexity and expense of equipment which needs to be designed to withstand a certain amount of corrosion, and to allow corroded components to be conveniently replaced.