UNIT-2: GAS POWER CYCLES

UNIT-2: GAS POWER CYCLES

2.1 AIR STANDARD CYCLES An air standard cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle of a heat engine which uses air as working fluid. The concept of air standard cycles is useful in comparing performance of various theoretical cycles and corresponding actual power cycles. The following are some of the major assumptions in this approach. The working fluid is air. o Its chemical properties do not change during various processes. Air is behaves like an ideal gas. o Specific heats of air are constant. o cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K, cv = 0.718 kJ/kg.K, = 1.4 The cycle is reversible. o Heat addition and rejection are done reversibly. o The compression and expansion processes are reversibly adiabatici.e., isentropic. o The engine is frictionless. The kinetic and potential energies of the working fluid are negligible. The working fluid employing the cycle constitutes a closed system, and the source of supplying heat and sink for rejection of heat are external to this system. Actual open-cycle IC engine deviates from the air standard cycles in many ways: The working fluid is a mixture of a fuel and air. The working fluid does not behave exactly like a perfect gas. Specific heat of the working fluid does change with its temperature. Combustion process occurring inside the system replaces heat transfer into the system from external reservoir. Further, heat is usually rejected along with exhaust gases to atmosphere. Additional work is done on the system for intake and exhaust. The operation of the engine is neither adiabatic nor reversible. o Some heat transfer takes place to the surroundings through the cylinder walls during compression and expansion. o Friction is present between various engine parts. The working fluid also is not without friction. SOME USEFUL THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS For an ideal gas, For a ideal gas, For an isentropic process or, . . For air, unless specified otherwise, R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K.

2.2

For a non-flow process

2.3

For a cyclic process AIR STANDARD CYCLE PARAMETERS Cylinder bore (D). The inner diameter of the engine cylinder. Stroke (L). The distance through which the piston moves between two successive reversals of its direction of motion. Stroke volume (or swept volume) (Vs).

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 2013

UNIT-2: GAS POWER CYCLES

Figure-2.1 Top and Bottom Dead Centres Dead Centres. The extreme positions of piston while moving in the cylinder. The extreme position of piston towards the cover end side of cylinder is called the top dead centre (TDC) and the extreme position towards the crank end side is known as the bottom dead centre (BDC). Clearance volume (Vc). The volume of space on the combustion side of the piston at the TDC. Compression ratio (r). Mean effective pressure (mep). Air standard efficiency (thermal efficiency)

2.4

FOUR STROKE IC ENGINE CYCLE

Figure-2.2 Four Stroke Engine Cycle 2.5 AIR STANDARD OTTO CYCLE The air standard Otto cycle (or constant volume cycle) is the ideal spark-ignition (petrol/gas) engine cycle. It comprises of four processes: Isentropic compression (1-2); constant volume heat addition (2-3); isentropic expansion (3-4); constant volume heat rejection (4-1).

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UNIT-2: GAS POWER CYCLES

Figure-2.3 Otto Cycle EFFICIENCY OF OTTO CYCLE Efficiency of the Otto cycle is calculated as follows.

Further,

. This leads to

; hence (2.1)

where

is the compression ratio. Air standard efficiency increases with compression ratio.

TWO OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING THE OTTO CYCLE 1. 2. It is seen that efficiency of the Otto cycle can be increased by increasing the compression ratio. But in practice, certain factors, among them the phenomenon known as knocking, limit this improvement. It is also seen that the Otto cycle air standard efficiency is a function only of the compression ratio, and not of other parameters such as heat added.

TWO RESULTS CONCERNING THE OTTO CYCLE 1. An engine working on Otto cycle has upper and lower temperature limits of T3 and T1 respectively. Show that for maximum work per kg of air, (i) the intermediate temperature and (ii) the compression ratio From the definition of efficiency . and results and ,

Consider work as function only of T2 in the above equation, set obtained. Since ,

, and result . Finally,

is

, from which

. For = 1.4 the required result follows. 2. Show that the mean effective pressure of Otto cycle can be expressed as , where

p is the pressure increase during heat addition.

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UNIT-2: GAS POWER CYCLES

Net work of the cycle is

4
.The mean effective pressure is

Since

and

Elimination of P1 and P4 from the above equation can be done as follows: follows ; similarly, . Substitution of these gives

, from which

Therefore

2.6

AIR STANDARD DIESEL CYCLE The air standard Diesel cycle (sometimes called the constant pressure cycle) closely resembles the compression-ignition cycle used in older diesel engines. Processes of this cycle are same as that of the Otto cycle with the exception of the heat addition process, which takes place at constant pressure.

ASSUMPTIONS OF AIR STANDARD DIESEL CYCLE The air standard Diesel cycle comprises of the following idealized processes: Air is compressed reversibly and adiabatically in process 1-2. Heat is then added to it from an external source reversibly at constant pressure in process 2-3. Air then expands reversibly and adiabatically in process 3-4. Heat is rejected reversibly at constant volume in process 4-1. EFFICIENCY OF DIESEL CYCLE

Figure-2.4 Diesel Cycle

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UNIT-2: GAS POWER CYCLES

All temperature ratios in the above expression are now replaced with other variables. To begin with, ; and since P2 = P3, The ratio can be further simplified as , which is called cut-off ratio. with . Similarly

. With this

. Substitutions lead to the equation: (2.2)

Fuel injection in a diesel cycle takes place during the time the volume of air increases from v2 to v3. For a given compression ratio, air standard efficiency decreases with increasing cut-off ratio. 2.7 AIR STANDARD DUAL CYCLE (OR LIMITED PRESSURE CYCLE) The actual process in a modern diesel engine resembles the air standard dual cycle (or mixed or limited pressure cycle) in which part of the heat addition is at constant volume and the remaining at constant pressure. This allows the maximum pressure inside the engine cylinder to be limited to moderate levels. Combining features of the previous two cycles, the dual cycle provides an efficiency that is less than that of the Otto cycle of the same compression ratio but higher than that of the Diesel cycle. ASSUMPTIONS OF THE DUAL CYCLE Heat addition in the dual cycle is distributed between the reversible constant volume process 2-3 and the reversible constant pressure process 3-4. (Refer Figure-2.5.) The remaining process assumptions of the cycle are similar to the corresponding ones of the Diesel cycle.

Figure-2.5 The Dual Cycle EFFICIENCY OF THE DUAL CYCLE Efficiency of the dual cycle is calculated as follows:

The temperatures T5, T4, T3, and T2 can be replaced with T1 as follows:

and hence

Since

(which is called the pressure ratio), and thus

For the constant pressure process 3-4,

, and therefore

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UNIT-2: GAS POWER CYCLES

Finally,

; this gives

Substituting and simplifying, (2.3) 2.8 COMPARISON OF OTTO AND DIESEL CYCLES i. For the same initial conditions, compression ratio, and heat added the Otto cycle is more efficient than the Diesel cycle.

Figure-2.6 Comparison of Otto and Diesel Cycles Referring the P-V diagram in Fig. 2.6, it is clear that the Otto and the Diesel cycles have the same initial conditions and compression ratio. With reference to the T-s diagram, Otto = 1 (qR)Otto/qA = 1 (Area under 4-1 / Area under 2-3); Diesel = 1 (qR)Diesel /qA = 1 (Area under 4-1/ Area under 2-3); Since the areas under 2-3 and 2-3 are the same and the area under 4-1 is larger than the area under 4-1, Otto > Diesel. ii. For the same initial conditions, compression ratio, and heat rejected, the Otto cycle is more efficient than the Diesel cycle.

Figure-2.7 Comparison of Otto and Diesel Cycles With reference to the T-s diagram of Fig. 2.7, Otto = 1 qR/(qA)Otto = 1 (Area under 4-1 / Area under 2-3); Diesel = 1 qR/(qA)Diesel = 1 (Area under 4-1 / Area under 2 3); Since the area under 2-3 is larger, Otto > Diesel.

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UNIT-2: GAS POWER CYCLES

iii. For the same initial conditions, maximum temperature (and pressure), and heat rejected, Otto cycle is less efficient than the Diesel cycle.

Figure-2.8 Comparison of Otto and Diesel Cycles Refer the T-s diagram in Fig. 2.8. From this diagram, Otto = 1 qR/(qA)Otto = 1 (Area under 4-1 / Area under 2-3); Diesel = 1 qR/(qA)Diesel = 1 (Area under 4-1 / Area under 3-2); Since the area under 3-2 is larger, Otto < Diesel. iv. For the same initial conditions, maximum pressure, and heat added, Otto cycle is less efficient than the Diesel cycle.

Figure-2.9 Comparison of Otto and Diesel Cycles Referring to the T-s diagram in Fig. 2.9, Otto = 1 qR/(qA)Otto = 1 (Area under 4-1 / Area under 2-3); Diesel = 1 qR/(qA)Diesel = 1 (Area under 4-1/ Area under 2-3); Since the areas under 2-3 and 2-3 are the same and area under 4-1 is larger than the area under 4-1, Otto < Diesel. v. For the same initial conditions, compression ratio, and work output, Otto cycle is more efficient than the Diesel cycle. Referring to the T-s diagram given in Fig. 2.10, Otto = w/(w + (qR)Otto) = 1/(1 + (qR)Otto/w) = 1/(1 + Area under 4-1/w). Similarly, Diesel = 1/(1 + Area under 4-1/w). Since the area under 4-1 is smaller than the area under 4-1, Otto > Diesel.

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UNIT-2: GAS POWER CYCLES

Figure-2.10 Comparison of Otto and Diesel Cycles In all of the above five comparisons, efficiency of the dual cycle will be between that of the corresponding Otto and Diesel cycles. 2.9 CARNOT AND STIRLING CYCLES The Carnot cycle is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle (Fig. 2.11) that exhibits highest efficiency among all cycles operating between two given thermal reservoirs. However, because of low mean effective pressure and difficulties associated with isothermal heat transfer, it is is not a practical power cycle.

Figure-2.11 Carnot Cycle The Stirling cycle is a thermodynamic cycle comprising two isothermal and two constant volume processes. (Fig. 2.12) The Stirling cycle produces a higher mean effective pressure than the Carnot cycle between the two temperature limits and thus more specific work, yet can be as efficient as the latter.

Figure-2.12 Stirling Cycle

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 2013

UNIT-2: GAS POWER CYCLES

TUTORIAL PROBLEMS 1. Calculate the thermal efficiency and mean effective pressure for an air standard Otto cycle that has a compression ratio of 6 to 1. At the start of the compression the pressure and temperature are 100 kPa and 290 3 3 K. Heat added is 2800 kJ/kg of air. [Ans. = 0.51, w = 1428 kJ/kg, v1 = 0.8323 m /kg, v2 = 0.1387 m /kg, mep = 2058.8 kPa] 2. An engine working on the Otto cycle has a clearance of 17% of the stroke volume. The initial pressure is 0.95 bar and temperature is 30C. If the pressure at the end of constant volume heating is 28 bar, calculate the air standard efficiency, maximum temperature in the cycle, and the mean effective pressure. [Ans. r = 6.88, 3 = 0.548, P2 = 14.14 bar, T2 = 654.5 K, T3 = 1295.9 K, q = 459.9 kJ/kg, w = 252.03 kJ/kg, vs = 0.7824 m /kg] 3. An engine working on Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 15. The pressure and temperature at the beginning of compression is 1 bar and 15C. The maximum temperature in the cycle is 2427C. Determine the heat supplied and work done per kg of air, cycle efficiency, maximum pressure, cut-off ratio, and mep. [Ans. v1 3 3 = 0.8266 m /kg, P2 = 44.3 bar, T2 = 850.8K, v3 = 0.1749 m /kg, P4 = 5.036 bar, T4 = 1450.4 K, qA = 1868 kJ/kg, qR = 834.3 kJ/kg, w = 1023.7 kJ/kg, = 55.1%, = 3.17, mep = 13.3 bar] 4. A C.I. engine working on Diesel cycle has the following particulars: stroke = 0.25 m, bore = 150 mm, clearance volume = 400 cc. Fuel injection takes place at constant pressure for 5% of the stroke. Find the cycle -3 3 -4 3 efficiency. [Ans. V1 = 4.814 x 10 m , V3 = 6.028 x 10 m , r = 12.04, = 1.552, = 59.3%] 5. An air standard Diesel cycle has s compression ratio of 14:1. The cut-off takes place at 6% of the stroke. The initial condition of the air used in the cycle is 1 bar and 19C. Determine the cut-off ratio, net output per kg of air, and thermal efficiency. [Ans. T2 = 840.4 K, = 1.78, T3 = 1495.9 K, T4 = 657 K, = 0.60, wnet = 394.2 kJ/kg] 6. Two engines are to operate on Otto and Diesel cycles on the following data: Maximum temperature = 1227C, exhaust temperature = 427C, ambient condition is 1 bar and 27C. Find the compression ratios, 3 maximum pressures, and efficiencies. [Ans. Otto: v1 = 0.8610 m /kg, P4 = 2.33 bar, P3 = 33.6 bar, v3 = 0.1281 3 3 3 m /kg, r = 6.72, = 53.3%; Diesel: v3 = 0.1281 m /kg, P3 = 33.61 bar = P2, r = 12.31, v2 = 0.07 m /kg, T2 = 818.5 K, = 58.1%] 7. An oil engine takes in air at 1.01 bar, 20C and the maximum cycle pressure is 69 bar. The compression ratio is 18:1. Calculate the air standard efficiency and mean effective pressure based on the dual combustion cycle. Assume that heat added at constant volume is equal to the heat added at constant 3 3 pressure. [Ans. v1 = 0.8326 m /kg, P2 = 57.8 bar, T2 = 931.1 K, v2 = 0.0463 m /kg = v3, T3 = 1112 K, q2-3 = 129.9 3 kJ/kg, T4 = 1241 K, v4 = 0.0517 m /kg, T5 = 408.3 K, qR = 82.79 kJ/kg, w = 177.0 kJ/kg, = 68.1%, mep = 2.25 bar] 8. An air standard dual cycle operates with a compression ratio of 15:1. The pressure and temperature at the beginning of compression are 1 bar and 17C. The pressure ratio during the constant volume heating process is 1.5:1. The cut-off ratio is 2:1. Calculate the thermal efficiency and mep of the cycle. [Ans. qA = 1593.2 kJ/kg, qR = 615.47 kJ/kg, = 61.4%, mep = 1.267 MPa] ASSIGNMENTS DESCRIPTIVE 1. 2. Derive an expression for the air standard efficiency of Otto cycle in terms of compression ratio. An engine working on Otto cycle has upper and lower limits of T3 and T1 respectively. Show that for (ii) the compression ratio , where P . 3. Show that the mean effective pressure of an Otto cycle can be expressed as

maximum work per kg of air: (i) the intermediate temperature

is the pressure increase during heat addition.

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UNIT-2: GAS POWER CYCLES

4. Obtain an expression for the air standard efficiency of Diesel cycle. State the assumptions made and represent this cycle on P-V and T-S diagrams. 5. What is cut off ratio? How does it affect efficiency of a diesel cycle? 6. Sketch neatly the P-V and T-S diagrams of the air standard dual combustion cycle and derive the expression for the ideal efficiency of the cycle in terms of the compression ratio, explosion ratio, the cut-off ratio and the ratio of specific heats, stating clearly the assumptions made. 7. Prove that for the same compression ratio and heat input, the Otto cycle efficiency is more than the Diesel cycle efficiency. 8. For the same compression ratio and heat rejection, which of the three cycles is most efficient: Otto, Diesel, and dual combustion cycle? Explain with P-V and T-S diagrams. 9. For the same state of air before and the same maximum pressure and temperature in both cycles, using Pv and T-s diagrams, compare the air standard performance of Otto and Diesel cycles. 10. Compare the Otto and Diesel cycles based on the same maximum pressure and heat input. 11. Represent Carnot, Otto, Diesel, dual, and Stirling cycles on P-V and T-S diagrams. 12. Derive expressions for the mean effective pressures of Otto, Diesel, and the dual cycles. NUMERICAL 1. A petrol engine works on Otto cycle under ideal conditions. The initial state is 101 kPa and 340 K. Pressure rise at the end of heat addition is 2.5 MPa. The stroke length is twice the bore, which is 300 mm. The clearance -3 3 volume is 4 x 10 m . Determine the compression ratio, air standard efficiency, and mep. 2. A four stroke, four cylinder petrol engine of 250 mm bore and 375 mm stroke works on Otto cycle. The 3 clearance volume per cylinder is 0.00263 m . Initial pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 47C. If the maximum pressure is limited to 25 bar, find the air standard efficiency and mep. 3. In an air standard diesel cycle the compression ratio is 16. At the beginning of compression temperature is 15C and pressure is 0.1 MPa. Heat is added until the temperature at the end of the constant pressure is 1480C. Calculate the cut-off ratio, heat supplied per kg of air, cycle efficiency, and mean effective pressure. 4. For an engine working on air standard diesel cycle the compression ratio is 10 and the cut-off ratio is 1.18. The maximum pressure in the cycle is limited to 70 bar. Pressure and temperature of air at the beginning of compression is 1.03 bar and 27C, respectively. Find the pressure and temperature of air at various terminal points in the cycle and the thermal efficiency of the cycle. 1.4 5. An indicator diagram taken for a diesel engine shows that the compression curve follows PV = constant. th th At two points lying on the compression curve at 1/8 and 7/8 of the stroke are 1.6 bar and 16 bar respectively. Find the compression ratio of the engine. If cut-off takes place at 6% of the stroke calculate the air standard efficiency of the cycle. 6. An air standard dual cycle has a compression ratio of 15 and compression begins at 0.1 MPa and 40C. The maximum pressure is limited to 6 MPa and the heat added is 1.675 MJ/kg. Compute the work done per kg, efficiency, and mep. 7. Two engines are to operate on Otto and Diesel cycles with the following data. Maximum temperature: 1400 K; exhaust temperature: 700 K; state of air at the beginning of compression: 0.1 MPa, 300 K. Estimate the compression ratio, maximum pressures, efficiencies, and work output for a flow rate of 1 kg/s of air. 8. The minimum and maximum temperatures in an engine working on constant pressure cycle are 300 K and 1500 K and the heat addition during combustion is 500 kJ/kg of air. Another engine working on a semi-diesel cycle between the same temperature limits has the same heat addition shared equally between the two heat addition processes. Compare their efficiencies and work outputs. An engine of 250 mm bore and 375 mm 3 stroke works on constant volume cycle. The clearance volume is 0.00263 m . The initial pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 50C. If maximum air pressure is 25 bar, find the air standard efficiency and mep.

10

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 2013