Creativity in Business Certificate

Introduction All too often change is unsuccessful because people or processes become barriers to success. Force Field Analysis is a popular tool that helps you to look ahead to anticipate problems. You can use it to:

Analyse forces for and against change Look at the big picture Develop strategies that will enable change to be successful.

It can also be used to help you understand what your team's feelings are towards a possible change.

When you are ready to go to the next lesson, click on the link below.

Force Field Analysis Force Field Analysis enables you to identify positive forces for change and obstacles to change. Below is the structure you use to complete a force field analysis. Click on the Workbook to find out how to use it.

When you are ready to go to the next lesson, click on the link below. Completing a Force Field Analysis You can complete a force field analysis by yourself, but it is often useful to do it in a group. This will help you to understand different perspectives. 1. In the centre of the diagram write the change you want to see e.g. Change the booking-in process to reduce paperwork. 2. Brainstorm the driving forces - these are the forces that will help change take place (see page 2 for forces you may want to consider). 3. Brainstorm the restraining forces - these are the forces that are obstacles to change. 4. Rate each of the forces on a 1 to 5 scale (1 = weak, 5 = strong). 5. Devise strategies that will strengthen your driving forces and weaken the restraining forces. It is often easier to weaken restraining forces than it is to strengthen driving forces). Be warned: a force field analysis may reveal that the restraining forces are so strong that the proposed change is not viable. You will be shown an example of a completed analysis diagram later in the tutorial. Forces to Consider You may want to think about some of the following variables when conducting a force field analysis:

What resources are available? How do people feel about change? Does the change fit with the company culture? What relationships are affected by the proposed change? Do you need to consider any regulations or legislation? What do people want? Is anything else happening that will have a bearing on the change? What costs are involved? Are there any key stakeholders that you need to get on board?

Case Study

You are managing a team of people. You want to change the booking-in process to increase efficiencies. You get your team together and have a brainstorming session. Decide whether the following factors are driving or restraining forces: DrivingRestraining 1. The team don't like the IT the new system uses 2. The MD wants every department to cut costs 3. Fewer people would be required to be involved with the booking-in process 4. The team is unhappy as there will be less overtime paid 5. The new process will increase visibility of the production process 6. Peak season is coming up and work load is increasing 7. The Production Manager thinks the current process does a good job 8. The new process will take 20% less time to complete

When you are ready to go to the next lesson, click on the link below.

Completed Force Field Analysis

Analysis of Case Study After the brainstorm you allocate a rating to the factors that resulted from the brainstorm. Click on the Workbook to see the completed Force Field Analysis and your ratings. Figure out how to manage this change successfully by answering the questions below.

The strongest restraining force is the fact that your team doesn't like the IT the new process requires. What would be an effective strategy to weaken this restraining force. Cancel the project - it's obvious that it won't work Tell the team that they have to use the new process and they don't have any say in the matter Train employees to ensure that they understand how to use the new system

You Answered: Train employees to ensure that they understand how to use the new system. Correct - a good training scheme will help staff to become familiar with the IT. Often people don't like IT because they don't understand it properly - training will overcome this. It is not advisable to try to push through the scheme, as your team will just resist change and make it really difficult for you. So far you have scored 1 of 4. The brainstorm has highlighted the fact that peak season is coming up and workload is increasing. What should you do with this information? Cancel the project - it's an obvious no-go Delay the project until after peak season Push on with the project without delay You Answered: Delay the project until after peak season. This would be a sensible decision. It would eliminate this restraining force! Also after peak season there will be more time for training and giving time for the team to get used to the new process. So far you have scored 2 of 4. The loss of overtime is a significant worry for your team. How could you address this? Ask the MD to come and talk to your team about how the change in process will aid business survival Increase salaries to compensate for loss of income Tell your team that you have never guaranteed overtime payments

You Answered: Ask the MD to come and talk to your team about how the change in process will aid business survival. If the MD is serious about cutting costs, he could be persuaded to come and emphasise the importance of this project is to the survival of the business. So far you have scored 3 of 4. The Production Manager looks like a significant obstacle to successful implementation of the new inputting process. What could you do to weaken this retraining force? Ignore him, you need to focus on your own team Meet with the Production Manager and outline all the benefits the new system will bring him Tell the Production Manager that the new process is going ahead You Answered: Meet with the Production Manager and outline all the benefits the new system will bring him. Correct - outlining all the benefits may help the production manager to understand why the new process is so beneficial. So far you have scored 4 of 4.

Introduction Ice breakers are used at the start of a meeting or at the beginning of a training session. Ice breakers can be used:
o o o o

With groups of people who don't know each other With groups of people who don't normally work together To energise meetings (e.g. after lunch) To get groups of people thinking differently (e.g. before a brain-storming session).

However, you do need to choose your ice breaker carefully - the wrong ice breaker can embarrass people and be a waste of time. Ice Breakers When you decide to use an ice breaker it is worth thinking about the following questions:

What do you want to achieve out of the session? e.g. getting to know each other, working as a team, energising etc How many people will be involved? How much room do you have? What equipment will you need? What is the business culture? e.g. creative, give-it-a-go, conservative, traditional

By asking yourself the above questions you will be more likely to choose an ice-breaker that will be successful. To discover some ice breakers that have been tried and tested (and that work!) in the workplace click on the Workbook above. Getting to Know You Getting to Know You The following ice breakers are good to use with groups of people who have never met each other before. Introductions Get your group of people to pair up. Ask them to talk to each other for a few minutes and find out three interesting facts. Then ask them to introduce the partner to the group. Benefits of this ice breaker: quick, easy, requires no equipment, gets people talking to each other, can identify things people have in common with each other Have you..... Write out a list of twenty questions and give a sheet with the questions on to each person. Ask the people to go round the room and find someone who can say "Yes" to questions. The aim is to get a different persons name against each of the questions. To make this more difficult you can tell your group they can only use each person's name once. An example can be found here, but you may want to change the questions depending on your group. Benefits of this ice breaker: needs very little equipment, gets people up and moving about and talking to each other, can be fun and relaxes people if they are feeling nervous Sentence Completions Have a prepared list on flip chart paper of a few incomplete sentences e.g. My favourite film is.... Go round the group and ask people to finish the sentences. There is no need to capture people's answers. This exercise should be light-hearted and fun. Examples can be found here.

Benefits of this ice breaker: gets people talking about themselves, reveals common ground between group members, can be fun, should be non-threatening

Team Building The following ice breakers are good to use with teams that know each other, but you want them to work more closely with each other. Although you could use these ice breakers with groups of people who had never met before. Two truths, one lie Ask each member of the group in turn to tell the group two truths about themselves and one lie. The group then needs to decide which is the lie. This exercise works best if you encourage people to share facts that the group may not know. Benefits of this ice breaker: quick, fun, shares new information about group members, may change the way group members view each other The big picture Take a well known image e.g. the Coca-Cola logo. Cut it into as many pieces as there are members of the group. If you are working with a big group you may want to use more than one image (although make sure you put people into groups with each image). Give each person a piece of the "puzzle". Ask them to make a copy of that piece five times bigger in ten minutes. Provide paper, rulers, pens etc. Do not give any more information. Once the ten minutes are up get your groups to make a giant copy of the original picture on the table. De-brief - it is worth de-briefing the group after this exercise. Questions you can ask include: how did you feel about being given minimal information, did you know what you were going to do with your piece of the puzzle, did the puzzle fit together, did people all produce their piece of the puzzle to the same standard Benefits of this ice breaker - gets group members to think about communication, team work, how they contribute to the "big picture" Egg rescue Split your people into groups. Groups should be between 4-6 people. Give them the task of building a structure that will catch an egg from a six foot drop and deliver it into an egg box. Give the teams materials to build the structure. Give them 30 minutes to build the structure. Suspend eggs from the ceiling. Then ask groups to bring out their structure and let the eggs drop. A full description of this exercise can be found here. De-brief - this classic exercise can get your group to think about many aspects. Questions

you might want to ask include: how did they plan the exercise; how did they work as a team; how did they communicate; did everyone get involved; and how would they do things differently? Benefits of this ice breaker - fun, gets the groups working together, gets people to think about lots of different issues that relate to the workplace

Energising Energising Energising ice breakers can be used:

To get people energised at the beginning of a session To get people's energy levels back up if they look like they are flagging To break up a day To get people to start thinking in a different way. Left and right

Get your group to stand in a circle. Give one member a blue ball and a red ball. Tell the group that the blue ball should only be held in the left hand and the red ball should only be held in the right hand. Get the person to throw the two balls they are holding to different people. Keep on passing the balls as quickly as possible - (remembering that blue=left and red=right). You can add in extra balls for fun! Benefits of this ice breaker: Quick, easy, fun, gets people moving, gets them using their left and right side of their brains - great for creativity! Catch my finger

Group remain seated in their chairs. Everyone holds both their arms out sideways. The left hand has its palm open towards the roof. The right hand has its index finger pointing to the floor. Now, everyone put the down pointing index finger of their right hand, into the open left hand palm of the person sitting on their right. On the count of three, everyone must try to catch the other persons finger in their left hand palm. At the same time they need to try to get their finger away from the person on their right, who will try to catch their finger Benefits of this ice breaker: fun, silly, creates lots of laughter Line up Get you group member to stand up. Tell them that they are not

allowed to talk to each other. Get them to line up from the person whose birthday is earliest in the year to the person whose birthday is the latest in the year. Benefits of this ice breaker: Gets people up and moving, gets people to interact without talking, clears peoples' minds Words of Warning! Words of Warning! Ice breakers can be fun and bring a different dimension to your day. However you need to use them carefully! The ice breakers we have outlined are tried and tested and unlikely to offend. However there are hundreds of other ice breakers that you could use - some of which may cause offense! When you use an ice breaker you should always ensure that:

People won't be offended You don't probe people's feelings You don't ask people to reveal anything that they don't want to People's personal space isn't invaded.

Take Action Think about events that are happening over the next few weeks in your company that you could use ice breakers at. These include:

Meetings (try using an energiser at your weekly team meeting) Induction - if a number of people are joining your team, ice breakers are good at relaxing people In the office - when you notice energy levels flagging, suggest a quick energiser! Training days - use ice breakers to reinforce learning

In the box below, write down situations when you could use ice breakers and what type of ice breaker you could use.

Introduction Mind maps are a useful tool that help you to:

Please note that in order to complete this tutorial, you will need to be able to view video files.

Why Be Innovative and Creative?

The need for innovation There are three reasons why any organisation (or individual, for that matter) needs to be more innovative today:

The pace of change continues to accelerate. New technologies give rise to products with ever shorter life cycles. The scale of change continues to increase. Multinational mergers result in redundancies measured in tens of thousands of employees. Change arrives from increasingly unexpected directions. Who, a few years ago, would have expected to ride on a Virgin train or buy a book from a company that doesn't have any shops?

For all businesses the threats are clear. Darwin's observations about the natural world apply equally well to the world of business: adapt or die out. The difference is that evolutionary change in nature takes place over millions of years while in business today the timescale is counted in months or weeks. Andy Grove, one of the founders of Intel, talks about The Paranoia Principle: if he's not constantly glancing over his shoulder and upping the pace, someone will overtake him. If you want your business or team to survive and thrive you need to make sure it is adaptable, flexible, and nimble. Not just reacting to change, but creating the changes that will keep it ahead. Your technology can be so rapidly copied that the only sustainable way to forge ahead is to constantly tap into your people's ideas and reap the benefits. You need to be constantly finding newer and better ways to do everything you do. Peter Drucker has suggested three Disciplines of Innovation. They are:

Having a clear mission. Being crystal clear what is meant by results. Having the nerve to abandon an experiment that is not delivering the required results.

You and your team can be more innovative, given an encouraging climate and the right tools.

Exercise We have suggested that whatever your role in your organisation you need to be constantly finding new and better ways to do whatever it is that your unit does. That means you need ideas to build on but where do you get your best ideas? Most people say

in the bath or driving to work ... almost anywhere, in fact, except at work. In this exercise we will ask you to think through how you could change your work space, at work or at home, so that it is more stimulating. It will almost certainly pose some questions you've not thought about before. Write your answers to the following questions, then see if our suggestions prompt even better ideas. Think in terms of creating the ideal creative environment. 1. What kind of seating do you prefer? 2. What would you have on the walls? 3. What else would you have around you? 4. What drinks or snacks would be to hand? 5. What sounds would be audible? 6. What materials would you have to hand? Enter your reply here...

Exercise with Model Answers In this exercise we will ask you to think through how you could change your work space, at work or at home, so that it is more stimulating. It will almost certainly pose some questions you've not thought about before. Write your answers to the following questions, then see if our suggestions prompt even better ideas. Think in terms of creating the ideal creative environment. 1. What kind of seating do you prefer? 2. What would you have on the walls? 3. What else would you have around you? 4. What drinks or snacks would be to hand? 5. What sounds would be audible? 6. What materials would you have to hand? Your Answer: My ideal creative environment 1 The kind of seating I prefer will have a comfortable soft seat, with material that stops me sliding down and a very straight back. 2 A pastel yellow paint should be on the wall. 3 and pictures of tranquil places such as woodlands or beaches. Maybe a vase of flowers. 4 Cheese and biscuits or/and chocolate snacks. 5 Any natural sounds such as the traffic or rain outside. 6 Pen, paper and computer. Model Answer: Did you consider:

1. Seating - swivel chair, armchair, stool, floor or no seating? 2. Walls - pictures, checklists, charts, murals, whiteboard, blackboard, window, TV, newspaper cuttings, flipchart? 3. Around you - plants, photos, toys, stress balls, other people, clutter, tidy space? 4. Drinks & snacks - coffee, tea, water, crisps, peanuts, fruit, biscuits, coke, fruit juice? 5. Sounds - music (classical, ambient, rock, pop...), street noise, silence, people moving about, conversation, telephone? 6. Materials - note book, pad, flipchart, coloured pens, pencils, marker pens, crayons, coloured paper, laptop, hand-held device, PC/Mac?

Barriers to creativity For many people, being creative is something they stopped doing at some stage in their youth. The experiences of getting through school and college, then making a start on a career, exert great pressure to conform. These experiences leave many people with a set of mental blocks that you will need to deal with if your team is going to be one where it's OK to be creative. What are some of the main blocks you need to overcome?

Thinking there is only one right answer - Most of our school, college and professional exam experiences are based on a single right answer. Fear of failure - Trying anything new involves risks. If the climate punishes failure, people won't take risks. False assumptions - We have to constantly make assumptions to get through the day. Query the assumptions you are making in your creative work to decide whether they are valid. Discomfort with ambiguity - We all feel more comfortable if we know where we stand and there is comfort in sticking with the tried-and-tested rather than striking out on a new course. Fear of ridicule - Many innovations have emerged from crazy-sounding initial ideas but the fear of being laughed at is a strong inhibitor of ideas. This is perhaps the most powerful inhibitor of creativity. Habit - We tend to apply the solution that seemed to solve the problem last time around. Bureaucracy - If a proposal has to be agreed by layers of managers or committees who require lengthy reports etc ... it can be just too much effort. Premature judgement - If a new idea is likely to be strangled at birth by a killer phrase like: It wouldn't work here, then suggestions won't be made.

...and there are many more... The good news is that by employing effective techniques you can overcome these powerful forces.

Exercise The bite outlined 8 common barriers to creativity. Some of them will be more important influences of your behaviour than others. Others you will notice having an impact on the team around you. In this exercise you are asked to rank the barriers and then consider how to begin to overcome them. You can write your notes in notepad by clicking on the link shown below this exercise. 1. Consider the 8 barriers i.e. * Thinking there is only one "right" answer. * Fear of failure. * False assumptions. * Discomfort with ambiguity. * Fear of ridicule. * Habit. * Bureaucracy. * Premature judgement. 2. Select the one which most inhibits your creativity and rank it No 1. 3. Select the next ... and so on down to No 8. Now you have the barriers ranked, take just the first two (take more and the task will be too daunting) and think of two actions you could take to reduce the effect of the barrier. Consider how and when you could bring these changes into play. If it is important that your team also improve their creativity, either; - re-work the ranking for the team as a whole, or - ask the team members to do it for themselves. If you take this option you could then involve them in thinking through how, as a team, you could all begin to reduce barriers to creativity.

Fostering a creative climate

"Part of every manager's and every team member's job is to create an environment in which creativity is appreciated and new ideas are brought out of those who may have almost forgotten their creativity." Gifford Pinchot, 1865-1946. First Chief of the United States Forest Service. Too many people hang up their brains along with their hat and coat when they arrive at work. Yet each of them has a unique perspective and set of experiences that they can bring to the party if only you let them. What can you do to encourage them and ensure their brain stays engaged at work? You can create a climate that welcomes ideas by:

Listening to suggestions when they are made. Never let it be said that you were unwilling to listen. Encouraging others to offer ideas, suggestions and advice. Acknowledging that others may have better ideas, especially if they are closer to the detail of the work than you. As far as possible, let people figure out the best way to do their own jobs. Encouraging a systematic approach which first diagnoses problems, then seeks potential solutions and finally selects the best for implementation. Supporting your people's ideas when they affect a larger area than just your team. Recognising the merits and positive aspects of a suggestion before exploring any shortcomings. Varying the problem solving and creative thinking techniques used within a meeting or project, so that your people are exposed to a range of devices for effectively dealing with challenges. Building your team's problem solving and creative thinking expertise so that they come up with thought-through proposals rather than off-the-top-of-the-head ideas. Banning negative responses such as: That will never work or we tried that before, and it didn't work. Discussing ideas that are raised, developing them, building them. Allowing your people to try things out; you can always build on a failed experiment. Insisting that your people constantly seek better ways to achieve results. Requiring your people to question the way things are done. Focusing on the challenges that will lead to the greatest benefits. Role-modelling the behaviours you would like to see all the team display.

And finally, something which you do at your peril: Never pinch your people's ideas. Instead, become known as the guy with the creative team.

Exercise Fostering a Creative Climate

You read in the bite about 15 ways you can foster (or hinder) the creative climate in your team. You are probably good at some of them already. There is probably room to improve on others. Use this exercise as an opportunity to take stock and then find ways to make improvements. Take a look at the 'Fostering a Creative Climate' link shown above and print off the table displayed. Then fill out the table as follows: In the Score column write a number between 0 and 10 to reflect how consistently good you are at displaying the behaviour. Select the 3 (or 4 or 5) actions with the lowest scores. In their "Action" column write a couple of things you will begin to do differently to improve your scores. Make a note in your diary for one month from now to remind you to re-score yourself against the behaviours you are trying to improve. (You can use the 'Notepad' link back on the eBrief page to record your answers.)

Mind maps Since it was first popularised by British psychologist Tony Buzan (1942 - ), mind mapping has become one of the most widely used tools in creativity. A mind map encourages you to organise your thoughts on paper in a pattern that matches the way you think. As a tool it offers far greater flexibility than the traditional list or notes taken from a lecture. Mind mapping is a technique for representing on paper the way that we see a situation - it is our own mental picture of something, summed up in key words and images. The main features of a mind map are:

The topic/problem/objective is written in capitals in the centre of a large sheet of paper. The main ideas concerning the situation are added, linked to the centre and underlined. Subsidiary ideas are then added, where they seem to best fit. Arrows are used to show links between the ideas.

When producing a mind map:

Don't worry about neatness / common-sense / spelling - you can always tidy it up later. Keep going till no more ideas come.

Mind maps can be prepared by a group of people but essentially they are personal, summing up one particular person's knowledge and ideas about the topic. Producing a mind map is like brainstorming but it is superior to a simple list because of the way the ideas are organised on the page. Mind maps are creative in that they:

May reveal patterns and connections between ideas which did not at first occur to you. May stimulate further ideas by arranging all your thoughts about the topic on a single page. Pull your ideas into order e.g. for planning a report, presentation or project. Can highlight the aspects of the topic that you know little about, do not understand, or need to research further. Exercise

This exercise provides you with a framework for trying out and reflecting on mind maps. Using the guidance in the bite and the further reading articles if you have explored them, prepare a mind map on a blank piece of paper. It does not matter at all what it is for. It could be; - preparation for a talk or a meeting, - notes taken from a talk or presentation, - revision notes for something you are studying, - or even a resume of a TV programme. The point is to try out this type of patterned note taking. When you have your mind map prepared, continue to the next screen (by clicking on the 'Click here to view model answer' button) and review it against the criteria for a mind map as described by Tony Buzan. Enter your reply here...

Exercise with Model Answers Using the guidance in the bite and the further reading articles if you have explored them, prepare a mind map on a blank piece of paper. It does not matter at all what it is for. It could be; - preparation for a talk or a meeting, - notes taken from a talk or presentation, - revision notes for something you are studying,

- or even a resume of a TV programme. The point is to try out this type of patterned note taking. When you have your mind map prepared, continue to the next screen (by clicking on the 'Click here to view model answer' button) and review it against the criteria for a mind map as described by Tony Buzan. Your Answer: Model Answer: Buzan suggests an effective mind map employs the following (rather strict) "laws": 1. At the centre of the mind map use an image rather than words. 2. Use images in preference to words throughout the mind map. 3. Use upper and lower case letter, printed rather than joined. 4. Write on lines that connect to the other lines that make up the mind map. 5. Use arrows to show connections. 6. Keep to single words rather than phrases. 7. Use colour to the maximum. It is unlikely your mind map will live up to this idea so consider Buzan's advice and try it out at the next mind mapping opportunity. You might also like to try out the idea of using symbols, especially if you are working with your team who will have a common understanding of the work you do and the symbols that could be employed. What symbols would be useful abbreviations for your team as well as lending the mind map an extra visual impact?

Journaling Many well-known business people have found a notebook to be their most powerful creative aid. Ideas that come Richard Branson's way get noted in a standard-sized school note book because "the discipline of writing them down ensures that I have to listen to people carefully." When John Patterson was president of National Cash Register he insisted that his board members keep a little red book to record daily thoughts and ideas. Any who did not use their little red book were fired. Both men have recognised that the act of writing the note signals to the brain that this information is important. Anne Johnson describes the benefits she gains from journaling - her daily morning discipline of recording her hopes, fears, problems and insights. She finds that once she has written the idea down, her mind is free and focused for getting on with the day's business. She finds that writing the journal:

Helps the brain sort out priorities. Clarifies where the day's focus should lie. Helps park unresolved problems. Acts as a tool for gathering insights. Aids project planning. Puts irritations into perspective.

Normally, her tool is a notebook; sometimes a computer screen. Normally she writes in the morning but occasionally the evening. She stresses that a serious trial of journaling as a technique needs to run for a number of weeks or even months before it becomes a helpful habit. You can use your journal in other ways to foster creativity:

Use it to rehearse difficult conversations. Try experiencing someone else's point of view by writing about an argument you might experience. Write down a problem and list any solutions that come into mind.

We all have bright ideas but many of them get lost. It would be unwise to fully follow John Patterson's example but the idea of a little red book is excellent. Use one yourself and encourage your colleagues to do the same. It is surprising how often an idea noted months or even years ago can suddenly click into place. Your notebook need not only contain words. How about including newspaper cuttings, cartoons, adverts, designs that impress you, riddles, jokes, pictures, quotations...? "I don't mind where the ideas come from as long as they make a difference." - Richard Branson Exercise As leaders as diverse as John Patterson and Richard Branson have gained immense value from keeping a notebook, the suggestion in this exercise is to try an experiment with your team. You will find out just how much more creative they can be just by capturing some of the ideas they perhaps lose because they are not normally written down. 1. Buy a "little red book" for each team member. A small one has the advantage of fitting easily into pocket or handbag. 2. Talk the team through the benefits of journaling/noting as described in the bite. 3. Ask them to use the book to capture all their ideas - by writing, drawing, pasting in cuttings ... or whatever they choose. 4. Decide how long to run the experiment for and agree when to meet to review it. When you review the use of the notebooks, do it in three stages:

1. Exchange ideas that have been recorded. Bear in mind that the notebooks are private so the team will only discuss those items that they want to share. 2. Decide what to do about any promising ideas that have been suggested. 3. Ask the team members to share HOW they used the book e.g. did they: - carry it with them, - keep it by the bed, - add cuttings, cartoons... - use colour. You can then encourage them to adopt any "best practices" they have heard from their colleagues. (You can use the 'Notepad' link back on the eBrief page to record your answers.)

Ask Questions Whatever the challenge you are dealing with, you probably need to collect data in order to be confident that you fully understand the situation. The simplest approach is to use Kiplings six honest serving men:

What? Why? When? How? Where? Who?

Examples of the kinds of questions to ask are: What?

What is the scope of the problem? What is not part of the problem? (outside its scope)

Why?

Why did the problem occur? Why was it not identified sooner? Why must it be solved?

When?

When was the problem first identified? When must it be solved by? When did something change that may have caused the problem?

How?

How did the problem manifest itself (what were the symptoms)? How has it been dealt with in the past?

Where?

Where is the problem occurring? Where is it not occurring?

Who?

Who was responsible for the problem occurring? Who has tackled the problem before?

Treat this list as suggestions only and devise your own checklist of questions to fit your particular situation. Write them down, otherwise you will forget to ask some of them at the appropriate time the brain can only remember about seven items at a time. You can even turn to the basic list of six questions in an emergency: If you ask questions based on all six you can be sure that you are covering the ground pretty thoroughly. Policemen are said to use the six W's in interview training as a reminder to prompt / cover all the aspects of an event or an alibi provided by a person interviewed.

Exercise You've been called in as a consultant to a restaurant that has recently opened serving Mediterranean style meals. Since opening, three months ago, customer numbers have been disappointing and have continued to drop. You are asked to investigate and recommend a course of action to the management and decide to use Kipling's six questions as your framework. Devise three questions under each of the six headings: - What? - Why? - When?

- How? - Where? - Who? so that you gain as thorough an understanding of what is going wrong as possible. Then compare your questions with the ones we've devised. Enter your reply here...

Exercise with Model Answers Devise three questions under each of the six headings: - What? - Why? - When? - How? - Where? - Who? so that you gain as thorough an understanding of what is going wrong as possible. Then compare your questions with the ones we've devised. Your Answer: What? What training and experience do the staff have? What advertising has taken place? What food do customers want? Why? Why are people not returning? Why are they not recommending others? Why has no one changed where we advertise to find new custom? When? When did numbers start to drop? When can we use a good selling point? When can we expect improvement? How? How can we gain customer feedback? How can we improve customer service? How can we get repeat custom? Where? Where should we advertise? Where can we make improvements? Where are the incentives to try our new style meals? Who? Who needs training and/or motivating? Who can help to advertise and spread the word? Who can ensure feedback is gained? Model Answer: Possible suggestions: What items on the menu are most popular? What is the price range across the menu? What have you done to try to boost custom? Why have you chosen Mediterranean food? Why can't the situation continue? Why have you not called me in before? When must the problem be solved by? When did you have a restaurant reviewer in for a meal and what did they write? When did the customer numbers start dropping? How have you priced the menu? How do you source your ingredients?

How many more customers do you need to attract? Where do your customers come from? Where don't your customers come from? Where have you advertised? Who is the chef and what is his/her background? Who are your customers - what backgrounds do they have? Who could write a review which might attract business? You should now have enough information to make your recommendations!

Brainstorm variations

Brainstorming is a technique for developing creative solutions. It begins with a clearly stated problem or challenge and then deliberately aims to come up with as many possible solutions as possible. Traditionally this is done by a group in front of a flip chart. However, there are many variations on this basic idea: The 6-3-5 Technique This variation is well suited to a group of six people. Each participant generates three ideas, five times in succession. The way it works is: Stage 1: Each participant receives three blank cards and is asked to think of three ideas and write them down, one on each card. Stage 2 Each participant then passes on his/her cards, say clockwise. The recipient adds an idea to each card received, stimulated by what has already been written there. There will be five exchanges of cards in all. Benefits: This could be appealing to someone who is reluctant to speak up in front of the team and it strongly encourages building on others' ideas. Idea Supplementing Experience has shown that after brainstormers have slept on a problem they often generate ideas more valuable than those suggested at the session itself. Often the original list of ideas can be increased by 20%. Useful ways to capture these supplementary ideas are:

A short follow-up meeting later in the day or next morning. A mechanism to send supplementary ideas in writing to a central point.

Benefits: It ensures that no ideas are lost so it could be valuable when working on a particularly big or important problem.

Seeding Ideas If participants feel they cannot come up with any more ideas, try selecting a word at random from a dictionary and proposing it as a spark for further ideas. You might be surprised how many more trains of thought will be stimulated. Ideas Grid It is often said that creative thinking means bringing together things that previously were not associated. For example, the invention of the printing press did just this, combining the technology for stamping metal coins with that used by vineyards to press grapes. In some work situations you can use an ideas grid to help make fruitful new associations. Let's say you are a publisher of entertainment materials for children. You are keen to expand your product range and want some ideas of new lines that you might move into. You could expand your range by extending any of the following: Product - currently you sell books and cassettes. Function - currently your titles are fiction, humour and information. Markets - currently book shops and mail order. Technologies - printed page and audio cassettes. You could now explore new possibilities in several ways. Start by brainstorming each of these lists. For example, the products list could include DVDs, CDs, posters, multi-media. You might extend the markets to include work-place marketing, toy shops, children's clothes shops, or the internet. Any of these ideas might by itself suggest a new way to move forward. More powerful, though, is the range of associations you could make by arranging your brainstormed lists in a grid. Arrange the products along the top of the grid; put the markets down the side. You now have 25 cells to consider. This now gives you 25 possibilities to consider, only a few of which you are currently exploiting. From so many new combinations there ought to be some worth exploring. Some will immediately seem unlikely to succeed, others may appear more promising. Trying to produce and sell multimedia by mail order might sound daunting; the possibilities for selling posters in clothes shops may appear more attractive. You can consider all four dimensions of your business simultaneously if you arrange their lists in columns. You could then pick and combine items from each column producing intriguing possibilities such as selling humorous cassettes on the internet.

An ideas grid can highlight vast numbers of untapped possibilities. In some literature you will often see these grids referred to more formally as Morphological Analysis. Whatever the name, the aim is to rapidly generate a new set of associations so that they can be tested or used as triggers for further exploration. Exercise If you worked on the exercise from the previous bite about questioning, you'll recall that you investigated a restaurant which was suffering a tailing-off in business. Your questioning has led you to present some ideas to the management which you choose to do in the form of an Ideas Grid. To get the management thinking, you decide to ask them what to put on the grid so for the first of its dimensions you ask them: "Although dinner in the evening is the most obvious example, what different 'meal experiences' could be served at the restaurant?" Make yourself a list of the different experiences the restaurant could offer. Enter your reply here...

Exercise with Model Answers To get the management thinking, you decide to ask them what to put on the grid so for the first of its dimensions you ask them: "Although dinner in the evening is the most obvious example, what different 'meal experiences' could be served at the restaurant?" Make yourself a list of the different experiences the restaurant could offer. Your Answer: Lunch time lite snacks Teatime treats Cream tea Take-away menu Entertainment nights Model Answer: We thought of breakfasts, lunches, dinners, morning coffee, afternoon tea, "pre-theatre" supper, "post-theatre" supper, wedding receptions, birthdays, take-away food. In your consultant role you could write these down one dimension of the ideas grid. Now you can move on to the next stage - to do this click on the button below 'Click here for Next Question'.

Exercise You could now ask the management the next question, which is: "What would be effective ways to promote the restaurant?" Make yourself a list of possible ways to promote the restaurant. Enter your reply here...

Exercise with Model Answers Make yourself a list of possible ways to promote the restaurant. Your Answer: Website Newspaper article Review/critique Special return offers for regulars Radio interview Leaflet drop Business cards for take-away menus Model Answer: You probably came up with some straightforward ideas like the local paper, Yellow Pages, and the local radio, but maybe there are more unusual possibilities like sandwich boards, flyers for car windscreens, advertising on the backs of parking tickets and so on. These you would write across the other dimension of the grid. Now you could invite your clients to consider all the combinations. With our 10 types of experience and 6 types of advert there are 60 combinations to consider. This should enable the management to decide on some very focused promotion.

Force Field Analysis

To step from being creative to being innovative, you actually have to introduce your brainchild to its audience. The Force Field diagram, developed by German psychologist Kurt Lewin (18901947), helps you think through the reactions you are likely to get to the change you're introducing. It helps you consider the forces such as habits, customs and attitudes which both drive and restrain change. This could help you in one of two ways:

It could help you decide between two or more possible courses of action. It could help you think through actions you need to take to implement your chosen solution as smoothly as possible.

The technique requires a flipchart/whiteboard on which to work. The steps to follow are: 1. Define the desired change as precisely as possible. 2. Draw a horizontal line on the board. 3. List and discuss the group's perception of all the relevant driving and restraining forces by putting yourselves in the shoes of those affected. 4. Place each driving force as an arrow above the line. 5. Place each restraining force as an arrow below the line. 6. Determine the relative strength of each force by reaching a consensus. 7. Show these on the chart by the relative lengths of the arrows.

If the analysis is being used to help decide between two possible solutions, examine the balance of forces on the charts. If one shows overwhelming restraining forces then it is likely to be difficult to implement. The chart may show that the other solution would be easier to implement. If the analysis is being done to help think through the implementation plan, then two more steps need to be taken:

Consider ways to enhance the driving forces. Consider ways to remove/reduce the restraining forces.

This second step is particularly important. It you try to force through the change by just focusing on the driving forces, you will probably just increase the strength of the resistance.

Why Be Innovative & Creative? - Results Below we list any questions you answered incorrectly (and included the correct answer). Question Number What is the first thing to remember when producing a mind map? 1. Don't worry too much about spelling Keep going till no more ideas come Don't worry too much about common sense Don't worry too much about neatness Question Number Which of these is a strong inhibitor of ideas? 2. Habit Bureaucracy Premature judgement Fear of ridicule Question Number Which of these is a barrier to creativity?

6. Valid assumptions Thinking there is more than one "right" answer Comfort with ambiguity Fear of failure Question Number Which is a main feature of a mind map? 7. Subsidiary ideas are rejected Lines are drawn to show links between the ideas The main ideas concerning the situation are added, linked to the centre and underlined The topic/problem/objective is written in capitals at the top right of a large sheet of paper You are free to retake this quiz as often as you wish.

Creative Problem Solving

The sequence

What ever problem you need to tackle, you can apply a sequence of steps to get you to the best solution. Without the discipline of the sequence we tend to try to find solutions before we're really clear what the problem is! The sequence we will use is:

Fact finding Challenge statement Idea generation Idea screening Prototyping Implementation Problem/Opportunity finding

The last step in the sequence might seem strange and maybe out of place but you'll appreciate its importance when we get there. Being creative We are not talking about creativity in the sense of writing a play or designing a block of flats. Creativity in that sense calls for specialist knowledge, skills and sensitivity. What we mean by creativity is the ability to produce a solution that is both:

novel, i.e. original or unexpected,

and

appropriate to the challenge.

As you work through the course you'll find yourself using two kinds of thinking: Divergent thinking - generating many possible ideas or options in response to a question or challenge. Convergent thinking - choosing among many options to select the best. At some stages in the sequence you'll be seeking plenty of options to choose from. At others you'll be focusing down to select the best available solution. The crucial point is that the steps in the sequence must be worked through in sequence. Fact finding

Whatever challenge you are tackling, you will have started with some sort of statement of the

challenge. However, it is often the case that the challenge presented to you (maybe by your boss) is the wrong challenge! What frequently happens is that someone comes up with what we might call the initial challenge statement. They might say "Find a way to fit an extra printer into the office to keep up with the requests for brochures". If you took the challenge at face value you could easily go to the expense of buying or leasing a new printer and creating a good deal of disturbance to the office layout. You might discover that some sort of re-organisation of the work would solve the problem without the expense of a new printer. So you need tools to help you delve into the challenge and quite possibly come up with a better statement of what the problem really is. Tools you can use include:

The Why/Why approach: you pose a "Why?" question, receive a reply and pose the next "Why?" question. For example, "Why are the sales figures so poor?" "Because the salesmen don't really understand how the new model works". "Why don't they understand?" "Because the training got cancelled." "Why ... " You get the idea. Keep asking "Why?" till you're back to the real problem.

The 5WH method: you can always try the 6 basic questions, Who? What? Where? When Why? and How?

The Phoenix Checklist: developed by the American police in Phoenix, Arizona, this list is said to be carried by policemen as a trusty reminder for helpful lines of questioning. (You may look at this checklist if you wish by clicking on the link below this bite).

The exact approach you take, and the exact questions to use, will vary with the particular challenge but any of these approaches will help you identify the real problem you need to solve. Exercise The following statement sums up a problem faced annually in the Finance Department of a major insurance company. Use it as a start point for trying out Why/Why. The accounts team have to work late and work weekends to complete the company's Year-End figures (which have to be completed by a legally imposed deadline). Tackle the problem by asking "Why?" this is the case and write down three possible reasons. Enter your reply here...

Exercise with Model Answers Tackle the problem by asking "Why?" this is the case and write down three possible reasons. Your Answer: 1 accurate records were not kept. 2 No system was used to keep everything up to date. 3 No one checked. Model Answer: You may have written something like: 1. The staff are inexperienced. 2. Some of the data has to be checked for accuracy. 3. Some of the data is not available till a late stage in the year. Exercise Use the reasons you gave in answer to the last question for the next part of the exercise. (In my example: 1. The staff are inexperienced. 2. Some of the data has to be checked for accuracy. 3. Some of the data is not available till a late stage in the year.) For each of these reasons, repeat the question "Why?" and write down your answers. Enter your reply here...

Exercise with Model Answers For each of these reasons, repeat the question "Why?" and write down your answers. Your Answer: 1 Staff need training to understand how to keep accurate records. 2 A software system could be introduced to check accuracy. 3 A senior member of staff should have checked or be able to explain why data is not available yet. Model Answer: You may have written something like: 1a. Some staff have not worked through a "Year End" before. 1b. Some staff are not familiar with some of the processes/systems in use. 1c. Most of the staff know their own job but lack an overview of "Year End" procedures. 2a. The people responsible for the data do not work sufficiently accurately. 2b. Some data is switched between systems that are not fully compatible. 3a. Other departments do not start assembling data till late in the year.

3b. Some departments have backlogs and do not meet their deadlines for supplying data. It is unlikely you will have an identical set of answers to these, but you can see the value of exploring each answer to the question "Why?". If you really had to tackle this challenge you could ask "Why?" for a third time and even a fourth. As you do this you gradually get closer to the real causes of the problem - and, incidentally, begin to have ideas about which causes to tackle to improve the situation.

The Challenge statement A problem well stated is a problem half solved. Your fact finding may well have led you to change the initial statement of the challenge. This is frequently the case because the problem you start out tackling is often the symptom of something else. Until you have done some digging around and asked some questions you are not really clear what the problem actually is. This is probably the most important step in the problem-solving process because without it you may finish up solving the wrong problem! If you get this wrong you will be spending time solving the wrong problem! You very often have to penetrate behind the symptoms presented to you to understand what is the actual problem that has to be solved. So, oddly, you need to put work in before you can come up with an accurate statement of the problem or challenge. The challenge statement should be written. Without the discipline of writing it down the mind will very readily wander off course and waste effort that should be concentrated on the problem in hand. The act of writing it down may even trigger a solution. Call it by the positive-sounding term "challenge statement" rather than the negative-sounding "problem statement". Most people will rise to a challenge but they may not tackle a problem in such a constructive frame of mind. Ideally, the challenge statement should be:

Phrased in simple language. Precise and unambiguous. Stated in a way that allows eventual success can be measured. Example: In what ways could we reduce manufacturing costs by 5% by the end of the year? This is a simple example but it matches up well to the criteria: this particular challenge lends itself to financial measurement and includes a timeframe. You can use the opening words of this statement in any situation so you could always start your challenge statements with "In what ways could we...?"

Some challenges are more open-ended and you will find it more difficult to attach measures to them. If you don't get the challenge statement right you may end up with solutions to a different problem like the person who invented the inflatable dartboard and cycle clips for people who wear shorts. If you don't know where you're going, you're likely to end up somewhere else. Exercise A work colleague tells you that she can't afford to go on holiday this year. You would like to help her with this problem and ask her why not. She replies that she will not have enough spare cash to go on the fairly expensive type of foreign holiday she has enjoyed in the past.

Your friend is expressing the situation in a negative way which is hindering any constructive ideas. Without trying to come up with any suggestions or ideas, reframe her problem as a challenge which would encourage her to think positively about a solution. Try to phrase it in simple, unambiguous language and, as far as possible, make the challenge measurable. Write your suggested rewording and then compare it with ours. Enter your reply here...

Exercise with Model Answers Your friend is expressing the situation in a negative way which is hindering any constructive ideas. Without trying to come up with any suggestions or ideas, reframe her problem as a challenge which would encourage her to think positively about a solution. Try to phrase it in simple, unambiguous language and, as far as possible, make the challenge measurable. Write your suggested rewording and then compare it with ours. Your Answer: I need to find a way to budget for a holiday. Model Answer: What kind of 7/14 day break could I take that would leave me feeling I'd had: - a complete change of routine - a new experience - a lengthy rest

- a break from colleagues and family - some sun! - or whatever is my idea of a good holiday. Notice how we are delving behind the initial statement of the problem and exploring what it is your friend wants from her holiday. Once she's agreed on one of these phrases, you could help her find a holiday break within her budget that would satisfy the newlyphrased requirement. If it sounds as if we are falling a little short on the "measurement" criterion, consider these two points: - you could add her budget figure to the challenge - if she decides she wants a lengthy rest, for example, you could ask her on her return whether she succeeded. This would be a reasonable equivalent to a measure.

Idea generation Once you're happy that you're solving the right problem you can begin your search for the ideal solution. The best way to find the best solution is to generate a lot of possibilities so that you have plenty to choose from. Hundreds of different techniques have been developed for generating ideas but the granddaddy of them all is brainstorming. Brainstorming has rules which help participants overcome any reluctance they might have about making novel suggestions. None of us like being thought a fool so the key rule in a brainstorm is NO Judging. This stops people squashing suggestions with comments like "We tried that before and it didn't work". There are 4 rules for an effective brainstorm:

No judging - during the brainstorm all ideas are equally welcome and all should be recorded.

Go for quantity - stress the sheer number of suggestions wanted; issues about their quality can come later

Build on others' ideas - encourage people to make suggestions sparked by one they've just heard.

Think in a playful way - allow the mind to wander. Humorous, even tongue-in-cheek ideas might eventually prove valuable.

Of course, once this stage of divergent thinking is complete and you have a big list of suggestions, you need to switch to divergent thinking to pick out the most promising. The key to a successful brainstorm is this total separation of the two stages. Many variations have been developed around brainstorming such as:

Trigger Sessions

This name is given to an approach which mixes together group and individual problem solving. The first stage is for team members to work independently on the problem, producing a list of ideas. Then the lists are shared by reading them out so that further ideas are stimulated amongst others in the problem-solving team. Alternatively the lists can be on flipchart paper. The benefits are that the first stage is conducted in private so it could be less threatening than interactive brainstorming and it encourages building on each other's ideas.

Exercise You live in a small market town which suffers a severe problem with heavy traffic. This is making the town unpleasant for shoppers and everyone else going about their business. You and the rest of the Town Council decide to brainstorm possible solutions to this problem and decide to start with a trigger session, each of you writing down ideas independently. You will then share your ideas and see what further ideas are stimulated by working together. The first step involves writing down at least 10 possible solutions to the problem. There are two rules you can apply to a lone brainstorm - go for quantity and think in a playful way. One of your colleagues has written: - ban lorries between certain hours - introduce park-and-ride - pedestrianise certain streets - severely increase parking charges - reward for parking out of town - impose traffic-free hours - introduce free buses - ban cars with only one occupant - allow householders on the edge of town to charge for parking on their property - provide free bicycles - provide mopeds for a modest hire charge - provide free umbrellas to encourage walking in all weathers - allow only locals to drive in town during the day - introduce frequent mini-bus services.

Examine each of your colleague's ideas and see what further ideas you come up with, taking his ideas as a start point. This brings into play the other two brainstorm rules build on others' ideas and no judging (even if you don't like it, try to build on it). You will probably not be able to build on every one but you should find that your colleague's ideas stimulate some more from you. This illustrates the power of brainstorming in a group.

Idea screening

If your idea generating has produced a large number of ideas then you need a method for sifting through them so that you can identify the very best. Some ideas might immediately appear promising while others might seem impracticable. You need a means to select the idea that is both attractive and practical. It is helpful to think in terms of hurdles: the winner of a steeplechase has to clear a number of hurdles; your winning idea has to clear a number of hurdles too. The first hurdle is Will it achieve the objective? If not, there is no point considering it. Secondly, what does your gut reaction tell you as indicated by your level of energy and enthusiasm for the idea. After that, there is no simple list because you will need to take account of your particular situation. However you can think of them in two broad groups: resource hurdles and cultural hurdles. Resource hurdles, such as:

Can we afford it? Have we got the people to do it? Do we have the know-how? Do we have the necessary systems?

Cultural hurdles, such as:

Will it fit the company values and beliefs? Will it match the desired image for the company? Will it support the company's environmental and other policies?

You will need to develop your own hurdles but these examples are typical of the questions you need to consider. The ideal solution is the one that clears every hurdle. If you don't have an idea which successfully clears them all, you either need to find more ideas or agree on priorities amongst the hurdles and go with the best available idea. Exercise

As a reminder, or in case you did not do the exercise, the challenge in the last exercise was to think as a member of the Town Council to find ways to reduce the traffic in a small market town.The list of ideas that we suggested in order to prompt further ideas was: - ban lorries between certain hours - introduce park-and-ride - pedestrianise certain streets - severely increase parking charges - reward for parking out of town - impose traffic-free hours - introduce free buses - ban cars with only one occupant - allow householders on the edge of town to charge for parking on their property - provide free bicycles - provide mopeds for a modest hire charge - provide free umbrellas to encourage walking in all weathers - allow only locals to drive in town during the day - introduce frequent mini-bus services The key hurdle, of course, is "Will it achieve the objective of reducing traffic?" After that, it is helpful think through the other hurdles the Town Council should use, in two lists: - Resource hurdles - Cultural hurdles. What hurdles would you consider for sifting the ideas generated above. Write down your ideas and then compare them with our suggestions. Enter your reply here...

Exercise with Model Answers What hurdles would you consider for sifting the ideas generated above. Write down your ideas and then compare them with our suggestions. Your Answer: Model Answer: We suggest the resource hurdles might be: - Can we afford it? - Can it be self-financing? - Can we introduce the measure(s)quickly? - Have we got sufficient staff/experience to introduce it successfully?

- How easy will the measure be to introduce? The cultural hurdles might be: - Will it be acceptable to local residents? - Will it be acceptable to local businesses? - Will it be not too discouraging to tourists and business visitors? - Does it support the Council's environmental (and other) policies?

Prototyping

If the challenge you are tackling is a big one, the scale of the effort required to make your proposals succeed can be daunting. It may even be difficult to focus on the overall challenge because it seems too big a nut to crack. A way to side-step this problem is to borrow from the world of engineering the idea of rapid prototyping - planning your implementation as a series of quick trials or pilots or experiments ... whatever term fits the situation you are working in. You can easily get stuck studying research and debating alternatives. A quick prototype, on the other hand, gives you some evidence. It either works, works to an extent or doesn't work. Whichever the result, you have some firm data to build on to set in motion your Mark II prototype. You don't need to wait until the "implementation stage" begins, to carry out a rapid prototype. Find some willing colleagues and quietly try it out. You can save money by quick prototyping. Take the pre-school approach and cobble together something just effective enough for your trial. Adapt the forms, borrow the software, re-write the process. This also minimises the risk, providing data for a better-informed decision for the challenge as a whole. If your prototype proves even a partial success then you have scored an important win and you will feel you have achieved something concrete on the way to your overall goal. The experience of a success will also boost your motivation. The results from your prototype will add enormously to the credibility of your eventual recommendations. You won't just be presenting what you believe to be true but what you know to be the case. This evidence can be worth its weight in gold when you are trying to convince a busy MD. If your eventual proposals are likely to stir up opposition, a successful prototype will go a long way to reducing people's resistance. They will find it hard to argue against your successful results. Exercise

A small Charitable Trust with 1000 members has for some years been restoring a rural canal and now has 3 of its 34 miles completed. The main constraint on further progress is the lack of money to buy the land on which the canal ran. A fundraising committee has come up with several ideas for raising significant sums of money, one of which is to introduce a Restoration Fund inviting members and other groups to contribute a small monthly payment to the charity especially for land purchase. What steps could be taken to try out this idea without great expense to discover: - whether the idea is worthwhile - which sources of money are most productive? Write down your ideas for a prototype scheme and then compare your answers with ours. Enter your reply here...

Exercise with Model Answers What steps could be taken to try out this idea without great expense to discover: - whether the idea is worthwhile - which sources of money are most productive? Write down your ideas for a prototype scheme and then compare your answers with ours.

Your Answer: Model Answer: An approach to the prototype might be: - design a promotional leaflet and application form using desktop publishing - photocopy 1000 leaflets on standard copy paper - include leaflets in the next newsletter to 250 of the members - insert leaflets in 250 newsletters to another nearby canal society - include leaflets in 250 copies of the local parish newsletter - include 250 leaflets in the brochure of a local canal-boat hire company - mark the leaflets so that it is clear which distribution channel(s) have been successful - study the relative success of the four channels. Your list of steps is unlikely to be identical to this and may be an even better prototype!

Implementation

Once the most appropriate solution has been selected you move into the phase of implementation i.e. putting your plan into action. Because this is likely to bring about change it may not be supported by everyone involved so it may encounter resistance. You can do a lot to head off any resistance by anticipating it. Force field analysis is an established method for listing, discussing, and dealing with the forces that:

on the one hand, promote the change - help move toward the goal; and on the other, resist the change.

Steps for Conducting a Force Field Analysis: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Brainstorm the "driving" forces. Rank them from the most powerful down to the least powerful. Brainstorm the "restraining" forces. Rank them from the potentially most damaging to the least damaging. Brainstorm ways to further support the powerful driving forces. Brainstorm how to limit the most dangerous restraining forces.

Both groups of forces are then arranged on a chart to highlight the ones needing most attention. The chart is essentially a giant arrow. For each force, draw an arrow to the right if this is a force that will work in favour of the desired future state, and to the left if this is a force that will work to maintain the status quo. Another simple way to anticipate obstacles to introducing your change is to conduct a Reverse Brainstorm. This starts by posing the question "In what ways could the introduction of (the chosen solution) fail?" This will produce a list which could be prioritised and used as the basis for planning actions necessary to help the successful change come into play. Exercise You are invited to try out a Force Field Analysis on the following case study. A health centre in a large town has experienced a drop-off in the number of patients using its services. The management team have reviewed the possible causes and decided that a key one is that patients have to wait too long to receive medical attention. Many of them are choosing to use an alternative health centre. Think in terms of: - Driving Forces which could help and

- Restraining Forces which could hinder the centre in re-building its user numbers. Write two lists and then compare them with our lists. Without knowing lots of background detail, your lists will not exactly match ours but they will probably contain similar ideas. Enter your reply here...

Exercise with Model Answers Write two lists and then compare them with our lists. Without knowing lots of background detail, your lists will not exactly match ours but they will probably contain similar ideas. Your Answer: Model Answer: Driving Forces - willingness of most staff to improve waiting time - location of the health centre in a densely populated area - support from the Health Authority to improve the situation - high local demand for quality health services - no nearby health centre offering as wide a range of provision - many users have come to accept long waits. Restraining Forces - lack of motivation of some staff - lack of economic resources to fund major change - the building appears cramped and crowded - some staff not open to new ideas or methods of treatment - increasing burden of paperwork and official returns - staff mainly white in an area with a diverse cultural mix - difficulties car parking near the centre. If this was a real case you would probably now pick out: - the most potentially powerful Driving Forces and think of ways to ensure they have a strong impact and - the most potentially damaging Restraining Forces and think of ways to minimise their effect.

Exercise Let's pick out three Restraining Forces and explore them further. We'll select: - lack of motivation of some staff

- the building appears cramped and crowded - staff mainly white in an area with a diverse cultural mix

For each of these three, think of three ways to lessen their impact then compare your ideas with ours. Enter your reply here...

Exercise with Model Answers For each of these three, think of three ways to lessen their impact then compare your ideas with ours. Your Answer: Model Answer: 1. Lack of motivation of some staff: - find out why - consider whether to continue employing them - involve them in planning improvements 2. The building appears cramped and crowded: - find ways to re-organise the layout - improve conditions in the waiting area - investigate spilling out into nearby premises 3. Staff mainly white in an area with a diverse cultural mix: - as staff turnover occurs, ensure future staffing is more diverse - educate the staff in health issues affecting different cultural groups - make an effort to learn the rudiments of users' languages.

Problem/Opportunity finding

Remember Thomas Edison's motto: "There is a better way. Find it!" The idea behind problem and opportunity finding is to stay ahead of the game - to be proactive in finding "baby" problems before they grow into giant problems that you are forced to react to, or failing to spot "baby" opportunities. This has been described as Mess Finding: identifying problems in amongst the general mess! It is an actual process with three stages:

Prepare a written list of problems. Arrange this list in order of importance so that agreement can be reached on priorities. Place a value against each unsolved problem - an estimate of the value to be gained by solving it.

Many companies have more formal devices in place for doing this such as Quality Circles. These developed in Japan after the last war and have been defined as: Small groups of company personnel who do the same or similar work, voluntarily meeting together at regular intervals, usually under the leadership of their own supervisor, to identify, analyse and solve problems, present solutions to management and, where possible, implement those solutions. Quality Circles have become closely associated with improving manufacturing processes by improving quality and increasing quantity. Some firms have taken a broader approach with groups who can explore the whole business with the aim of either solving current problems or, even more broadly, identifying areas of opportunity for the company. They might have titles such as Innovation Teams. Whatever the nature of the problem identifying group, it needs ways to decide which problem(s) to focus on. A simple but sound approach would be to ask a series of questions of each problem presented to the group, such as:Is the problem:

significant enough to spend time on? causing costs to the company? likely to persist? damaging the company's image? depressing motivation within the company? solution capable of delivering benefits to customers?

A points system of 0-10 could be used to score each problem presented in order to establish those with the greatest potential pay-back. The actual questions to ask will depend on the company and situation concerned. For example, if the problem is one that has been caused by a previous decision of top management which it would be impossible to reverse, it is probably a waste of time identifying solutions which are doomed to rejection for political reasons. Quality Circles is a technique which has played an important role in the success of Japanese manufacturing companies. They are currently being adopted by many European and American organisations.

Advanced Creativity

Not the direct route!

Once you are comfortable working with, and maybe leading others to work with, some creativity techniques, you will want to start trying variations. The techniques presented in the e-Briefing, Innovation and Creativity, could be described as Linear or Logical or Left-Brain: you set out the problem or challenge and seek the best possible solution. These linear methods work with the conscious mind. Another group of techniques could be called Indirect or Intuitive or Right-Brain: you begin to tackle the challenge by deliberately distancing yourself from it. Only later do you return to the original problem. These intuitive methods work with the unconscious mind. While the "Left Brain" is sometimes characterised as being good at:

Working things out step-by-step and part-by-part. Drawing conclusions based on facts. Thinking in terms of linked ideas.

The "Right Brain" is better at:

Non-verbal awareness - understanding without using words. Making intuitive leaps of insight, often based on incomplete patterns or feelings. Seeing things as a whole - and perhaps leading to multiple conclusions.

In this eBriefing we look at:

Looking from a different perspective. Employing lateral thinking and taking excursions. Appealing to our visual sense and our sense of fun. Working through metaphors and our subconscious. Visualising future scenarios.

And to round things off:

A technique used by the musician, Brian Eno.

The outcome from these approaches is chancy but it's also likely to be more creative! Try these techniques when:

you are working with an experienced group, or you have a particularly tough challenge, or

you simply want to try something different.

A different perspective

We can get so locked in to viewing things from our own perspective that we fail to "see the wood for the trees". So, it can be valuable to see things from others' points of view. When we think about anything, we set it in a frame - of associations, memories and beliefs. We do this automatically which is what makes the frame hard to break out of. The breaking out is what a psychologist might call re-framing - deliberately changing the perspective from which we view a problem/challenge. Michael Hall uses the Swiss watch-making industry as an example: watches were things which worked with cogs and springs THEREFORE the electronic quartz "watch", (which was actually invented in Switzerland!) could be of no interest to watch makers. Here are two simple ways to help break out of frames: ROLE PLAY IT Choose a famous (or infamous) person you know something about.

How would they view the challenge? What questions would they ask? What would they say? What would be their next step?

If you are working with a group of people, each take a different famous person, ask the questions and then compare notes.

DO IT FOR REAL Another way to gain the different perspective is to invite someone from outside the area affected by the problem/challenge to join you. If you work in Finance, try inviting a line manager; if your group is mainly in sales try someone from IT. They will probably ask questions which would not occur to you - and just might lead you towards a breakthrough. Take some trouble considering who might be helpful. I once made this suggestion to a group of managers and received the comment "Yes, we could invite a manager from X Department". Why only managers? Why not someone who works at the coal face? Why not one of the cleaners or security staff? Why even stick to your own company? You could try to involve a teacher, a waiter... Management guru Tom Peters advises us never to accept a project as given. He says we should always question and reframe it before we take on any challenge.

The changed viewpoint might lead nowhere but it might just lead to a breakthrough! Lateral Thinking

The term lateral thinking has two meanings:

Specifically, a group of techniques used for changing perceptions and generating new ones originally popularised by Edward de Bono. More generally, the finding of new and different ways to approach a problem or creative opportunity.

Either way, lateral thinking is a way to think "out of the box", to come at things from a different perspective or in some way to break away from our usual habits of thought. Bob Eberle suggests seven different ways of taking a different approach which, in his preferred order, make up the mnemonic SCAMPER. They are:

Substitute. Combine. Adapt. Modify. Put to other uses. Eliminate. Reverse.

Under the SUBSTITUTE heading, you might ask: What else? Who else? Where else? What other materials? What other time? What other tone? What other process? Can the rules be changed? While for the MODIFY heading, you might ask: What new twist? Change meaning, sequence, colour, form, shape, composition? Bigger? Smaller? Added value? More often? Less often? Exaggerate? Earlier? Later? Change place? Change the appearance? What other features? The potential power of Scamper questions is illustrated by Sony. In 1978 they abandoned their attempt to develop a small portable stereo tape recorder because they could not get it to successfully record. The engineers cast it aside and took to listening to it as they worked. Remembering that elsewhere in Sony light-weight headphones were being developed, the chairman asked if the two developments could be COMBINED and could the planned features be REDUCED by just having it play music. They then suggested MODIFYING their standard marketing by appealing to the youth market. You know the outcome of this Scamper thinking.

Exercise The group of ideas labelled lateral thinking are a very powerful set of techniques for getting at your problem from a different angle. We are convinced that our ability to think laterally improves with practice. We are all so locked into the mental furrow of thinking "this is the problem", now "what are the solutions?", that it can be very difficult to examine the problem in a broader fashion. Try this one for some practice: A charity has established a nature reserve and now needs to construct a car park for about 50 cars so that visitors can park in an orderly fashion. The car park has been cut into the side of a hill so the problem is to build a retaining wall at the foot of the steep bank at the back of the car park to ensure the hillside stays safely in place. There is no money in the budget for building materials such as bricks or stone. There are no trees on the site in need of felling so there is no free timber available. As a first step, which of the components of SCAMPER is likely to be most helpful to us with this problem? Enter your reply here...

Exercise with Model Answers A charity has established a nature reserve and now needs to construct a car park for about 50 cars so that visitors can park in an orderly fashion. The car park has been cut into the side of a hill so the problem is to build a retaining wall at the foot of the steep bank at the back of the car park to ensure the hillside stays safely in place. There is no money in the budget for building materials such as bricks or stone. There are no trees on the site in need of felling so there is no free timber available. As a first step, which of the components of SCAMPER is likely to be most helpful to us with this problem? Your Answer: Model Answer: We think that "Substitute" is the most likely component. The task seems to be to "build a retaining wall". The way this is phrased leads us unconsciously to consider only materials normally used for building a wall, such as bricks, stone or concrete blocks. As the next step, try substituting. What materials could be used to build a structure that would do the job which would be:

- sturdy, - not too unsightly, - free or very low cost? You might have come up with railway sleepers, oil drums or used car tyres - or all sorts of other suggestions. (If the drums and tyres sound unsuitable, consider that they could be filled with soil to make them stable. Then they could be stacked.) The car tyres were the solution actually selected and they come with a bonus. Disposal of used tyres incurs a cost to car service centres so they are actually willing to give the tyres together with a small payment!

Excursions

The idea of an excursion is to take the participants away from the real problem with all its built-in assumptions and baggage and think creatively in an unrelated area. The results of that creative thinking are then applied to the real problem. Logically this will not help at all; in practice it MAY lead to a breakthrough. Feel free to modify the detail but follow a pattern like this.

Write up the challenge in the usual way as a How to... statement.

HOW TO BREAK INTO A NEW MARKET FOLLOWING CHANGED LEGISLATION

Select one word from the challenge statement which is fairly concrete and should enable you to lead the participants' thoughts away from the real problem. We'll pick MARKET and write this on another flipchart Ask the group to suggest words they associate with the word market and write them on the flipchart. They could come up with anything, perhaps:

CAR BOOT, CHEESE, FARMER, VALUE, TRADER, GARDEN... and others...

Again pick one of these words, choosing the one likely to lead furthest away from the original problem. Let's pick GARDEN. Either invite associations as before and again list them or, remembering that we are trying to distance ourselves from the real situation, try one of the following steps. Ask participants how it would feel, what they might see or what they might hear in a garden.

Remember you are simply trying to build a list of words stimulated by the word GARDEN. You might suggest participants close their eyes for this stage. Maybe a minute of silence would help them imagine their garden. The more you can encourage a dream-like or fantasy atmosphere the better. Record the suggestions.

Quite suddenly, break into their chain of thought by re-presenting the original problem. Ask them to make associations between the latest flip-charted words and the group's real challenge. Record them.

An association may suggest a fruitful route to explore. If nothing looks promising, try to leave the associations on display for a day so that the group's subconscious can go to work. Rich pictures

When we think, we use a mixture of words and pictures but when we problem-solve or look for creative solutions we often limit ourselves to the verbal. This denies us a set of perspectives which could lead us to the solution or opportunity we are seeking. The sheer power of the visual is constantly demonstrated by advertisers and by the care and expense invested in corporate logos. When we tackle the challenge in hand, we may be attempting to grasp the workings of a very complicated organism: the company in which we are working. The company is in reality a complex system involving people, processes, systems, departments, territories, and so on. It is all too easy to get lost or confused by the jargon and technicalities involved. For many people, a diagram is the most effective way, maybe the only way, to "picture" all these components and how they inter-relate. A rich picture is a drawing of the system or cycle we are interested in. It has no formal structure so there are no "rules". It might be like a flow chart or a mind map or it may consist of sketches and speech bubbles. Whatever its appearance it is a tool for expressing an overview of whatever we are interested in. A rich picture may help us understand the problem we are tackling and it may lead us further.

It might be used to pinpoint and expand on particular parts of the issue. It may highlight an obvious route to a solution.

With the basic system or cycle drawn, use the rich picture to increase your understanding by adding to it such things as:

INPUTS OUTPUTS BLOCKAGES DELAYS WASTE ASPECTS WITH A LACK OF INFORMATION LINKS POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

You may find rich pictures a useful technique for groups not particularly skilled in language; you might also find a reluctance among many people to draw in public! Exercise

This exercise is aimed at providing you with practice in thinking visually instead of relying, as most of us do, most of the time, on words. You will need to think of something (a process, a procedure, a system) in your area of responsibility that is not working as well as you would like it to. If it is a situation that has persisted for some time despite attempts to improve it, so much the better. On a blank piece of paper, prepare a rich picture of the situation. Think of it as a visual description of how the process works (or fails to work). As a discipline, use only pictures and symbols. The only words should be the title of the rich picture. Make use of arrows, symbols such as exclamation marks and question marks, symbols/abbreviations that have meaning for your professional group and colour so that it is visually attractive. Make sure the problem stands out clearly. When your picture is as rich a description as you can make it, pause and consider how you could now get other people's perspectives on the problem. Try to come up with three ideas for gaining others' input to your rich picture. Enter your reply here...

Exercise with Model Answers Try to come up with three ideas for gaining others' input to your rich picture. Your Answer: Model Answer: We thought of : - distributing copies at a team meeting, - making a larger version and pinning it on the wall of the work area, - scanning it and mailing it to interested parties, - placing it on the internet or some shared intranet space. You could try doing this without explanation. People are often intrigued by puzzles and once they realise what the rich picture is describing they may be keen to add to it. Pinning it on the wall for a few days would enable you to tap into your colleagues' unconscious thinking. Once they have seen it as a challenge, they won't be able to prevent their unconscious having a go! One of them may come up with an insight, a question, or another piece of the puzzle that has not occurred to you.

Creative play

Many of us are too busy working to pay off the mortgage to have any fun, but fun is an essential component of creativity. A well-run brainstorm session usually starts by brainstorming a light-hearted topic - alternative uses for a house-brick, or something equally improbable. This loosens up the group, gets them contributing and raises a laugh. The benefits flow through when the group starts to brainstorm the challenge in hand. Roger Von Oech, in his "A Whack on the Side of the Head", lists 10 unwritten rules that tend to prevent us from being creative. One of them is PLAY IS FRIVOLOUS. The business world is viewed as a serious place. It's about pleasing customers and making profits so many bosses view work and fun as incompatible. Michael Morfan stresses the value of fun and admits that at one stage in his life he had lost sight of its importance and was struggling for success as a creative writer and tutor. He points out that as we grow older we become slaves to rules, in school, college and in the workplace, so that the opportunities to let our hair down disappear. A telling quotation from Winnie the Pooh illustrates this transition from: Childhood = Fun to Adulthood = Serious. He advocates that we take time out to sit in solitude and, as he puts it, listen to our hearts. Other writers have described it as taking some time out for yourself instead of giving 100% to the boss and the family. Many people find that their best ideas come to them when they are doing something routine or repetitive, maybe showering or walking to the train station. Freed up from immediate problems, the brain seems to take the opportunity to be helpful! Andy Stefanovich, co-founder of a very successful marketing agency called "Play", has said " The best ideas come from playful minds". When his agency works on a project the office turns into a playroom so that those involved can have fun, be themselves and become powerfully creative. Morfan's article ends with a simple exercise to help you re-experience some childhood pleasures in order to get a better perspective on the daily grind. As with any exercise, it will require some commitment on your part over a period of days if you'd like to gain the benefits. Exercise The American creative consultancy, Play, has built up a mouth-watering client list by unleashing creative ideas through play. Their consultants work with their clients in rooms designed to stimulate ideas - equipped with toys or provided with idea-stimulating cards or costumes, all manner of means designed to attack challenges from a different perspective. It is unlikely you would be able to create a similar physical environment in your work

area - maybe a cartoon on the wall is all that is permitted. However, using the power of technology, you might be able to create something akin to it electronically by dedicating a "space" (an area of memory) to your team's creative play. Think through how you could create a playful, creative virtual "space" where ideas could flow freely and stimulate further ideas. Consider: - What could you place on it to stimulate ideas? - What would be a suitable topic/challenge to stimulate your people to experience collaborative working? - How could you follow Play's example and have the equivalent of a blackboard on which each passer-by can add another idea? - How could you encourage your team members to visit this space regularly? - Who should be given access to this space? (And who should not?)

(This exercise has no answers because the facility to collaborate electronically is very new. With the growth of virtual teams, many people are having to work together in more imaginative ways because they don't physically work together. However, these two ideas may help you move forward: Intranet - If you have access to an intranet, seek advice on how you could set up an area like this. Internet - If you do not have an intranet, search the internet using the term "groupware" and you'll find plenty of offers to host space for you. For example, Yahoo Groups offers to set up private space for group collaboration.)

Metaphors and Analogies

A number of creative thinking techniques use metaphors to break away from the limitations of being logical, linear or rational. By "metaphor" we mean a phrase or a symbol that ordinarily means one thing but is being used to represent another. Shakespeare wrote "All the world's a stage". It isn't literally, but we know what he is suggesting. Our culture is teeming with metaphors in poetic language, religious parables and even fairy tales. Using metaphors enlists the help of the image-making part of the brain. A metaphor highlights the similarity between two seemingly dissimilar things and sets up a kind of tension that can spark creative insights. Our brains work well with metaphors because they are excellent at seeing patterns, trends and connections. So how might we apply this approach? One technique is called Wrong Rules. Get hold of a set of rules from somewhere outside the context you work in. A Fire Alert procedure or even a cookery recipe would do. Then apply the steps in the rules you've chosen to the challenge you're tackling. Take each rule in turn and ask how it could be applied, not literally, but as imaginatively as possible. (If you're working with a group, warm them up first.)

If the rule says "Do not use lifts in the event of an emergency", see how this applies. What are the "lifts" in your situation? What would constitute an "emergency"? So what do you use instead? If the recipe says "Add the milk and stir", how would that apply? What is your "milk" and how would you go about "stirring" it? The creative technique trademarked as Synectics is, in fact, the disciplined use of metaphor. The goal of Synectics is to make the "familiar strange and the strange familiar" by viewing challenges in a new way. A Synectics session might involve role playing of aspects of the challenge to gain insights into other viewpoints. For example, if the challenge is to design a superior frying pan, participants might imagine themselves as that frying pan and explore the effects it has on the user and vice versa. Exercise We will try out another technique for using the power of metaphor and analogy for solving problems, this one known as Direct Analogy. This operates rather like a parallel universe. You select a field far removed from the problem in hand and draw comparisons between the real and the parallel universe - and maybe find a route towards solving the problem. The steps required are: 1. Write down your challenge - maybe it's "how to attract more viewers to the company web site". 2. Write down an analogy - from a field totally removed from the features of web sites maybe "an archery contest". So we are saying, in our analogy, that attracting more visitors to our web site is like an archery contest. 3. Now list a few common features of archery contests in the text box below and then compare them with our list of features. Enter your reply here...

Exercise with Model Answers The steps required are: 1. Write down your challenge - maybe it's "how to attract more viewers to the company web site". 2. Write down an analogy - from a field totally removed from the features of web sites maybe "an archery contest".

So we are saying, in our analogy, that attracting more visitors to our web site is like an archery contest. 3. Now list a few common features of archery contests in the text box below and then compare them with our list of features. Your Answer: Model Answer: Your list of common features of archery contests could include any of the following: a) The archer has special equipment for firing arrows. b) The archer takes careful aim before firing. c) The archer with the highest score wins a prize. d) Competitors are categorised as Men, Women and Children. Your list may highlight other features of archery contests. (To continue with the next stage of this exercise click on the button below 'Click here for next question'.)

Exercise The final step is to make connections between these archery contest features and our web site problem. Try to write down a web-site-relevant idea stimulated by each of the archery features and then compare it with our suggestions - but bear in mind that your ideas might be totally different from ours (and maybe much better!). Enter your reply here...

Exercise with Model Answers Try to write down a web-site-relevant idea stimulated by each of the archery features and then compare it with our suggestions - but bear in mind that your ideas might be totally different from ours (and maybe much better!). Your Answer: Model Answer: a. Provide an attractive screen saver (stimulated by "special equipment") free from the site. b. Ensure people know the URL (to "take careful aim") - advertise it. c. Run a competition with a worthwhile prize for the winning score. d. Create three parallel versions of the site, suited to Men, Women or Children.

If you apply this to a real world issue, try to list more features from your analogy, rather than our four. You might also try to make each feature from the parallel universe stimulate more than one connection.

Unconscious approaches

We often try much too hard to deliberately come up with solutions to our challenges. By doing this, we are often denying ourselves the benefits of harnessing our subconscious. You've probably noticed that some of your best ideas come to you when you are doing something unrelated to the current challenge and in a relaxed frame of mind, maybe driving, showering or dozing in front of the TV. It's almost as if during the time we are focused on the challenge our Subconscious is saying "OK, you get on with it then!". As soon as we leave the challenge and move on to something else, the Subconscious kicks in and says "Right, now I'll have a go!" So how could we try to get more from our subconscious mind?

If you become frustrated with a challenge, deliberately stop work on it and go and do something else. Let the problem percolate. Einstein's technique was to go sailing! Each morning try to take a peaceful 5 minutes before the cares of the day start swamping you. Examine what's in your mind as if you are having a conversation with your Subconscious and you're asking "What have you come up with, then?" Before going to sleep at night, or even before a spell of napping during the day, mentally run through the challenge you need ideas for. Then drift away...

Some cultures are more versed in tapping into the Subconscious than we are in the West. For thousands of years, the Chinese have deliberately prepared themselves for sleep by focusing for 10 - 20 minutes on what has gone well during the day and how to continue the streak of success the next day (or improve on an unsuccessful day). Psychologists have little in the way of explanation for what we are describing here but if it works for you, capitalise on the fact that your brain seems to work 24 hours each day. The more you practise the mini techniques above, the more adept you will become at making your Subconscious work for you. As a colleague has put it, "The more I practise this ... the easier it is for my subconscious to point out things that I need to be aware of." As the expression goes, "chill out", have a break and sleep on it. You may be surprised at how successful "switching off" can be. Scenario Planning

We are living in an evolving environment where the speed of change is constantly accelerating. The successful company of the future will be the one that is best at anticipating change and preparing for it.

To do this it is necessary to create a vision and the culture that allows a company to pursue that vision. This is not a question of forecasting sales or trends in a market; it is more the attempt to visualise the nature of the future. Scenario planning is all about exploring the mental models we use that help us see, understand and interpret that future. Scenarios are not predictions but they do help us:

visualize different possibilities, take some account of unpredictable events, challenge our assumptions about the future, become more adaptable to change, enhance decision makers' awareness of several plausible futures.

Scenarios can therefore help free us from the "baggage" we've accumulated and enable us to prepare for an unknown future, which requires insight, intuition and creativity. The technique consists of making a consistent "story" about the future outcome of existing trends and paradigms. The stories grow from what might happen in the years immediately ahead. They are tools that help to focus on different plausible futures and play "what if" in a non-threatening environment. As no one knows precisely how the future will turn out, a robust company strategy is one that should succeed across a range of possible futures. Using the technique, several possible futures are explored which differ markedly from each other. The strategy which is likely to be most successful in each of these possible futures is the one the company should adopt. The term Scenario Thinking is sometimes applied to a range of less rigorous processes which are designed to open the minds of a management group to alternative possibilities and their likely implications.

Exercise You can only build a scenario of the future if you are familiar with current trends. This will improve the quality of your scenario and therefore provide you with a more reliable target to aim at with your planning. A good way to familiarise yourself with current trends is to use newspapers, journals and the internet. They provide more up-to-date information than books can possibly offer. Some of the material you need to digest is industry-specific - no doubt your industry has a number of publications aimed at you and your fellow professionals. However, that is almost certainly not enough. You need to be familiar with more general trends in society which may impact on your industry. As an example: The Future Foundation recently prepared a report for First Direct predicting a very different world for those born in Britain during the coming decade. The most striking

finding is the break-up of the traditional sequence of school-work-retirement. In its place is a much more fluid series of periods of learning, working or setting up enterprises before finally retiring at the age of 80. What other fields ought you to be looking into which might have an impact on your industry five years from now? Write down your answers and then compare them with ours. Enter your reply here... Exercise with Model Answers What other fields ought you to be looking into which might have an impact on your industry five years from now? Write down your answers and then compare them with ours. Your Answer: Model Answer: We thought of: - technology, - industry regulation, - global shifts like the move to processing on the Indian sub-continent, - the move towards virtual organisations, - the steady increase in the proportion of the population that is elderly, - the steady withdrawal of free health services in the UK, - the continuing reduction in price and size of sophisticated electronic goods, - the move towards making your own pension provision in the UK. Good sources are the quality weekday and weekend papers, The Economist, Time or Newsweek; on the internet Fastcompany publishes very stimulating business-related articles. Using this list together with yours: 1. Pick out the three you think are most important for your industry. 2. Pick out the three you know least about. 3. Allocate some time to learning more about them - especially if anything appears on both lists. 4. Decide what actions you need to take to prepare for this scenario that you are gradually building and refining.

Forced Connections

An enormous amount of creative thinking in the past has been the result of someone bringing together two previously unconnected ideas thereby creating something new. Two contrasting examples are:

Gutenberg brought together the technology of the wine press and the stamps used

for making coins to invent the printing press. The Tamagotchi was invented when its creator linked the enthusiasm of the Japanese for keeping pets, despite their cramped apartments, with their fondness for mobile phones and pagers.

Faced with any challenge, it is normally the left side of our brain that kicks into play, providing pretty logical, sensible ideas. For most of us, it is harder to get our right brains to work on the challenge. Fortunately, there are some techniques that can jolt us out of our habitual trains of thought. RANDOM WORDS Point to any word in a dictionary, newspaper, magazine or book or use the list at the foot of this page. Then relate your challenge to the randomly-chosen word. Simply ask "What does this word suggest to us?" and note the responses. It's chancy, but in finding a connection you may well gain an insight that suggests how to deal with the challenge. You may need to repeat the process with a number of words before a promising idea emerges. It can work! A manufacturer of garden equipment wanted to extend its product range and tried the technique. The random word picked was glacier and the resulting sequence of thoughts was something like: Glacier ... ice ... cold ... hot ... steam ... smoke ... fire ... coals ... barbeque. Words are so powerful because each of us has a rich (and unique) store of experiences and images that we associate with any word. RANDOM IMAGES You can apply exactly the same technique to images instead of words. A child's picture book can provide a suitable bank of simple bold pictures to stimulate right-brain associations. GO FOR A WALK! Just going somewhere different for a walk, driving home or during the lunch break will present you with a different set of stimuli. The idea is to expose your challenge to anything which may trigger new thoughts or perspectives. Try to link each new stimulus with the challenge. OBLIQUE STRATEGIES The musician Brian Eno suggests a set of cards which he finds provide inspiration when he is stuck for ideas. He refers to them as Oblique Strategies because they are an indirect route to a solution.

Introduction The Fishbone Diagram is a way of solving a problem by looking at the causes of a certain event. It was originally created in the 1940s by Kaoru Ishikawa. It is known as the Fishbone Diagram because of its shape, which is similar to the side view of a fish skeleton. The Fishbone Diagram is useful when:

You are looking to identify possible causes for a problem. When your team's thinking is starting to fall into ruts.

The Fishbone Diagram The attached Workbook, shows you how to work with the diagram.

The fishbone structure is designed to sort ideas into useful categories. It also offers a framework and process for brainstorming sessions required. Set-up Depending on the size and scale of your problem you need to be prepared to stretch out and use lots of paper. As your discussions unfold all sorts of answers and ideas will crop up in response to the category of headings that are part of the diagram. If you are involving others in your discussions, you should consider working with:

A flipchart Coloured post-its Coloured pens

Sellotape, blu-tack and scissors are good things to have on hand as your diagram expands. However, if you are working on your own all you need is a clean sheet of paper, some pencils and highlighter pens. The Problem (the Head) Step 1: Clarify the problem The first step is to identify your problem. Write down all the details you can about the problem, when it happened and who was involved.

Find a short, concise summary of the problem e.g. 'Contaminated tinned apricots' On the right-hand side of your page or flip-chart write this summary in a box and then draw a horizontal across the page to the left.

The Categories (the Ribs) Step 2: Apply the categories You now need to add the 'ribs' to your fishbone. The 'ribs' will vary depending on the type of problem you are trying to solve. In manufacturing there are 8 main categories. So, above your horizontal line you will have 4 lines and at the top boxes which are labelled:

Measurement Materials Methods People.

Remember to leave a good gap between each so that you can draw branches from each of the 'ribs' Underneath the line, draw the other 4 'rib' categories:

Environment Management Machines Maintenance.

The image below gives you an idea of what your basic fishbone will look like.

Other categories You can use different categories depending on the type of industry your problem relates to. In the Service Industry you may want to use the 8 Ps : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Product=Service Price Place Promotion People Process Physical Evidence Productivity.

Also used are:

Surroundings Suppliers Systems Skills.

Ask the Right Questions With your basic Fishbone Diagram you now need to have a brainstorming session. Tip: If you are working in a group it's a good idea to nominate someone to act as the facilitator who will complete the diagram. The facilitator can change as you work your way

through the categories. When brainstorming, you want everyone to ask probing questions. So, if our example is 'Contaminated tinned apricots' we may ask questions like:

"How often are random tests made on our tins?" (Measurement) "Who supplies the apricots?" (Materials) "What is the tinning process?" (Methods) "How clean is our plant?" (Environment) "Has anyone had any serious illness in the plant?" (People) "Which machines were used on this batch?" (Machines)

The answers to these questions are the possible causes and they are written down as branches off from the main rib. In some instances the same question / cause will apply to more than one rib (category) Over a period of time you will have a very detailed Fishbone Diagram. Analyse the diagram Once you've considered every possible question you will have a diagram showing all the possible causes of your problem. You may spot links or inconsistencies which may lead you to a conclusion or the decision to investigate the possible cause in more detail. This may involve:

Special investigations Site visits Surveys Detailed analysis Medical inspections.

These should be designed to test whether your assessment of the diagram is correct. As you will have discovered, the Fishbone Diagram has forced you to be methodical in the way you think about the problem. At times it may feel over analytical. If so, remember that the Diagram is also a process, one that ensures no stone is left unturned in finding the cause of a problem.

SCAMPER SCAMPER is based on the assumption that everything new is an adaptation of something that already exists. SCAMPER involves stating the problem and then asking questions about the following areas: (Click on the workbook to find out more).

Substitute Substitute Think of ways of replacing one thing with another e.g. could plastic be changed to cardboard. Possible questions to ask at this stage

What other materials could we use? Could we produce this somewhere else? What else instead? Can we change the shape? Can we change the colour? Can we change the people producing it? What other approach could we use? Do we need to change our attitude? What other process could we use?

Combine

Combine Are there ways of bringing things together that could result in one unique item? e.g. Facebook can be used to raise awareness of political campaigns. Possible questions to ask at this stage

Can we bring a different team of people together? Could different groups of people produce this in a better way? Could this product be used in a different way to get a different outcome? What ideas can I combine? Can materials be combined? What could this be combined with? Could this product be combined with another product? What else could this product relate to?

Adapt Adapt What existing systems could be adapted? e.g. Subway adapted the assembly line oven concept used by McDonalds.

What other processes are like this? How can we use other ideas for this product? What can we copy? What can we adapt? What other processes do we have, how can they be adapted?

Modify Modify Think about the possibilities of changing the size or the nature of the product itself e.g. Mars has branched out into ice-cream and bite-sized Mars Bars. Possible questions to ask at this stage

Can we change this in any way? Can we make it bigger/smaller? Can we make it more frequent/lower? Can we add extra value/omit?

Can we add anything extra to make it better?

Put to other uses Put products to other uses What other uses are there for the product e.g. excess newspapers can be made into little plant pots. Possible questions to ask at this stage

How else can we use this product? How else do people want to use this product? Can this product be re-used? How would a child use it? Is there any other market that could use it? How would an alien use it?

Eliminate Eliminate Are there any benefits if anything is eliminated? e.g. reduced packaging reduces your carbon footprint. Possible questions to ask at this stage

Can we get rid of any of the process? Can we get rid of any of the rules? What is unnecessary? Can we reduce time? Can we reduce effort? Can we cut costs?

Reverse

Reverse Are there any advantages to doing things inside out, or in a different order or upside down? e.g. football managers often move players around to get the optimum playing formation. Possible questions to ask at this stage

What would happen if we rearrange things? What would happen if we used a different layout? What would happen if we changed the schedule? What happens if we turn it up-side-down? What happens if we do things backwards?