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3rd YEAR - SEMANTICS & PRAGMATICS (2) SPEECH ACT CATEGORISATION Searle (1969) : the SA is the basic unit of communication. Speaking = engaging in a (highly complex) rule-governed form of behaviour. SAs need to obey certain rules or conditions, each of which focuses upon a slightly different aspect of what is said: 1) the propositional content condition focuses only upon the textual content 2) the executive/preparatory conditions focus upon background circumstances 3) the sincerity condition focuses upon the Ss psychological state 4) the fulfilment/essential condition focuses upon the illocutionary point. Searles criteria of SA classification: 1) THE ILLOCUTIONARY POINT, which indicates the purpose of the SA If we adopt illocutionary point as the basic notion on which to classify uses of language, then there are a rather limited number of basic things we do with language; we tell people how things are, we try to get them to do things, we commit ourselves to doing things, we express our feelings and attitudes, and we bring about changes through our utterances. Often we do more than one of these at once in the same utterance (Searle 1975: 369) e.g. the point of directives = to get Hearer to do something; a promise = the undertaking of carrying out a future action by the Speaker. (2) THE DIRECTION OF FIT between the words uttered and the world referred to: e.g. statements have a words-to-world fit as the words describe things as they are in the world spoken of; requests have a world-to-words fit because the world must be changed or (partially) adjusted so as to fulfil Speaker's request. (3) THE EXPRESSED PSYCHOLOGICAL STATE denotes the Ss state of mind e.g.a statement such as This movie is worth seeing expresses Speaker's belief that a certain movie deserves to be watched; a promise such as Ill take you to Hawaii on our honeymoon expresses Speakers intention to do something; a request such as Will you help me with these groceries, please? expresses Speaker's desire that Hearer should do something, an expressive (apology, congratulations) reveals the Ss attitude to events. (4) THE PROPOSITIONAL CONTENT of the U refers to the proposition or the locution certain restrictions placed on SAs by the semantics of the utterance. e.g. One cannot properly promise or predict things that have already happened and say anything like:* I promise I rang you up last night. The semantic content of a threat Ill smash you face! will differ from that of a promise Ill take you to the most stylish restaurant in town!, although both

involve the Ss undertaking to engage in some future action in relation to the H. (promises differ from threats in terms of whether the specified future event is beneficial or harmful to the H).

SEARLES CATEGORISATION 5 main SA categories : Assertives / representatives= SAs which commit the S to the truth of the expressed proposition (prototypical cases: asserting, concluding). They show words-to-world fit, and express Speakers belief as to a specific state of affairs. Directives = SAs which are attempts the S makes in order to get the addressee engage in a certain action. (prototypical cases: requesting , questioning). They indicate world-to-words fit and express Speakers wish that Hearer do A. Commissives commit Speaker to some future course of action, so they show world-to-words fit, and Speaker expresses the intention that Speaker do A (prototypical cases: promising, threatening, offerin)g. Expressives express Speakers attitude to a certain state of affairs specified (if at all) in the propositional content. (prototypical cases: thanking, apologising, welcoming, congratulating ). There is no direction of fit; a variety of different psychological states.. Declarations are SAs which effect immediate changes in the institutional state of affairs and which tend to rely on elaborate extralinguistic institutions (prototypical cases: excommunicating, declaring war, christening, marrying, firing from employment). ILLUSTRATIONS OF SEARLES RULES AND CATEGORIES Conditions for PROMISING (S=speaker, H=hearer, A= future action, P=proposition expressed in the SA,) Preparatory condition 1 : H would prefer Ss doing A to his not doing A S believes H would prefer Ss doing A to not doing A. Preparatory condition 2 : It is not obvious to both S and H that S will do A in the normal course of events Propositional condition : S predicates a future act A of S. Sincerity condition : S intends to do A. Essential condition : the utterance counts as an undertaking to do A BUT: I promise you to help you with that application for Cornell I promise everything in there is going on smoothly, I promise John is safe and sound I promise I wont press charges against you made by a hostage being held at shotgun by their captor

I promise Ill rent <Precious> tonight PROMISE or OFFER? Ill order Chinese food Im going to make us some coffee Refusals + justification: Ive put on some weight lately, Im trying to quit, my blood pressure is a bit high Conditions for QUESTIONING Preparatory condition 1 : S does not know the answer i.e. for a YES/No Q, S does not know whether P is true or false for an elicitative/Wh-Q, S does not know the missing information. Preparatory condition 2 : It is not obvious to both S and H that H will provide the information at that time without being asked. Propositional condition : any proposition Sincerity condition : S wants this information Essential condition : counts as an attempt to elicit this information from H. BUT: What is the capital of Ethiopia? How long have you known the defendant, Ms White? What were you doing on the night of February 12, between 10 and 10.30? Is it right to see politicians getting bribed and look the other side? Conditions for REQUESTING Preparatory condition : H is able to perform A Sincerity condition : S wants H to do A Propositional condition : S predicates a future act A of H. Essential condition : counts as an attempt by S to get H to do A. BUT: One classmate to another; Can you live with yourself? Judge in court: Will the defendant please rise? CRITICISMS OF SEARLE (LEECH, J. THOMAS) 1. Not all SAs have propositional content e.g. Sorry! Excuse me! (for apologies) Huh? (Qs) Hello! Hi! (for greetings) 2. It is not always possible to distinguish fully btw. one SA and another (Searles approach covers only prototypical cases) e.g. distinguishing request from invite, demand question from examine, inquire, quiz e.g. distinguishing btw. request, order and command. (the latter 2 have an additional preparatory rule : S must be in a position of authority over H == essential condition reformulated an attempt to get H to do A in virtue of the authority of S over H

e.g. Shine your boots Dismissed if uttered in a military context, a request/command Class dismissed if uttered in an educational setting, Thank, you, prime Minister, for your intervention Difference btw. offer and promise : the preparatory condition (S does not know if H wants A in the case of offers== Ss uncertainty as to whether H wants A reduces Ss obligation to do A) e.g. compliment vs. congratulate (Thomas) Preparatory condition : e is in Hs interest and S believes e is in Hs interest Propositional condition : Some event, act, aspect e related to H. Sincerity condition : S is pleased at E. Essential condition:counts as an expression of pleasure at E (CONGRATULATE) vs. counts as a commendation of E or tribute to H (COMPLIMENT)

3. Certain SAs overlap: Are you doing anything tonight? Have you had many extramarital affairs during the past three years? Would you like a glass of wine? 4. Searles conditions sometimes exclude perfectly normal instances of a SA (see the case of APOLOGISING below) Conditions for APOLOGIZING (Thomas) A formal Searle-like account Preparatory condition : S expresses regret for a past act A of S Propositional condition : S believes that A was not in Hs best interest Sincerity condition : S regrets A Essential condition : counts as an apology for act A Prototypical/paradigm example: Im sorry I broke your nose BUT : Im sorry but I shall have to report you ? an executioner seeking forgiveness from the sentenced person before chopping their head off. student arriving late : The buses are on strike or Caught in traffic Im sorry Tim couldnt make it, he has to stay extra hours, Sorry the boys are shouting so much, theyre so excited its Friday!. Sorry youve arrived in such lousy weather!