CHEMISTRY FINALS REVIEWER (1st Semester 2011) CHAPTER 6: THERMODYNAMICS Thermodynamics study of heat and transfer of heat from

m other forms of energy Thermochemistry study of heat that accompanies physical and chemical reactions System part of the universe that we are going to focus on Surroundings where heat/energy goes to/is from INTERNAL ENERGY (E) = KE + PE A. E = Efinal Einitial = Eproducts Ereactants *if Efinal < Einitial = E (losing energy TO surroundings) *if Einitial < Efinal = +E (losing energy FROM surroundings) B. E = q + w q = thermal energy = energy transferred between the system and surroundings as a result of a difference in their temperature only = mass (m) x specific heat capacity (c) x change in temperature (T) = mcT w = work/energy transfer = work exerted when an object is moved by force = Fd

IF WORK IS DONE IN GASEOUS SYSTEMS: H = E + PV (change in enthalpy (H) is equal to the change in internal energy (E) PLUS the product of constant pressure and change in volume (PV) Work = - PV (negative kasi kunwari when air is being pushed into the container (P), lumiliit yung volume sa loob nung container (V), so negative yung volume) *going back to INTERNAL ENERGY, diba yung equation E = q + w, you can replace w with PV so magiging E = q PV. pag trinanspose and stuff, magiging q = E + PV or q = H Heat Capacity the quantity of heat required to change its temperature by 1 Kelvin q J T SI Unit: K a) Specific Heat Capacity (c) the quantity of heat require to change the temperature of 1gram of a substance by 1K q J mT SI Unit: gK b) Molar Heat Capacity (C) q J molesT SI Unit: molK Calorimeter used to measure the heat released/absorbed by a physical/chemical process -qsystem = qsurroundings -*mcT+ = mcT THERMOCHEMICAL EQUATIONS: Hrxn = amounts (moles) of substances and their states of matter in that specific equation * H is (-) when it is EXOTHERMIC (release heat) *H is (+) when it is ENDOTHERMIC (absorbs heat) HESSS LAW OF HEAT SUMMATION The enthalpy change of an overall process is the sum of the enthalpy changes of its individual steps (in other words, kailangan i-manipulate yung Equations 1 & 2 to get Equation 3 para makuha yung enthalpy ng Eq. 3. Eq. 3 is our TARGET equation)

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY/THE 1ST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS The total energy of the universe is constant heat of system + heat of surroundings = 0 qsys + qsurroundings = 0 SI Unit: Joule (J); 1J = 1 1calorie = 4.184J kgm2 s2

EX: Eq 1: S(s) + O2(g) SO2 (g) H1 = -296.8kJ Eq 2: 2SO2(s) + O2(g) 2SO3 (g) H2 = -198.4kJ Eq 3: S(s) + 2 O2(g) SO3 (g) H3 = ? So Eq. 3 ang TARGET EQUATION kasi nawawala yung change in enthalpy niya. So meron both equations ng O2 so leave it. Ang wala ay S & SO3. S is found in Eq. 1. Equal ang S sa Eq 1 & 3 so leave it. SO3 is found in Eq 2. There are 2 mols of SO3 in Eq 2 and 1 mole of SO3 in Eq 3. So dapat equal yung moles ng SO3 sa Eq 3 sa mols ng SO3 sa Eq 2. So multiply 2 to Eq 2 para maging equal sila. so Eq 2 = 2 (2SO2(s) + O2(g) 2SO3 (g)) = SO2(s) + 2 O2(g) SO3 (g). So now, equal na . Add equations 1 and 2 S(s) + O2(g) SO2 (g) + SO2(s) + 2 O2(g) SO3 (g) S + O2 + SO2 + 2 O2 SO2 + SO3 (same as Eq 3 sa given) Now we can add the H of Eq 1 and 2 to get 3.
1 Since we multiplied 2 to Eq 2, we do it also to 1 H2. H3 = H1 + H2 = -296.8 + 2 (-198.4) 3 1 1 1 1
3

2. Determining the sign of H In each of the ff. cases, determine the H and the state whether the reaction is exothermic or endothermic. a) H2 + O2 H2O + 285.8kJ The heat (285.8kJ) is on the right. So it is released heat (exothermic). H is negative. b) 40.7kJ + H2O(l) H2O(g) The heat (40.7kJ) is on the left. So it is absorbed heat (endothermic). So H is positive. 3. Finding the Quantity of Heat from Specific Heat Capacity A layer of Cu welded to the bottom of a skillet weighs 125g. How much heat is needed to raise the temperature of the Cu layer from 25C to 100C? (c of Cu = 0.387 J/gK) q = mcT = 125 x 0.387 x [(100+273)K (25+273)K] = 1.33 x 104J 4. Determining the Heat of a Reaction You place 50.0mL NaOH in a coffee-cup calorimeter at 25.00C and carefullu add 25.0mL of 0.500M HCl also at 25.00C. After stirring, the final temperature is 27.21C. Calculate the heat of the solution in joules (qSOLN) and Hrxn in kJ/mol. (Assume the total
volume is the sum of the individual volumes and the final solution has the same density and the specific heat capacity as water: d = 1g/mL & c = 4.184J/gK)

= -396.0kJ

VNaOH = 50.0mL VHCl = 25.0mL TNaOH = 25C 298K THCl = 25C 298K TFINAL = 27.21C 300.21K d = 1g/mL c = 4.184J/gK i) mass of the whole solution: mSOLN = (VNaOH)(d) + (VHCl)(d) = d(VNaOH + VHCl) = 1.00(50 + 25) = 75g ii) Get q: qSOLN = 75 x 4.184 x (300.21 298) = 693J iii)Write the net ionic equation: HCl + NaPH H2O + NaCl
**H + OH H2O

SAMPLE PROBLEMS FOR CHAPTER 6 1. Determining Change in Enthalpy System (E) When gasoline burns in an automobile engine, the heat release causes the products CO2 and H2O to expand, which pushes the pistons outward. Excess heat is removes by the cars cooling system. If the expanding gases do 451J of work on the pistons and the system loses 325J to the surroundings as heat, calculate the change in energy, (E) in J, kJ and kcal.
*CO2 and H2O expanded so V *system lost 325J so q is () *expanding gases (CO2 and H2O) did 451J of work. So w is also ()

E = q + w = -325J + (-451J) = -776J 1kJ 776J x 1000J = -0.776kJ 0.2390cal 1kcal -776J x x 1000cal = -0.185kcal 1J

iv) Find the moles of the reactancs & products nH = (0.500mol/L)(0.025L) = 0.0125 mol (limiting r) nOH = (0.500mol/L)(0.05L) = 0.0250 mol v) Find Hrxn. Since heat was gained by water, heat was lost from the reaction. So qSOLN = qrxn = -693J 1kJ -693J x 1000J qrxn Hrxn = mol = 0.0125mol H O = -55.4kJ/mol H2O 2

5. Calculating the Heat of a Combustion Reaction A manufacturer claims that its new dietetic dessert has fewer than 10 Calories per serving. To test the claim, a chemist places one serving in a bomb calorimeter and burns it in O2 (heat capacity of calorimeter is 8.151kJ/K). The temperature increases 4.937C. Is the manufacturers claim correct? *when the sample burns, heat lost (by the sample) is gained by the calorimeter -qSAMPLE = qCALORIMETER qCALORIMETER = heat capacity x T = (8.151)(4.937) = 40.24kJ 1 Calorie = 1kcal = 4.184kJ 1kcal 1calorie 40.24 x 4.184kJ x 1kcal = 9.61 Calories. Yes <3 6. Finding the Amounts using the Heat of Reactions The major source of Al in this world is bauxite (mostly Al2O3). Its thermal decomposition is represented by: 3 Al2O3 (s) 2Al (s) + 2 O2 (g) Hrxn = 1676kJ If Al if produced this way, how many grams of Al can form when 1.000x103 kJ of heat is transferred? 2 mol Al 26.98g mAl = 1.000 x 103 kJ x x = 32.2g 1676kJ 1mol

s = sharp d = diffuse

p = principal f = fundamental

Ex: 7N = 1s2, 2s2 2p3 *2p3 valence electrons/LSC (Last sub-level configuration = last na linagyan ng electron so yun yung babasehan para i-locate yung element sa table) 2 = period; p = block (see figure above. meaning nasa right side); 3 = column sa block.
17Cl

CHAPTER 7: QUANTUM THEORY AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE Quantum Mechanics examines the wave nature of objects on the atomic scale Atomic Orbit wave function * Orbital mathematical function with no direct physical meaning *Orbit an electrons path around the nucleus Electron Configuration describes the systematic arrangement of the electrons of an atom Energy Level a measure of the energy of e with respect to its distance from the nucleus Atomic Orbital most probable region in space occupied by electrons

= 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p5 valence/LSC [Ne] 3s2 3p5 Ito yung label ng Cl sa periodic table kasi Ne yung noble gas before Cl. And Ne has 10 as its atomic number so we remove that from the configuration of Cl in order to get 3s2 3p5 = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6 , 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d1 [Ar] 3d1 4s2 yan lang kinuha from the whole configuration kasi we subtracted 18 e from it kasi yun yung Atomic number ng noble gas before Sc, which is Ar. pero sa 3d1 babasehan ang paglolocate ng element kasi yun yung last na linagyan ng electron. Nauna mapuno yung 4s2 kaysa 3d1. So

21Sc

3 = period; d = block; 1st column sa d block

Quantum Numbers [n, L, mc ms] n = principal; energy level = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 L = azimuthal; shape of the orbital = s (0), p (1), d (2), f (3) mc = magnetic; orientation of the orbit s=0 p: px = -1 py = 0 pz = 1

Trends of the Periodic Table refer to the physical and chemical properties of the elements corresponds to either the period or group the element belongs to properties that occur at periodic intervals Atomic Size (AS) a measure of the distance between the nuclei of the bonded or adjacent atoms Metallic Property (MP) describes the ease of e release from an atom or an ion sa bigger radius (ones on the left), mas medaling tanggalin and e kasi its farther from the nucleus and they hate electrons Ionization Property (IP) quantity of energy that must be supplied to release an e- from an atom or an ion mas malaking radius would need less energy kasi they hate electrons naman Electron Affinity (EA) quantity of energy that is required by an atom or an ion as an e- is gained mas madaming energy ang nirerelease ng elements on the right kasi sila yung may gustong mag-gain at malakas yung pagattract nila ng atoms to the nucleus Electronegativity (EN) describes the attraction of a nucleus for e- of adjacent atoms mas malaki ang attraction sa atoms with smaller radii TREND GROUP PERIOD AS MP Increases I D D D Decreases D I I I

a)

b)

c) d: d1 = -2 d2 = -1 d3 = 0 d4 = 1 d5 = 2

f: d1 = -3 d2 = -2 d3 = -1 d4 = 0 d5 = 1 d6 = 2 d7 = 3

d)

ms = yung last na nilagyan ng electron. Each box dapat may isang electron before putting the 2nd electron. Pag yung last na lagay ng electron, isa lang yung sa box, it is negative. Pag 2nd electron na linagay sa box, it is positive Ex: O8 = 1s2, 2s2, 2px2, 2py1, 2pz1 *LCS = 2px2 so n=2 L=p=1 mc = px = -1 ms = -1/2 (2, 1, -1, -1/2)

e)

IP EA EN

CHAPTER 9 Metals - lose electrons = cations (X+) Nonemetals gain electrons = anions (X-) Electron-dot Formula/Lewis Structure Element = represents the nucleus & inner electrons Surrounding dots = valence electrons Types of Bonds & Bond Order Bond Order number of electron pairs being shared by a pair of bonded atoms 1. Single Bond 2. Double Bond

Common Elements you should always remember: 3. Triple Bond

TYPES: 1. Ionic Bonding METAL & NONMETAL transfer of electrons metal loses electrons to the nonmetal

Octet Rule when atoms bond, they lose, gain, or share electrons to attains a filled outer level of eight (or two) electrons. Dipole Moment measure of molecular polarity; magnitude of the partial charges on the ends of a molecule times the distance between them

STEPS:

(HNO3)

1. Determine the total number of valence electrons that each has [Ve] X = number of moles in the equation x valence electrons Ve = (H = 1 x 1) + (N = 1 x 5) + (O = 3 x 6) = 24e 2. Covalent Bonding NONMETAL & NONMETAL sharing of e a. Polar not equal. Ibat ibang energy and lenth b. Nonpolar equal sharing 2. Determine the total no. of e (OCTET) [Oe] Oe = 2(No. of Hydrogen Atoms) + 8(No. of all the other elements) Oe = 2(1) + 8(4) = 34e 3. Determine the no. of e used in bonding e [Be] Be = Step 2 Step 1 Be = 34 24 = 10 e 4. Determine the no. of bonds [B] Step 3 B= 2 10 B= = 5 bonds 2 5. Determine the nonbonding electrons [NBe] NBe = Step 1 Step 2 NBe = 24 10 = 14e

Examples: HCN 1. Ve = 10 2. Oe = 18 3. Be = 8 4. B = 4 5. NBe = 2 POCl3 1. Ve = 5 + 6 + 3(7) = 32 2. Oe = 8(5)= 40 3. Be = 8 4. B = 4 5. NBe = 24

Example: 1)CH4 + 3Cl2 CHCl3 + HCl Broken Bonds: C H (CH4 nagbreak) Cl Cl (Cl2 nagbreak) Formed Bonds: CH (CHCl3) C Cl (CHCl3) H Cl (HCl) Hrxn = HBROKEN + HFORMED
*HBROKEN = heat/energy gained * HFORMED = heat/energy released/lost

LEWIS FORMULA & FORMAL CHANGE (FC) FC = Valence e (shared e) unshared e FC = Ve - Be Nbe Examples: HNO3 FCH = 1 (2) 0 = 0 FCO1 = 6 (4) 4 = 0 FCO2 = 6 (2) 6 = (-1) FCO3 = 6 (4) 4 = 0 FCN = 5 (8) 0 = +1 0 CO3-2 1. Ve = 4 + 3(6) + 2 2. Oe = 8(4) = 32 3. Be = 32 24 = 8 4. B = 8/2 = 4 5. NBe = 24 8 = 16

Hrxn = *4C H + 3Cl Cl+ + *CH + 3C Cl + H Cl+ *yung mga minumultiply sa ibat ibang
bonds yung number of bonds ng element dun sa isa. Like yung C H sa broken bonds, 4 yung bonds na minake nung H sa C.

Hrxn = [4(413) + 3(243)] + [1(-413) + 3(-339) + 3(-427)] Hrxn = 2381 + (-2711) Hrxn = -330kJ/mol 2) 2NCl3 N2 + 3Cl2 Hrxn = *2(NCl)+ + *1(N=N) + 3(Cl Cl)]
*yung -2 sa CO3 , linipat sa Ve with an opposite sign
-2 -

*yung =- means triple bond yung nangyari. Sorry walang triple dash eh =)) kumbaga may 3 bonds na nangyari

Hrxn = [2(3x200)] + [1(-945) + 3(-243)] = 474kJ/mol

BOND ENERGY (Hrxn) derived from the energy as bonds are formed and broken also bond enthalpy or bond strength 1) Bond Breakage endothermic; always positive HBondbreak = +BEA-B | AB A(g) + B(g) 2)Bond Formation exothermic; always negative Hforming = BEA-B | A(g) + B(g) AB
*Check Table 9.2 on page 289 for the Bond Energies of different bondingss <3 Given yun ha? :)

Properties of Covalent Bonds 1. Sharing of Electrons a) Polar ibat ibang intensity nung attraction b) Nonpolar equal 2. Bond Order number of electron pairs shared 3. Change in Electronegativity (EN) if EN > 1.7, it is ionic EN > 0.4 but is < 1.7, polar covalent EN < 0.4, it is mostly covalent EN = 0, it is covalent 4. Bond Energy energy as bonds form/break Bond Length distance between bonded nuclei As BL , BE and vice versa

CHAPTER 13: SOLUTIONS Solutions homogeneous mixture *solute ididisolve *solvent taga-dissolve a. qualitative concentrated (solute) & dilute (solute) b. quantitative solubility, Molarity, molality, parts by mass, ,parts by volume and mole fraction *Solubility maximum amount that dissolves in a fixed quantity of a particular solvent at a specified temperature Dissolution Process: 1. Solvation solvent particles surround solute 2. Entropy (disorderliness) more freedom among particles; rearrangement Thermochemical Solution Cycle: HSOLUTION = HSOLUTE + HSOLVENT + HMIX
* HSOLUTE + HSOLVENT yung nabuwag sa solution * HMIX yung nabuo sa solution

Factors Affecting Solubility: 1. Change in temperature Solid in Liquid: as T, solubility Gas in Liquid: as T, solubility
*bumababa yung solubility ng gas pag tumataas yung T kasi pag mataas, naglalayuan yung gas molecules/electrons

2. Change in Pressure G in L: as P, solubility 3. Nature of Solute & Solvent Like dissolves like aka Polar Polar and Nonpolar Nonpolar Solubility and Equilibrium As the solvent dissolves the solute, a condition of equilibrium is attained, where in the concentrations of a dissolved and undissolved solute seem to remain constant, at a specified temperature. 1. Saturated contains the maximum amount of dissolved solute at a given temperature in the presence of undissolved solute excess undissolved solute is in equilibrium with the dissolved solute 2. Unsaturated solution that contains less than this concentration of dissolved solute 3. Supersaturated a solution that contains more than the equilibrium concentration of dissolved solute HENRYS LAW: The solubility of a gas (Sgas) is directly proportional to the partial pressures of the gas (Pgas) Sgas = kH x Pgas
Sgas = mol L

If HMIX < (HSOLUTE + HSOLVENT); the solution is endothermic If HMIX > (HSOLUTE + HSOLVENT); exothermic Intermolecular Forces that cause Dissolution: 1. Ion-dipole Forces principal force involved in the solubility of ionic compounds of water 2. Hydrogen Bonding aqueous solutions; solubility in water & alcohol, sugar, amines and amino acids 3. Dipole-dipole Forces solubility of polar organic molecules (ex: ethanol (polar) in chloroform (nonpolar)) 4. Ion-induced Dipole Forces relies on polarizability of the components; results when an ions charge distorts the electron cloud of a nearby nonpolar molecule 5. Dipole-induced Dipole Forces based on polarizability; arises when a polar molecule distorts the electron cloud of a nearby nonpolar molecule 6. Dispersion Forces contribute to the solubility of all solutes in all solvents; the principal type of intermolecular force in solutions of nonpolar substances

mol kH = Latm (Henrys Law constant) Pgas = atm

Concentration Units: 1. Molarity (M) = L of solution 2. Molality (m) = kg of solvent

moles of solute

moles of solute

C. Freezing Point Depression the freezing point of a solution (Tf) is lower than the freezing point of the pure solvent (Tf) Tf = Tf Tf Tf = Kfm
Ckg C *Kf = molal freezing point constant ( or ) mol m mol *m = molality ( ) kg mass(in grams) of SOLUTE molecular weight = KfSOLVENT x mass (in kg) of SOLUTE C

moles of solute 3. % mass = mass of solution x 100 volume of solute 4. % volume = volume of solution x 100 mol of solute 5. Mole Fraction = mol of solute + mol of solvent

Colligative Properties of Solutions: depends on the quantity of solute particles, instead of on the nature of the substance A. Vapor Pressure Lowering (P) - the vapor pressure of a solution (PSOLN) is lower than the vapor pressure of the pure solvent (P) P = P - PSOLUTION *Raoults Law: P = XSOLUTE + PSOLVENT 1. For a solution with a volatile solvent (A) P = PA XA P = P A nA B 2. For a solution with a volatile solute (B) and solvent (A) P = PA XA + PB XB P = PA
nA nT n

Tf

*Kf of H2O = 1.86 m

SAMPLE PROBLEMS FOR CHAPTER 13: 1. Using Henrys Law to Calculate Gas Solubility The partial pressure of carbon dioxide gas inside a bottle of cola is 4atm at 25C. What is the solubility of CO2? The Henrys Law Constant for CO2 dissolved in H2O is 3.3 x 10-2Latm at 25C. Sgas = kH x Pgas = (3.3 x 10-2)(4) = 0.1 mol L
mol

+ PB

nB nT

B. Boiling Point Elevation (Tb) the boiling point of a solution (Tb) is higher than the boiling point of the solvent (Tb) Tb = Tb - Tb Tb =Kbm
Ckg C *Kb = molal boiling point constant ( or ) mol m mol *m = molality ( kg ) mass(in grams) molecular weight of SOLUTE Tb =KbSOLVENT x mass (in kg) of SOLUTE

2. Calculating Molarity (M) Calculate the molarity of the aqueous solution: 32.3g table sugar (C12H22O11) in 100.mL of solution. WSL = 32.3g VSOL = 100.mL 0.100L W MW SL M = L SOL 32.3 342.12 = 0.100 mol = 0.944 L 3. Calculating the molality (m) What is the molality of a solution prepared by dissolving 32.0g of CaCl2 in 271g of water?
molSL m = kg = SV 1mol 32g x 110.98g mol 1kg = 1.06 kg 271g x 1000g

*Kb of H2O = 0.52 m

4. Expressing Concentration in Parts by Mass, Parts by Volume and Mole Fraction a) Find the concentration of calcium (in ppm) in a 3.50-g pill that contains 40.5mg of Ca. b) The label on a 0.750-L bottle of Italian chianti indicates 11.5% alcohol by volume. How many L of alcohol does the wine contain? c) A sample of rubbing alcohol contains 142g of C3H7OH and 58.0g of water. What are the mole fractions of alcohol and water? a) *ppm = parts per million (ppm) by mass and parts per
biliion (ppb) by mass: grams of solute per million or per billion grams of solution

70g x

b) XH20 =
30g x

1mol 18g

1mol 1mol + 70g x 34.02g 18g

= 0.185

c) Molarity 1mL 1L VSOL = 100g x 1.11g x 1000mL = 0.0901L mol 0.883mol M= = = 9.79M L 0.0901 6. Using Raoults Law to Find Vapor Pressure Lowering Calculate the vapor pressure lowering, P, when 10.0mL of glycerol (C3H8O3) is added to 500. mL of H2O at 50C. At this temperature, the vapor pressure of pure water is 92.5 torr and its density is 0.988g/mL. The density of glycerol is 1.26g/mL. 1.26g 1mol nC3H803 = 10mL x 1mL x 92g = 0.137mol 0.988g 1mol nH20 = 500mL x 1mL x 18g = 27.4mol nGLYCEROL P = PSV n SOLUTION 0.137 = 92.5torr 0.137 + 27.4 = 0.461torr

WSL ppm = W x 106

SOL

1g 40.5mg1000mg = x 106 3.5g = 1.16 x 104 ppm Ca b) Assume the wine = 100L. Since the wine is 11.5% alcohol, then the wine contains 11.5L of alcohol in a 100-L wine. 11.5L alcohol 0.750L chianti x = 0.0862L 100L chianti 1mol c) nC3H7OH = 142g x 60.09g = 2.36mol 1mol = 3.22 18g 2.36mol XC3H7OH = 2.36mol + 3.22mol = 0.423 3.22mol XC3H7OH = = 0.577 2.36mol + 3.22mol nH20 = 58g x 5. Converting Concentration Terms Hydrogen Peroxide is a powerful oxidizing agent used in concentrated solution in rocket fuels and in dilute solutions as hair bleach. An aqueous solution of H2O2 is 30.0% by mass and has a density of 1.11g/mL. Calculate its molality, mole fraction of H2O and molarity. a) Assume the solution has 100g. Since the solution has 30.0% H2O2, the solution has 30g H2O2. H2O on the other hand has 70g.
molSL m = kg = SL 1mol 30g x 34.02g 1kg 70g x 1000g = 12.6m