S.4 Chemistry Chapter 1 Fundamentals of chemistry 1.1 What is Chemistry?

Chemistry is the study of matter. The chemist makes observations and takes measurements. finds patterns in the observations. finds explanations. The observations and measurements are called facts or data. In science, a good guess is called a hypothesis. Laws are statements of important patterns.

1.2 Matter
What is matter? Matter is anything, which occupies space and has mass. There are three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas.

The evidence of the particle in the matter Diffusion (E.g., Blue ink spreads out through water.) The properties of matter - kinetic theory 1. All matter is made up of very small particles. 2. There are spaces between the particles. 3. Particles are in constant motion and have kinetic energy. 4. Temperature average kinetic energy .

1.3 Inter-conversion of states

1.4 Classification of Matter

A. Element An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical methods. e.g. Oxygen, hydrogen 118 elements (92 occur naturally)
Abundance of elements in nature: Elements Oxygen Silicon Aluminium % by mass 46.6% 27.7% 8.1% Oxygen is the most abundant element in nature as 1) free element o2 (in atmosphere,) Iron 5.0% Others 12.6%

2) combined forms (e.g. in water (h2o), sand (Si02), etc.)

B. Compound
A compound is a pure substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined together. e.g. Water (h2o), glucose (C6H12O6) Carbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide

(Reactants) Water

(Product) Hydrogen + Calcium oxide (by electrolysis)

Compound can be decomposed into simple substance by heating or electrolysis.

Calcium carbonate Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide (by heating) C. Mixture A mixture consists of two or more pure substance (elements or compounds) which have not chemically combined together. e.g. Sea Water (h2o + NaCl), Alloy (Coin: Cu + Ni ; Steal: Fe + C), Air
The differences between mixtures and compounds: Mixture
Composition by mass Changes in formation variable no chemical reaction takes place; usually no heat change in making mixture each constituent substance retains its own properties constituents can be separated by differences in physical properties Does not have a sharp m.p. or b.p.

Compound
fixed chemical reaction takes place; heat is usually given out or absorbed when compound is made. properties are entirely different from those of its constituent elements constituent elements can only be separated by chemical reaction, not by differences in physical properties | Has a sharp m.p. and b.p.

General properties Separation of constituents

Melting point / boiling point

1.5 The separation of mixtures

Mixtures are separated by physical methods. The method used depends on the physical properties of the substances. Filtration Filtration separates an insoluble solid from a liquid. The solid that remains in the filter paper is called the residue. The liquid that passes through is called the filtrate.

Crystallization Crystallization separates a solid from a solution.

Simple distillation Simple distillation separates a pure liquid from a solution.

Fractional distillation Fractional distillation separates mixtures of miscible liquids. The mixture can be separated by fractional distillation if the boiling points of the liquids are different. The important uses of fractional distillation in industry are: To separate crude oil into different fractions To increase the concentration of ethanol in alcohol drinks. The test for a pure substance If the substance is a solid, we check its melting point. If the substance is a liquid, we check its boiling point.

1.6 Properties of substances

Physical properties of a substance are properties that can be measured without changing the chemical composition of the substance. e.g. colour, odour, solubility, electrical conductivity, heat conductivity Chemical properties of a substance are properties that describe its ability to form new substances, e.g. Iron rusts in water, town gas bums in air.

1.7 Changes of substances

A physical change is a change in which on new substance are formed, e.g. Change of states, A chemical change is a change in which one or more new substances are formed, e.g. a piece of paper bums and change to carbon, carbon dioxide and some other gases. Chemical change & Physical change: Chemical change Physical Change Difference New substance(s) is/ are formed No new substance is formed Usually No or Small energy change Large energy change: exothermic or endothermic e.g. Dissolving salt in water Burning carbon in air to give carbon dioxide 4

1.8 Laboratory safety

Laboratory safety is of first importance in any experimental work.