Evaluation of the cooling potential of a dessicant evaporative cooling system using the SimSPARK environment

Chadi Maalouf, Assistant Professor UTAP, University of Reims, Campus du Moulin de la Housse, Reims, France chadi.maalouf@univ-reims.fr Etienne Wurtz, Research Director INES-CNRS,LOCIE, University of Savoie, Campus Scientifique, Le Bourget du Lac, France etienne.wurtz@univ-savoie.fr Francis Allard, Professor LEPTAB, University of La Rochelle, avenue Michel Crpeau, La Rochelle, France. francis.allard@univ-lr.fr KEYWORDS: Simulation, experimental set up, desiccant cooling, air dehumidification, SPARK. SUMMARY: Being heat driven, the desiccant cooling cycle can be coupled to solar collectors to produce a cooling system with low environmental impact. In this paper, we present the first solar desiccant cooling system in France. A dessicant wheel model is presented and validated experimentally. Then, using computer simulation, a graphical aided concept is used to evaluate system feasibility and its limitation. It is shown that the system is suited to tempered regions with moderate humidity ratios.

1.

Introduction

In order to maintain comfortable indoor conditions an air conditioner must evacuate both building latent and sensible loads. Usually latent load is evacuated by mechanical dehumidification which consists on cooling air below its dew point temperature to condense water vapour. Then air is heated to the required supply temperature. When building latent load is high these two processes become more important and thus electrical energy consumption increases and also CO2 emission. Desiccant evaporative cooling system is a friendly environmentally technology which can replace traditional air conditioning systems or be added to them to attenuate their effects. Being thermally driven, it can be used with solar energy which is a clean and free energy. In literature, we find several studies related to desiccant systems as detailed in Daou et al. (2004). Jurinak (1982) studied seasonal performance of two open desiccant cooling cycles with a silica gel dehumidifier: ventilation cycle(known as Pennington cycle and it is the most used) and recirculation cycle. Jain et al. (1995) compared 4 desiccant cycles for several Indian cities : ventilation cycle, recirculation cycle, Dunkle cycle and a cycle with a wet return surface heat exchanger. They found that the cycle with wet surface heat exchanger has the highest efficiency for all the cities (however the cost of this exchanger is high). Mavroudaki et al. (2002) and Halliday et al. (2002) have separately presented two different feasibility studies for the Pennington cycle used with solar energy in Southern Europe and in UK. They showed that important energy reduction can be obtained and for all the climatic conditions. However for humid regions this reduction is limited because high regeneration temperatures are required. The main focus of this paper is to study the cooling potential of desiccant evaporative cooling cycle in France. For this purpose a simulation model was developed and an experimental set up was built to validate components modelling. Simulations were carried with the simulation platform SimSPARK developed at LEPTAB (La Rochelle, France) (Mora et al., 2003). This tool generates building models automatically and uses SPARK (Sowell and Haves, 2001) as the solver. It is suitable for adding new components such as our system, since it facilitates models coupling through a simple connection language. A general algebraic and differential equation solver handles the whole problem solution process. Simulations were used to evaluate system cooling potential in France through the boundary line methodology (a graphic aided methodology developed by Lindholm (2000)).

The system was installed in a building in Chambery in Eastern France. It is used to meet cooling load for a training room containing 40 persons. Some preliminary experimental investigations have been made to validate component modelling.

2.

System configuration and working principle

Figure 1 shows the desiccant cooling air-handling unit. It comprises a desiccant wheel in tandem with a thermal wheel with evaporative coolers in both supply and return air streams before the thermal wheel. This system allows cooling and dehumidifying air without using conventional refrigerants. The desiccant wheel contains a desiccant material (Lithium Chloride) which needs to be regenerated with an external heat source (Klingenburg). This heat is taken from a solar installation consisting of a solar storage tank and solar collectors. Since the required regeneration temperatures are low (40C to 70C) liquid flat plate collectors are used. Depending on outside air conditions and on building loads, air installation has five operating modes: Ventilation mode in which only the supply fan (D-E) is running. Direct humidification mode in which supply air is directly humidified (C-D). Indirect humidification mode where supply air is sensibly cooled through a rotating heat exchanger (BC). On the other side of the exchanger, return air is cooled by humidification (G-H). Combined direct-indirect humidification mode where both humidifiers and rotating heat exchanger are running on. Desiccant mode in which outdoor air is dehumidified through the desiccant wheel. During vapour absorption in the wheel, air is dehumidified almost adiabatically (A-B). Its temperature increases and humidity ratio decreases. Then its temperature is lowered in the rotating heat exchanger (B-C), and in the direct humidifier (C-D). Return air is cooled in an evaporative cooler (F-G) and is used to cool down the process air in the heat exchanger (G-H). Then it is heated to regenerate the desiccant wheel (JI). The states of the process and exhaust air are represented on the psychometric chart (figure 1).
To solar installation

Desiccant Rotating exchanger wheel FIG 1: Schematic representation of the desiccant cooling system and the corresponding air evolution in the air diagram.

3.

System modeling

To study system operation and evaluate its performance, it should be coupled with a building for different climatic conditions. This evaluation requires a powerful modeling environment that allows user to test new models and run complex simulations with a short running time. That is why models are developed within the Simulation Problem Analysis and Research Kernel (SPARK), an equation based modeling environment developed by the Simulation Research Group at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Sowell and Haves, 2001). Description of a problem for SPARK solution begins by breaking it down in an object-oriented way. This means thinking about the problem in terms of its components, where each component is represented by a SPARK object. A model is then developed for each component. Since there may be several components of the same kind, SPARK object models, equations or group of equations, are defined in a generic manner called classes. Classes serve as templates to create any number of objects required to formulate the whole problem. The

problem model is then completed by linking objects together. Using graph-theoretic techniques, SPARK reduces the size of the equation system and uses a Newton-Raphson iterative method to solve the reduced system and, after convergence, solves for the remaining unknowns. For large and complex problems, building a SPARK simulation can be long and error prone. Therefore a tool called SimSPARK was developed at LEPTAB (La Rochelle, France), to automatically generate simulations for building applications (Mora et al., 2003) and visualize results. In our simulation, building model was generated by SimSPARK. It is based on a heat balance model and assumes a well-mixed zone with uniform temperature (Mora et al., 2003). Room area is 70 m2. It has a vegetalized roof and a double glazing southern facade. Internal radiation exchange was modeled using the fictitious enclosure method developed by Walton (1980). The envelope submodel being expressed as partial differential equations is discretized using a finite difference method within building materials. Modeling of desiccant wheel is based on analogy theory (Close, 1971; Banks, 1972, Maclaine-cross, 1974). Equations for coupled heat and mass transfer are reduced in two uncoupled differential equations of two independent variables called characteristic potentials which replace humidity ratio and enthalpy. In the psychometric chart and for the lithium chloride in the dilute form, these potentials are approximated by a constant relative humidity curve (from regeneration air inlet conditions) and a line which is close to an isenthalpic curve (from process air inlet conditions) (Rau et al., 1991). Their intersection gives the outlet conditions of process air in the ideal case (Id) (for a wheel with infinite thermal and mass conductances). Then actual outlet conditions are estimated using two efficiencies defined on temperature and humidity ratio (Stabat, 2003):

dw,1 =

T p ,o T p ,i TId T p ,i

(1)

dw, 2 =

w p ,o w p ,i wId w p ,i

(2)

Where p refers to process air, o outlet conditions of the wheel, I inlet conditions and Id ideal conditions.

FIG 2: Representation of the characteristic potentials in the air diagram: the first potential is a constant relative humidity curve drawn from regeneration inlet conditions (Ari) and the second is a straight line close to an isenthalpic line (from process inlet conditions Api). Their intersection gives the process outlet at equilibrium conditions.

4.

Experimental set-up

The system is installed in a building in Chambery in Eastern France and it uses solar energy to regenerate desiccant wheel. An additional electric heater was added to allow controlling regeneration temperature. Air system has been followed up experimentally and primary results allowed to validate component modeling and mainly the desiccant wheel which is made of fibrous material impregnated in a viscous solution of Lithium Chloride (Klingenburg). Regeneration temperature for this material should not exceed 70C. Electronic sensors were placed around each component in order to measure temperature and relative humidity. Air flow rate was measured by measuring fan pressure gain.

FIG 3 : Operation of the desiccant wheel with a regeneration temperature of 49C. Figure 3 shows operation of the desiccant wheel. Return air from the outlet of the rotary heat exchanger has a temperature of 26.5C. Then it is heated to a temperature of 49C through regeneration exchanger. On the process side, air inlet temperature is 26.8C and its relative humidity is 61% and it gets out at 35.2C and 32% of relative humidity. These results are compared with model results (table 1). We can notice that simulation results are nearly close to experimental values. Differences can be explained by model simplifying hypothesis and also to sensor accuracy which is 2% for the relative humidity. Table 1 : Air properties on the process side. Temperature (C) Hum. ratio (kg/kg dry) Relative hum. (%) Enthalpy (kJ/kg dry air) Process inlet 26.8 0.0135 61 61.4 Process outlet 35.2 0.0114 32 64.8 Model outlet 35.5 0.01081 30 63.5

FIG 4 : Comparison between model outlet (for process conditions) and experimental values for the desiccant wheel and for regeneration temperatures of 50 and 70C.

Figure 4 shows process air temperature and humidity ratio differences for different air conditions and for regeneration temperatures of 50C and 70C. The values of 2C and 1g/kg on temperature and humidity ratio differences are limit values for which the maximal error on supply air in a desiccant system is 1.1C and 0.7g/kg (Stabat, 2003). We can notice that model results are acceptable. In general, humidity ratio differences are in the range of 0.5g/kg. Few points are out of these limits. These points correspond to dry air conditions for which desiccant wheel will not run.

5.
5.1.

System cooling potential

Boundary lines methodology

To study system interaction with outdoor conditions, boundary lines methodology was used. It is a graphic way to display the cooling capacity (how much the air can be cooled in a psychometric chart). A boundary line is the locus of ambient air states in a psychometric chart, from which the ventilation air can be cooled to a particular required supply air temperature (Lindholm, 2000)

FIG 5 : Boundary line of the direct humidification mode for a supply temperature of 20C and a humidifier effectiveness of 0.9. Figure 5 shows the boundary line for the direct humidification mode for a supply temperature of 20C and a humidifier effectiveness of 90%. This line was drawn using simulations. Each state laying on this line (points A1 and B1 for example) can be cooled by direct humidification to a supply temperature of 20C (points A2 and B2). If humidifier effectiveness was 100% humidifier outlet would be on the saturation curve (points A3 and B3). Each outdoor state laying to the right of this boundary line cannot be cooled to the required supply temperature. If it is to the left it can be cooled to a lower temperature.

5.2.

System boundary lines

Table 1 : Outdoor conditions for which a supply temperature of 20C is obtained for different operating modes. Outdoor temperature Outdoor humidity ratio Outdoor relative humidity HI 30 0.0087 32,8% HD 30 0.0092 34,9% HI-HD 30 0.01305 48,9% DC 30 0.01527 57%

Table 2 shows outdoor humidity ratio and relative humidity for which a supply temperature of 20C can be obtained for different modes and for an outdoor temperature of 30C. As humidity ratio increases, we pass respectively from indirect mode to direct mode, combined mode and to the desiccant mode (Maalouf, 2006).

FIG 6 : Boundary lines for system modes and for a supply temperature of 20C. Figure 6 shows boundary lines for system different operating modes and for a supply temperature of 20C (HD refers to direct humidification, HI indirect humidification, HD&HI combined humidification, DC 50C desiccant cooling with regeneration temperature of 50C). We notice that for low humidity ratios, direct and indirect humidifications are sufficient to obtain supply temperatures below 20C. As humidity ratio increases, combined humidification and desiccant mode are better suited. For regions with humidity ratio higher than 14 g/kg of dry air only the desiccant mode supplies temperatures below 20C. Besides it can be noticed that as outdoor conditions become hotter desiccant boundary line decreases and tends to the combined humidification line which suggests that combined humidification is suited to hot and dry region and desiccant dehumidification is suited to more humid regions. However as humidity ratio increases and becomes higher than 16 g/kg of dry air, regeneration temperature should be increased to allow cooling to temperatures below 20C. On the same figure, summer outdoor conditions are also plot for three French cities: Chambery, Carpentras which is more tempered and Ajaccio which has a mediterranean climate (more humid, with outdoor humidity ratio exceeding 20 g/kg of dry air). We can notice that all Chambery states are to the left of the combined mode boundary line which suggests that for this city evaporative systems are enough and there is no need for desiccation (for indoor relative humidity, we tolerate values exceeding 70% for few days). For Carpentras the desiccant mode is satisfying. For Ajaccio conditions, there are some states higher than the desiccant boundary line which means that for this city regeneration temperature should be increased and system primary energy requirement will increase. However using the highest allowed regeneration temperature of 70C (to avoid harming wheel material), simulations show that there still will be some points upper to the boundary line and indoor relative humidity for this city will exceed 80% for several days during summer. These results suggest that for this city desiccant wheel is not enough (with viscous Lithium Chloride). An additional dehumidification system should be added. These results have also been checked quantitatively using seasonal simulations with a convenient regulation strategy as shown in the following section.

6.

Seasonal simulations

We run simulations for several outdoor conditions and for a period of three months in summer from June to August. The system is coupled to a training room containing 40 persons from 9 A.M. till noon and from 1 P.M. till 6 P.M. Lighting load is 15W/m2. Humidifiers have an efficiency of 0.85 and rotating heat exchanger efficiency is 0.8. Fans have a multiple speed motor and an efficiency of 0.8. We chose outdoor conditions for the cities shown in figure 6. System regulation is based on occupation time. When room is occupied, system can run in ventilation mode, in indirect humidification mode or in desiccant mode. Air flow rate is 9 Ach. During inoccupation period, system runs either in ventilation or in direct humdification mode. Air flow rate is 3 Ach. Details of regulation strategy are given in Maalouf (2006). To evaluate room comfort conditions, we calculated two parameters: Temperature index:

TI = (Ti Tref ) * (Ti )

(3)

(Ti) is equal to 1 if Ti>Tref else it is null. This parameter indicates the values of indoor temperature that exceed reference temperature (its value depends on outdoor temperature). Relative humidity index:

HI = (HR 70) * (Ti , HR )

(4)

(Ti,HR) is equal to 1 if Ti>25C and HR>70%. This parameter adds values of indoor relative humidity that exceed 70% when room temperature is higher than 25C. Table 2 : Simulation results
TI ( hrs) Carpentras Chambery Ajaccio 6 2 210 HI (%hrs) 10 0 480 Regeneration energy (KWh) 3100 2150 5200

Table 2 shows simulation results for the three cities. As expected from figure 6, room conditions for Carpentras and Chambery are satisfactory (TI and HI values are low). For Ajaccio, both TI and HI values are high. Regeneration energy for Ajaccio is also high because of the humid weather.

FIG 7 : Outdoor and indoor air conditions for Ajaccio during a week of August. Figure 7 shows Ajaccio outdoor and indoor air conditions during a week of August. It can be seen that indoor temperature is higher than 28C and indoor relative humidity higher than 70% almost for the whole week. So in this case (40 persons in the room) the lithium chloride desiccant cooling system should be coupled also to an additional air dehumidifier to insure acceptable indoor conditions (for ex. an electrical cooling and dehumidifying coil).

7.

Conclusion

Provided that it is used appropriately, desiccant cooling technology is a feasible technique. In this paper a model of a desiccant wheel was presented and validated experimentally. It was used to evaluate cooling potential of a desiccant cooling system in France. For this, seasonal simulations were used and also a graphical aided methodology called the boundary lines method. It is shown that outdoor humidity ratio influences system performance. The system is suited to regions where humidity ratio varies between 12 and 16 g/kg of dry air, evaporative cooling being enough for lower values. For Mediterranean coastal regions where humidity ratio exceeds 20 g/kg of dry air, system is less efficient, it requires high regeneration temperatures and it cannot provide comfortable indoor conditions.

8.

Bibliography

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