Psihologia Resurselor Umane is the official journal of the Industrial and Organizational Psychology Association (APIO).

Founder: Horia D Pitariu, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj - Napoca Editor: Horia D. Pitariu, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj - Napoca Managing Editors: Ctlina Ciuce, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj - Napoca Camelia Rusu, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj - Napoca Editorial Staff: Smaranda Boro, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca Roxana Capotescu, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj - Napoca Ctlina Ciuce, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj - Napoca Ioana David, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj Napoca Doru Dima, Dima Consulting Group, Braov Anca Dobrean, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca Drago Iliescu, D&D Research, Bucureti Daniela Onac, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj - Napoca Filaret Sntion, Ovidius University, Constana Daniela Vercellino, Commodo, Cluj - Napoca Editorial Board: Natalie J. Allen University of Western Ontario, Canada Adalgisa Battistelli Universit degli Studii di Verona, Italy Zoltn Bogthy West University, Timioara, Romania Dana H. Born United States Air Force Academy, USA Jeffrey M. Conte San Diego State University, USA Cary Cooper Lancaster University Management School, UK Petru Cureu Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Timothy A. Judge University of Florida, USA Nicolae Jurcu Technical University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Rmi Kouabenan Universite Pierre Mends, Grenoble, France Frank J. Landy Landy Litigation Support Group, USA Janice H. Laurence - Office of the Under Secretary of Defense, Personnel and Readiness, USA Jacques Leplat Directeur Honoraire LEcole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris, France Thomas Li-Ping Tang Middle Tennessee State University, USA Mircea Miclea Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Nicolae Mitrofan University of Bucharest, Romania Adrian Neculau Al. I. Cuza University, Iai, Romania Michael P. ODriscoll University of Waikato, New Zeeland Deniz S. Ones University of Minnesota, USA Ioan Radu Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Paul E Spector - University of South Florida, USA Charles D. Spielberger - University of South Florida, USA Zissu Weintraub Behavioral Sciences Department, Department of Defence, Israel Psihologia Resurselor Umane is published twice a year, in April and October by the Romanian Cognitive Sciences Association Press (ASCR), Cluj Napoca INDEXING: This journal is indexed in PsychINFO, and National Council of Research (CNCSIS)

Psihologia Resurselor Umane: ISSN: 1538-7327

COPYRIGHT: All rights reserved Psihologia Resurselor Umane, Industrial and Organizational Psychology Association (APIO). The publisher assures the protection of authorship according to the current legislation. Except as permitted under copyright legislation, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior permission of the publisher.

PSIHOLOGIA RESURSELOR UMANE

Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional Centrul de Monitorizare Profesional n Psihologia Muncii Organizaional Universitatea "Babe-Bolyai", Cluj-Napoca

Volumul 5, nr. 1/2007

Asociaia de tiine Cognitive din Romnia Cluj-Napoca

Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional Facultatea de Psihologie i tiinele Educaiei, Secia Psihologie Cluj-Napoca, Str. Republicii 37 Tel./ fax: 0264-598751 Adresa web: www.apio.ro E-mail: office@apio.ro

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Tiprit n Romnia

Psihologia Resurselor Umane Volumul 5, nr. 1, 2007

CUPRINS

Editorial Paul E. Spector De ce ar trebui s ne intereseze problema stresului la locul de munc? Studii i Cercetri Horia D Pitariu, Edward L. Levine, Simona Muat, Dan Ispas Validarea chestionarului de msurare a emoiilor ca stare i trstur (MEST- Ro) la baschetbaliste Drago Iliescu, Florin Glin Comportamentul de tip A analizat prin lentilele unui personolog Vlad Tureanu Relaia dintre patternul de comportament de tip A i stresul ocupaional. O analiz multidimensional detaliat Laureniu Maricuoiu Rspunsuri emoionale la mesajele de eroare generate de computer George Ooiu Relaia dintre componentele carcateristice mediului psihosocial al muncii i starea de sntate Petru Lucian Cureu Managementul diversitii n organizaii: exist o legtur ntre teoriile diversitii i practicile organizaionale? Ioana David Reprezentarea informaiilor mediatizate: modele propuse de mass-media versus modele personale Psihologie Militar Dorina Coldea Analiza muncii: aplicaii n domeniul militar Dorin Zgrean Elaborarea unui sistem de instruire i evaluare a personalului militar care urmeaz s participe la misiuni internaionale Despre metod Robert Balazsi - Compararea statistic a coeficienilor de corelaie Managementul Resurselor Umane n Practic Daniela Vercellino, Roxana Indre, Annemarie Birthler, Elena Cprar, Lavinia Fieroiu, Ramaiana Dijmrescu, Corina Giurgi O nou perspectiv n abordarea funciilor departamentului de resurse umane Roxana Indre Evaluarea posturilor de munc. Cazul firmei O&V Figuri de psihologi In Memoriam Alexandru Roca (1906 1996) In Memoriam Dumitru Salade (1915 - 2006) Legislaie Recomandri privind coordonarea activitilor de supervizare n domeniul psihologiei muncii, transporturilor i serviciilor Recenzii i Note Bibliografice PETRU LUCIAN CUREU (2006). Group Composition and Effectiveness. Cluj Napoca: Editura ASCR (Daniela Onac) MARIUS MILCU (2006). Conflicte n grupuri i organizaii. Sibiu: Editura Universitii Lucian Blaga (Roxana Capotescu) MARIUS MILCU (2006). Divergene, tensiuni i conflicte: o analiz multidimensional. Sibiu: Editura Universitii Lucian Blaga (Camelia Rusu) Informaii

16 27 38 46 54 59

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81 87

103

106 119

129 131

133

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Psihologia Resurselor Umane Volum 5, nr. 1, 2007

CONTENT

Editorial Paul E. Spector Why Should We Care about Workplace Stress? Studies and Research Horia D Pitariu, Edward L. Levine, Simona Muat, Dan Ispas Validation of the State Trait Emotion Measure (STEM) on Romanian Basketball Players Drago Iliescu, Florin Glin Type A Behavior through the Tainted Lenses of a Personologist Vlad Tureanu Relationship between the Type A Behavioral Pattern and Occupational Stress. A detailed multidimensional analysis Laureniu Maricuoiu Emotional Responses to Computer Error Messages George Ooiu The Relationship between Psychosocial Work Characteristics and Self Related Health Petru Lucian Cureu Managing Diversity in Organizations: Is there a Link between Diversity Theories and Organizational Practices? Ioana David Representations of media transmitted information: mass media proposed models vs. own models Military Psychology Dorina Coldea Work Analysis: Applications in the Military Field Dorin Zgrean Elaborating a Training and Performance Appraisal System for Military Personnel that Are Going to Take Part in International Missions About Methods Robert Balazsi Statistically Comparing Correlation Coefficients Applied Human Resources Management Daniela Vercellino, Roxana Indre, Annemarie Birthler, Elena Cprar, Lavinia Fieroiu, Ramaiana Dijmrescu, Corina Giurgi A New Perspective in the Approach of the Functions of the Human Resources Department Roxana Indre Job Evaluation. The Case of O&V

16 27 38 46 54 59

70

81 87

103

106 119

Psychologists Figures In Memoriam Alexandru Roca (1906 -1996) In Memoriam Dumitru Salade (1915 - 2006)

129 131

Legislation in Psychological Field Regulation for the organization and functioning of the work, transportation and services commission. Book Reviews and Bibliographical Notes PETRU LUCIAN CUREU (2006). Group Composition and Effectiveness. Cluj Napoca: ASCR Publishing House (Daniela Onaca) MARIUS MILCU (2006). Conflicts in Groups and Organizations. Sibiu: Editura Universitii Lucian Blaga (Roxana Capotescu) MARIUS MILCU (2006). Divergences, Tensions and Conflicts: a Multidimensional Analysis. Sibiu: Editura Universitii Lucian Blaga (Camelia Rusu) Information

133 134

138

Psychologie des Ressources Humaines Volume 5, nr. 1, 2007

CONTENU

ditorial Paul E. Spector Pourquoi sintresser de la problmatique du stress professionnel? tudes et Investigations Horia D Pitariu, Edward L. Levine, Simona Muat, Dan Ispas Validation dune mesure des motions comme tat et trait (MEST- Ro) chez les basketbalistes Drago Iliescu, Florin Glin Le type A de comportement par les objectifs pourri dun personoloque Vlad Tureanu La relation entre le comportement de type A et le stress professionnel. Une analyse multidimensionnelle dtaille Laureniu Maricuoiu Rponse motionnelle aux messages derreur affiche par lordinateur George Ooiu Relation entre les caractristiques psychosociales du milieu du travail et la sant Petru Lucian Cureu Management de la diversit dans les organisations: Est-ce quil y a une liaison entre la thorie de la diversit et les pratiques organisationnelles? Ioana David Reprsentations des informations mdiatiques: des modles propose de mass media vs des modles personnels Psychologie Militaire Dorina Coldea Lanalyse du travail : applications dans le domaine militaire Dorin Zgrean Llaboration dun system de instruction et dvaluation du personnel militaire qui va participe aux missions a ltranger Sur les mthodes Robert Balazsi La comparaison statistique de cfficients de corrlation PRH Appliqu Daniela Vercellino, Roxana Indre, Annemarie Birthler, Elena Cprar, Lavinia Fieroiu, Ramaiana Dijmrescu, Corina Giurgi Une nouvelle perspective dans ltude des fonctions du dpartement des ressources humaines Roxana Indre Lvaluation des postes. Le cas de lentreprise O&V

16 27 38 46 54 59

70

81 87

103

106 119

Figures des psychologues In Memoriam Alexandru Roca (1906 1996) In Memoriam Dumitru Salade (1915 - 2006) Lgislation dans le Domaine Psychologique Recommandations concernant la coordination des activits de supervision dans le domaine de la psychologie du travail, transport et services Critiques PETRU LUCIAN CUREU (2006). Composition et efficacit des groups. Cluj Napoca: Maison ddition de ASCR (Daniela Onac) MARIUS MILCU (2006). Conflits dans les groups et les organisations. Sibiu: Maison ddition de lUniversit Lucian Blaga (Roxana Capotescu) MARIUS MILCU (2006). Divergence, tensions et conflits: une analyse multidimensionnelle. Maison ddition de lUniversit Lucian Blaga (Camelia Rusu) Informations

129 131

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Globalizarea Psihologiei IndustrialOrganizaionale: O analiz comparativ

Timothy A. Judge and Lauren S. Simon Department of Management Warrington College of Business University of Florida
1

Abstract Globalization, of course, has become a buzzword in management jargon, and one does not need to look far to find exhortations about the internationalization of management practice in the business press (Walker, 2007). Since research trends do not always follow practice, we sought to determine whether industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology research is becoming more international as judged by the affiliations of those who publish in the top journals. In this article, we report the results of this study, and then offer a few comments about the meaning of the trends and their implications for future I-O research. Globalizarea a devenit, desigur, un cunvnt deranjant n jargonul managementului, iar sfaturile cu privire la internaionalizarea practicii managementului in presa de business nu trebuie ndelung cutate(Walker, 2007). Deoarece moda n cercetare nu urmrete ntotdeauna practica, dorim sa aflm daca psihologia industrial organizaional (I-O) a devenit mai internaional judecnd dup afiliaia celor care public n jurnalele de top. In acest articol publicm rezultatele studiului i oferim cteva comentarii cu privire la noua mod i implicaiile acesteia in cercetrile din I-O. Key words: globalizare, industrial-organizaional cercetare, psihologia

Adresa de contact: Timothy A. Judge and Lauren S. Simon, Department of Management, Warrington College of Business, University of Florida P.O. Box 117165, Gainesville, Florida USA 32611, Phone: (352) 392-0163, Fax: (352) 392-6020, Email: tjudge@ufl.edu, lsimon47@ufl.edu

Globalizarea a devenit, desigur, un cunvnt deranjant n jargonul managementului, iar sfaturile cu privire la internaionalizarea practicii managementului n presa de business nu trebuie ndelung cutate(Walker, 2007). Deoarece moda n cercetare nu urmrete ntotdeauna practica, dorim sa aflm daca psihologia industrial-organizaional (I-O) a devenit mai global judecnd dup afiliaia celor care public n jurnalele de top. In acest articol publicm rezultatele studiului i oferim cteva comentarii cu privire la noua mod i implicaiile acesteia in cercetrile din I-O. Analiza noastr cuprinde 5273 de articole (recenziile pe cri au fost excluse) publicate n patru jurnale, ncepnd cu 1980 pn n 2006.Bazndu-ne pe Zickar i Highhouse (2001) precum i pe Social Science Citation Impact (SSCI),am ales primele patru jurnale din psihologia industrial-organizational (primele dou sunt publicate in Statele Unite ale Americii;ultimele doua sunt publicate in Regatul Unit al Marii Britanii): Journal of Applied Psychology (JAP; n=2.526), Personnel Psychology (PPsych; n=833), Journal of Organizational Behavior (JOB; n=1.115), i Journal

Editorial
of Occupational and Organizational Psychology (JOOP; n=799).Factorii de impact SSCI din 2005 ale acestor patru jurnale sunt: JAP=2.89: PPsych=2.09; JOB=1.39; i JOOP=1.26. Pentru fiecare articol s-a codat afiliaia instituional naional a autoruilor,pn la a include i a patra ar asociat autorilor. Codificarea s-a realizat n aa fel nct fiecare ar a fost listat o singur dat (de exemplu ,o naiune poate fi menionat o singur dat per articol).Cercettori din 38 de ri diferite au publicat articole n unul sau mai multe jurnale pe o perioad de 26 de ani Analiznd pe perioada de timp stabilit un numr considerabil de articole, (n-5.273) am observat c 74.9% din articole includeau cercettori din Statele Unite ale Americii,urmat de Regatul Unit al Marii Britanii = 9.2%, Canada = 6.9%, Australia = 4.0%, Israel = 3.8%,Olanda = 3.1%, China = 3.1%, Germania = 1.3% si Scandinavia (Suedia, Norvegia, Danemarca i Finlanda) = 1.1%. Pentru a uura interpretarea, n analizele urmtoare,am grupat aceste ri n cinci seturi:(1)Statele Unite ale Americii; (2)natiunile Coroanei Britanice(Regatul Unit al Marii Britanii,Australia,Noua Zeeland i Canada); (3)Europa Continenetal; (4)Asia i (5)Orientul Apropiat/Africa. Rusia a fost inclus n setul Europei Continenetale i Turcia n setul Orientul Apropiat. .Numai unul din cele 5273 de articole, incluznd i cercettori din America de Sud (Peru), a fost exclus din analizele urmtoare. Aa cum se poate vedea n Figura 1, dominana american n aceste patru jurnale a suferit un declin de-a lungul timpului. De exemplu, daca 83% din articolele n JAP au fost publicate de autori americani in 1980, figura arat un declin pana la 73% n aceast deceniu(2000-2006). Singurul jurnal n care nu s-a ntlnit aceast situaie a fost JOB, unde procentajul a fost relativ stabil in timp. Dac numarul de articole publicate de cercettorii Statelor Unite ale Americii a suferit un declin n timp, la ce regiune (regiuni) se intlnete o cretere? Figura 2 ofer tendinele n timp pentru cele patru regiuni non-americane.Asa cum arat i figura aceste zone au evidentiat o cretere de-a lungul timpului, creterea n Europa Continental i Asia fiind covritoare.

Procentul tuturor articolelor publicate in cercetrile din S.U.A.

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20

93 83 82 73

91 80

62 56

59

80's 90's 00's

33 33 25

JAP

PPsych

JOB

JOOP

Figura 1: Prezena american n Jurnalele de Psihologie Industrial-Organizaional JAP PPsych JOB JOOP Journal of Applied Psychology Personnel Psychology Journal of Organizational Behavior Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology

Procentul articolelor publicate

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

18

19 19

11

5 2 1 2

5 4 3

80's 90's 00's

Asia

Figura 2: Tendine globale n publicare

In cele din urm, pentru a determina dac aceast mod s-a schimbat n decada prezent, n tabelul 1am artat rezultatele pentru anii 1980, 1990 i am artat datele pentru fiecare an, ncepnd cu anul 2000. Rata declinului pentru dominana american apare relativ uniform, chiar dac cea mai mare scdere s-a nregistrat incepnd cu 2000. Dac daca publicaiile cercettorilor din naiunile Coroanei Britanice s-au aflat ntr-un numr stabil din 1980 pn n 1999, se pare c, din 2000 rata publicaiilor a crescut simitor. In contrast, dac reprezentarea Europei Centrale n cele patru jurnale a crescut dramatic din 1980, aceast cretere s-a diminuat ncepnd cu 2000. Asia pare s i continue ascendena, iar reprezentana pentru Africa Central i de Est i continu declinul. Ce ne spun aceste tendine despre viitorul cercetrilor n psihologia I-O? Cercetarea de fa aduce mai multe ntrebri dect rspunsuri. De exemplu, ce a cauzat noile tendine? Inseamn aceasta c abordarea american a psihologiei a fost inglobat n gndirea asiatic i european sau nseamnn c cercettorii americani sunt mai deschii la perspectivele alternative? Raspunsul evident la aceasta intrebare este cte puin din fiecare i nu ne indoim c colile europene i asiatice sunt mai deschise spre jurnalele americane i spre stilul de cercetarea american , iar colile americane sunt mai deschise la perspectiva global.

Totui, raman obstacole pentru orealizarea unei cinvergene totale a perspectivelor. In primul rnd e problema limbii. Engleza este limba folosit n jurnalele de top incluse n aceast cercetare, totui, Engleza este limba nativ pentru doar o minoritate din populaia lumii. Este adevarat cum c engleza este a doua limb nvat de majoritatea persoanelor, dar este naiv s ne imaginm c a doua limba este la fel de bine absorbit ca o limb matern. De fapt, chiar in 2006, mai mult de 8 din 10 articole publicate au apartinut cercetatorilor din ri vorbitoare de limb englez. Bariera limbii va continua s reprezinte o probocare pentru globalizarea cercetarilor din psihologia I-O, chiar dac s-au fcut pai importani. In at doilea rnd, clutura constituie o problem ce ridica ntrebri semnificante pentru cercetrile din psihologia I-O. Cum ar putea cineva s compare, de exemplu, culturile romn, german i american n problema atitudinilor formate in urma redefinirii posturilor? Este greu s defineti i s msori cultura (Hofstede, 2002; Spector, Cooper, & Sparks, 2001), iar ideea de a compara trei sau mai multe culturi este o incercare complicat. Tot mai des se gsesc date care susin c, nu se renun la stereotipuri (germanii sunt muncitori harnici, americanii sunt de ncredere), dar ele sunt mai degrab diferene n cadrul grupului dect ntre grupuri (Terracciano et al., 2005).

Mideast/Africa

British Monarchy

Continental Europe

Editorial
Table 1.Global Publishing Trends Across Four Top Industrial-Organizational Psychology Journals

1980 1999

2000 2006

1980s

1990s

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

U.S.

73.50

70.81

68.72

67.58

62.61

60.09

57.92

62.36

58.97

British Monarchy

18.03

18.70

14.98

16.80

19.33

19.74

20.83

17.87

23.44

Continental Europe

2.40

4.57

10.57

8.59

8.82

12.02

12.50

12.55

9.52

Asia

0.73

2.23

3.52

4.69

5.04

5.15

5.00

5.32

6.59

Mideast/Africa

5.33

3.69

2.20

2.34

4.20

3.00

3.75

1.90

1.47

Notes: British Monarchy represents the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada.

In pofida celor prezentate, totui suntem de prere c aceast perioad se caracterizeaz printrun progres considerabil. In primul rnd, putem observa o mbuntire a comunicrii i a dialogului fa de trecut. Acest jurnal, cu posibilitatea de comunicare n trei limbi, este un bun exemplu. In al doilea rnd, tehnologia a uurat considerabil achiziia de rspndire i dobndire de cunotine. De aceste aspecte au beneficiat, n primul rnd, culturile relativ mai slab dezvoltate. In al treilea rnd, tot mai mult se vorbete despre ipoteze transculturale i nu avem nici un motiv s credem ca aceast mod va disprea uor. In lumina celor prezentate, care sunt sfaturile ce le-am putea da cercettorilor internaionali? Considerm c cele mai bune idei de cercetare provin dintr-o surs pe care o avem cu toii: experiena personal i observaional. Cei mai mari autori au scris despre ceea ce tiau i despre ceea ce au observat in regiunile lor (ex. Hardy Tess n Wessex, Pasternak Zhivago n Rusia revoluionar).Putem face acelai lucru prin unirea puterii observaionale cu pregtirea tiinific. Un bun egalizator este abilitatea noastr de a genera idei valoroase n cercetarea tiinific, prin introspecie i observaie atent. Desigur, nu pledam pentru abandonarea litereaturii de specialitate, dar odat ce un subiect a fost cunoscut, se prea poate ca, cu ct o persoan se ndeprteaz mai mult de cultura sa, cu att mai

probabil e s gseasc idei ce pot fi implementate n aceasta. Aa cum punctau i Gelfand, Erez, and Aycan (2007) ntr-un articol, Perspectivele indigene sunt critice pentru comportamentul n organizaii i trebuie s constituie o prioritate n cercetrile viitoare (p.498). n timp ce mediul local si cultural al cuiva poate fi o excelent surs de idei bune, e imporatant de reinut ca domeniul nostru este relativ conservativavem tendina de a adera la lucrai precedente si executate cu grija.Ideile noi sunt importante dar e la fel de important ca ele s fie executate folosind metode riguroase i cu atenie. In acest moment e prea puin evident ca jurnalele americane (cum ar fi JAP) ar fi dispuse sa accepte lucrri inferioare fiind preul platit pentru noile idei. Una nu o poate substitui pe celalat. Bibliografie Gelfand, M. J., Erez, M., & Aycan, Z. (2007). Crosscultural organizational behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 479-514. Hofstede, G. (2002). The pitfalls of cross-national survey research: A reply to the article by Spector et al. on the psychometric properties of the Hofstede Values Survey Module 1994. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 51, 170-173.

Spector, P.E., Cooper, C.L., & Sparks, K. (2001). An international study of the psychometric properties of the Hofstede Values Survey Module 1994: A comparison of individual and country/province level results. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 50, 269-281. Terracciano, A., et al. (2005). National character does not reflect mean personality trait levels in 49 cultures. Science, 310, 96-100.

Zickar, M. J., & Highhouse, S. (2001). Measuring prestige of journals in industrialorganizational psychology. IndustrialOrganizational Psychologist, 38, 29-36. Walker, M. (2007, January 25). Just how good is globalization? Wall Street Journal, p. A10.

10

Editorial

The Globalization of IndustrialOrganizational Psychology: A Comparative Analysis

Timothy A. Judge and Lauren S. Simon Department of Management Warrington College of Business University of Florida
1

Abstract Globalization, of course, has become a buzzword in management jargon, and one does not need to look far to find exhortations about the internationalization of management practice in the business press (Walker, 2007). Since research trends do not always follow practice, we sought to determine whether industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology research is becoming more international as judged by the affiliations of those who publish in the top journals. In this article, we report the results of this study, and then offer a few comments about the meaning of the trends and their implications for future I-O research. Globalizarea a devenit, desigur, un cunvnt deranjant n jargonul managementului, iar sfaturile cu privire la internaionalizarea practicii managementului in presa de business nu trebuie ndelung cutate(Walker, 2007). Deoarece moda n cercetare nu urmrete ntotdeauna practica, dorim sa aflm daca psihologia industrial organizaional (I-O) a devenit mai internaional judecnd dup afiliaia celor care public n jurnalele de top. In acest articol publicm rezultatele studiului i oferim cteva comentarii cu privire la noua mod i implicaiile acesteia in cercetrile din I-O. Key words: globalisation, research, industrialorganisational psychology Globalization, of course, has become a buzzword in management jargon, and one does not need to look far to find exhortations about the internationalization of management practice in the business press (Walker, 2007). Since research trends do not always follow practice, we sought to determine whether industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology research is becoming more international as judged by the affiliations of those who publish in the top journals. In this article, we report the results of this study, and then offer a few comments about the meaning of the trends and their implications for future I-O research. Our analysis comprised the 5.273 articles (book reviews were excluded) published in four journals from 1980 to 2006. Based on Zickar and Highhouse (2001) and the Social Science Citation Impact (SSCI), we chose the top four journals in industrial-organizational psychology (the first two are published in the U.S.; the second two are published in the U.K.): Journal of Applied Psychology (JAP; n=2.526), Personnel Psychology (PPsych; n=833), Journal of Organizational Behavior (JOB; n=1.115), and Journal of

Adresa de contact: Timothy A. Judge and Lauren , S. Simon Department of Management, Warrington College of Business, University of Florida P.O. Box 117165, Gainesville, Florida USA 32611, Phone: (352) 392-0163, Fax: (352) 392-6020, Email: tjudge@ufl.edu, lsimon47@ufl.edu

11

Occupational and Organizational Psychology (JOOP; n=799). The 2005 SSCI impact factors for these journals are: JAP=2.89: PPsych=2.09; JOB=1.39; and JOOP=1.26. For each article, we coded the national institutional affiliation of the authors, up to and including the fourth country that was associated with the authors listed. Coding was performed such that each country was listed only once (i.e., a nation could be represented only once per article). Researchers in 38 different nations published articles in one or more of the journals in the 26-year timeframe. Collapsed across articles and time (n=5.273), 74.9% of the articles included researchers in the U.S., followed by the United Kingdom=9.2%, Canada=6.9%, Australia=4.0%, Israel=3.8%, the Netherlands=3.1%, China=3.1%, Germany=1.3%, and Scandinavia (Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Finland)=1.1%. To ease interpretation, in subsequent analyses, we grouped these nations into five sets: (1) U.S.; (2) British Monarchy nations (United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada); (3) Continental Europe; (4)

Asia; and (5) Middle East/Africa. Russia was included in the Continental European set, and Turkey was included in theMiddle East/Africa set. Only one of the 5.273 articles, included researchers in South America (Peru), it was excluded from further analysis. As shown in Figure 1, American dominance in these four journals is declining over time. For example, whereas 83% of articles in JAP were published by American authors in the 1980s, this figure has declined to 73% in this decade (2000-2006). The only journal for which this was not the case, was JOB, where the percentages are relatively stable over time. If articles published by U.S. researchers are declining over time, what region(s) is responsible for the increase? Figure 2 provides the time trends for the four non-U.S. regions. As the figure shows, three areas have shown an increase over time, with the increases in Continental Europe and Asia being particularly striking.

Percent of Total Articles Published by U.S. Researchers

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20

93 83 82 73

91 80

62 56

59

80's 90's 00's

33 33 25

JAP

PPsych

JOB

JOOP

Figure 1: American Presence in I-O Journals

JAP PPsych JOB JOOP

Journal of Applied Psychology Personnel Psychology Journal of Organizational Behavior Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology

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Percent of Articles Published

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

18

19 19

11

5 2 1 2

5 4 3

80's 90's 00's

Asia

Figure 2: Global Trends in Publishing Finally, to determine whether these overall trends have changed within the present decade, in Table 1, we provide the results for the 1980s and 1990s, but also break down the data by year since 2000. The rate of decline of American dominance appears relatively uniform, although the largest drop has occurred since 2000. Whereas publications from researchers in the British Monarchy nations was relatively stable from 1980-1999, it appears that since 2000, the rate of publication has increased sharply. In contrast, whereas Continental Europes representation in the four journals increased dramatically from the 1980s, the increase appears to have leveled off since 2000. Asia appears to be continuing its ascendance, and representation from researchers in the Middle East and Africa continues to decline. What do these trends tell us about the future of I-O psychology research? In some ways, our analysis poses more questions than it answers. For example, what has caused this trend? Does it mean that the American approach to psychology has become incorporated into Asian and European thinking, or does it mean that American researchers are more open to alternative perspectives? The obvious answer to this question is some of each, and we do not doubt that it is true that European and Asian scholars are more open to American journals and American-style research, and that American scholars are more open to global perspectives. However, we also think there are challenges to a full convergence of perspectives. First, there is the issue of language. English is the language of the top journals included in this review yet, obviously, English is the native language of only a small minority of the worlds population. It is true that English is the most common second language learned, but it is naive to assume that a second language is as readily absorbed as a native language. After all, even in 2006, more than 8 of 10 articles published were from researchers in Englishspeaking countries. This language barrier will continue to pose challenges in the globalization of IO research, even as great strides are being made. Second, culture is a complicated matter, and it poses significant problems for I-O psychology research. How might one compare, for example, Romanian, German, and American cultures in the degree to which job redesign affects job attitudes? It is difficult to even define and measure national culture (Hofstede, 2002; Spector, Cooper, & Sparks, 2001), and to compare and contrast the three (or more) cultures is a complicated proposition. Moreover, there is some evidence that while cultural stereotypes are widely held (e.g., hard-working Germans, confident Americans), they are belied by greater within- than between-country differences (Terracciano et al., 2005).

Mideast/Africa

British Monarchy

Continental Europe

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Table 1. Global Publishing Trends Across Four Top Industrial-Organizational Psychology Journals

1980 1999

2000 2006

1980s

1990s

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

U.S.

73.50

70.81

68.72

67.58

62.61

60.09

57.92

62.36

58.97

British Monarchy

18.03

18.70

14.98

16.80

19.33

19.74

20.83

17.87

23.44

Continental Europe

2.40

4.57

10.57

8.59

8.82

12.02

12.50

12.55

9.52

Asia

0.73

2.23

3.52

4.69

5.04

5.15

5.00

5.32

6.59

Mideast/Africa

5.33

3.69

2.20

2.34

4.20

3.00

3.75

1.90

1.47

Notes: British Monarchy represents the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada.

Despite these, and other, difficulties, we also think it is an exciting time with considerable progress. First, we see far greater communication and dialogue across cultures than was once the case. This journal, with its communication in three languages, is a good case in point. Second, technology has eased considerably the barriers to the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge. These diminishing barriers should disproportionately benefit those in relatively remote cultures. Third, more and more is being learned about cross-cultural issues, and there is no reason to believe that this trend is abating. In light of these trends, what are some pieces of advice we would give to international researchers? We think the best source of research ideas is something everyone has in equal abundance ones personal experience and observations. The great writers, after all, wrote about what they knew, and observed in their localities (e.g., Hardys Tess in Wessex, Pasternaks Zhivago in revolutionary Russia). We can do the same, by blending our powers of observation with our scientific training. A great equalizer, then, is our ability, through introspection and keen observation, to generate ideas worthy of scientific investigation. Of course we do not advocate that one divorce oneself from the research literature, but once a topic has been mastered, it may be that the more remote ones culture, the more likely one is to

bring into a topic new insights inherent in ones culture. As noted by Gelfand, Erez, and Aycan (2007) in a recent review, Indigenous perspectives are critical for organizational behavior and need to be prioritized in future research (p. 498). While ones local environment and culture can be an excellent source of good ideas, it is important to remember that our field is relatively conservative we tend to adhere to precedent and careful execution. New ideas are important, but it also important that they be executed using rigorous, careful methods. At this juncture, we see little evidence that the American journals (such as JAP) are willing to accept inferior execution as the price to be paid for new thinking. One will not substitute for the other. References Gelfand, M. J., Erez, M., & Aycan, Z. (2007). Crosscultural organizational behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 479-514. Hofstede, G. (2002). The pitfalls of cross-national survey research: A reply to the article by Spector et al. on the psychometric properties of the Hofstede Values Survey Module 1994. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 51, 170-173. Spector, P.E., Cooper, C.L., & Sparks, K. (2001). An international study of the psychometric

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properties of the Hofstede Values Survey Module 1994: A comparison of individual and country/province level results. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 50, 269-281. Terracciano, A., et al. (2005). National character does not reflect mean personality trait levels in 49 cultures. Science, 310, 96-100. Zickar, M. J., & Highhouse, S. (2001). Measuring prestige of journals in industrialorganizational psychology. IndustrialOrganizational Psychologist, 38, 29-36. Walker, M. (2007, January 25). Just how good is globalization? Wall Street Journal, p. A10.

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NATIONAL CORRUPTION, NATIONAL PERSONALITY AND NATIONAL CULTURE

Brian S. Connelly 1 Deniz S. Ones University of Minnesota

Abstract Even though corruption continues to mar economic progression, worker enthusiasm, and societies moral constitution, most studies of corruption have been confined to the fields of economics and political science. However, psychological variables, such as personality and cultural values, are likely to be relevant to studying corruption. In the present study of 62 countries, we examined how national averages on the Big Three personality traits, a measure of social desirability, and Hofstedes cultural dimensions relate to perceptions of a nations level of corruption. The Big Three personality traits showed modest relationships with corruption. However, national averages on a social desirability measure were strongly and positively correlated with corruption, suggesting that national dishonesty in responding to personality items is related to national dishonesty in corruption. In addition, the discrete, combined, and unique effects of personality and culture on corruption were compared. The findings suggest that both cultural values and personality have relevance for understanding corruption. As globalization continues to promote the exchange of cultural values and the assimilation of both individuals and organizations into new cultures, these findings highlight the need for I/O psychologists to be attentive to both culture and personality in designing human resource systems. Dei corupia continu s afecteze progresul economic, entuziasmul muncitorului i standardele morale ale societii, cele mai multe studii asupra corupiei au fost fcute n domeniul economic i cel al tiinelor politice. Cu toate acestea, este probabil ca variabilele psihologice, cum ar fi personalitatea i valorile culturale, s fie relevante pentru studiul corupiei. n prezentul studiu desfurat n 62 de ri, am cercetat modul n care indicatorii naionali medii n ceea ce privete trsturile de personalitate (Big Three), o msur a dezirabilitii sociale, i dimensiunile culturale ale lui Hofstede sunt relaionate cu perceperea nivelului naional de corupie. Modelul Big Three al trsturilor de personalitate a indicat o corelaie modest a trsturilor de personalitate cu corupia. n schimb, scorurile naionale medii n ceea ce privete msura dezirabilitii sociale au indicat o corelaie puternic i pozitiv cu corupia, sugernd c necinstea naional indicat de itemii de personalitate e relaionat cu necinstea naional implicat n corupie. n plus, au fost comparate efectele discrete, combinate i unice ale variabilelor personalitate, respectiv cultur asupra corupiei. Rezultatele sugereaz c att valorile culturale, ct i factorii de personalitate au relevan n ceea ce privete nelegerea fenomenului de corupie. Ct vreme globalizarea continu s promoveze schimbul de valori culturale i asimilarea att a indivizilor, ct i a organizaiilor n culturi noi, aceste rezultate evideniaz necesitatea ca psihologii M/O s fie ateni att la factorii culturali, ct i la cei de personalitate, n proiectarea sistemelor de resurse umane. Key-words: corruption, cultural variables, psychological variables, Big Three

Whether it be government officials, corporate executives, military leaders, or even charitable organizations, the corruption of authority threatens the welfare of millions every year. Research on corruption has emerged in a wide variety of fields, including economics, political science, financial investments, sociology, psychology, law, and national
Adresa de contact: conne122@umn.edu; onesx001@umn.edu
1

development, just to name a few. Interest in understanding corruption extends beyond simply ensuring that justice be served to those who are corrupt. With the world moving toward a more global economy in which investments, resources, and support are sent to locations further from the direct monitoring of their source individuals, organizations, and governments are increasingly focusing on the integrity of these transactions. Against this backdrop, many are desperate to understand

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why corruption happens and how it can be stopped. Though multiple definitions exist, corruption researchers have generally defined corruption as the misuse of public power for private benefit (Goldsmith, 1999; Lambsdorff, 1995/2004; Xin & Rudel, 2004). This definition includes a variety of nefarious behaviors such as embezzlement, bribery, and nepotism. A key component of this definition is public power; for individuals to be able to engage in corrupt behaviors, they have to have been entrusted to some degree with power or authority over others. However, this power and authority may come in many forms, and this definition is not intended to limit the misuse of public power specifically to misuse by those in government, or those in any other industry. This definition, however, excludes a number of other related but conceptually different acts, such as petty or violent theft (no public power is required for these acts) or political instability (misuse may not be evident, and it is unlikely to produce private benefits). Although multiple definitions of corruption exist in the literature and across cultures, many universal trends underlie corruption, such as the exploitation of power, selfish orientation of the corrupt actor, and the detrimental effects of corrupt acts on the society in which they occur (Akindele, 1995). As noted above, research on corruption has adopted a variety of different perspectives, including economic, political, sociological, and psychological. In addition to the differences in the types of variables that are studied by each perspective, studies of corruption may also focus on corruption at different levels of analysis. For example, it is possible to conceptualize corruption at the individual level (what makes a single person more or less corrupt), at the organizational level (what makes an entire organization more or less corrupt), and at the national level (what makes countries more or less corrupt). Klein and colleagues (Klein et al., 2000; Klein, Dansereau, & Hall, 1994) show that relationships between two variables at one level do not necessarily hold at other levels; other relationships may be stronger, weaker, or oppositely signed. For example, if men were shown to engage in more corrupt behaviors than women, this would not mean that organizations or countries with higher proportions of men in them would necessarily be more corrupt.

So far, most psychological studies of corruption have been limited to studying corruption at the individual level of analysis (usually under the title of white collar crime or certain types of counterproductive work behaviors). However, though they have been relatively limited in research on national corruption, psychological variables may also provide unique insights into understanding corruption at the national level. Specifically, the purpose of the present research is to explore the role that national personality may play in explaining national corruption. We first review existing literature that links personality to corrupt behaviors at the individual level. Then, we build upon this knowledge to explore ways in which personality traits at the national level may relate to national corruption. Finally, we consider the joint roles that national personality and national culture may play in explaining national corruption. Personality and Corruption at the IndividualLevel of Analysis In the past decade, personality has made a strong appearance in research in I/O psychology on workplace deviance. However, considerable debate exists among personality theorists regarding the structure of the traits that make up personality. Much of the current research has focused on the Five Factor Model (Costa & McCrae, 1992; Digman, 1990), which contains the traits neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, conscientiousness, and agreeableness. However, Eysenck (1970) argued that three personality factors constituted the core of personality: neuroticism, extraversion, and psychoticism. Eysencks three traits are generally considered to align closely with the Five Factor Model, with neuroticism and extraversion being conceptualized similarly and with psychoticism representing a composite trait of conscientiousness and agreeableness (openness to experience is not clearly represented in this taxonomy; Bouchard & Loehlin, 2001). Alternate perspectives exist delineating the number of factors constituting the structure of personality (Digman, 1997; D. N. Jackson, Paunonen, Fraboni, & Goffin, 1996), but we focus here on the five and three factor models because of their centrality in previous research on corruption, because of their usefulness in organizing many subfacets of personality, and because of their relevance in the present study. Personalitys effects on corruption at the individual-level can be understood best by

17

examining personality correlates of counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs) and white collar crime. Recent meta-analyses have linked CWBs to conscientiousness (=.26), agreeableness (= .20), and integrity, a composite trait of conscientiousness, emotional stability and agreeableness. (= .47; Baehr, Jones, & Nerad, 1993; Salgado, 2002). In a separate meta-analysis, Berry, Ones, and Sackett (2005) studied the relationship of the Big 5 traits with organizational deviance (CWBs that are harmful to the organization) and interpersonal deviance (CWBs that are harmful to other coworkers). Again, agreeableness and conscientiousness were strongly related to measures of CWBs; however, these correlations diverged slightly when comparing interpersonal versus organizational deviance. Conscientiousness correlated more strongly with organizational deviance ( = -.42) than with interpersonal deviance ( = -.23), whereas agreeableness correlated more strongly with interpersonal deviance (= -.46) than with organizational deviance ( = -.32). In addition, emotional stability proved to be a moderate predictor of interpersonal and organizational deviance ( = -.24 and -.23, respectively). Note that the majority of these studies of CWBs have been conducted on samples at low- and mid-levels of the organization, rather than at more senior levels. However, CWBs at higher-levels of management (those positions in which individuals actually have adequate public power to engage in corrupt behavior) may be a slightly different construct. Some CWBs of high-level CWBs have direct analogs at lower levels (for example, embezzlement is very similar to theft), but other corrupt behaviors do not (e.g., bribery, extortion, insider-trading; H. L. Jackson, 2006). Thus, corrupt behaviors likely constitute a slightly different construct than counterproductive work behaviors that may have somewhat different antecedents. Given the difficulty in obtaining access to the counterproductive behaviors of seniorlevel leaders in an organization, relatively little research has been conducted examining the antecedents of senior level-counterproductivity (see H. L. Jackson, 2006). The research most closely associated is a study by Collins and Schmidt (1993) on white collar crime. Collins and Schmidt (1993) compared the backgrounds (measured by a biodata questionnaire) and personality traits (measured by the California Psychological Inventory and

an integrity test) of white collar crime convicts to a second sample of white collar employees. White collar offenders scored lower on integrity (d = 1.58), socialization (d = 1.02), responsibility (d = .57), and tolerance (d = .69) and higher on social extraversion (d = -.58) and anxiety (d = -.58) than their non-convict counterparts. Additionally, Baehr, Jones, and Nerad (1993) found internal locus of control and emotional health (two characteristics related to Big Five emotional stability) to be positively related to scores on a business ethics measure amongst a sample of uppermanagers. Within the framework of the Big Five, these studies suggest that white collar crime relates to low conscientiousness, and low emotional stability. An additional stream of individual-level research related to corruption has focused on whistleblowers. Whereas white-collar crime is an individual-level behavior increasing national corruption, whistle-blowing is an individuallevel behavior likely to reduce national corruption. Near and Micelli (1996) reviewed research on whistleblowing and described whistleblowers as being moral/religious, having low tolerance for ambiguity, low self-esteem, and having an external locus of control. Miceli, van Scotter, Near, and Rehg (2001) proposed that whistleblowers will be high on positive affect, low on negative affect, and will have proactive dispositions. Within the Big Five framework, whistleblowing is likely to be associated with conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness (the findings were inconsistent between whistleblowing and constructs related to emotional stability: negative affect, self-esteem, and locus of control; Judge, Locke, Durham, & Kluger, 1998). Corruption at the National-Level A considerable amount of research has emerged in the past few years examining relationships between personality at the national level and other national-level variables. This work has aimed to administer personality measures to representative samples within a wide number of countries and has calculated national means on those traits. Considering the personality of a nation may seem counterintuitive because personality is generally conceptualized as an individual-level variable, but these national personality scores describe the national character of a country (McCrae, 2001). The measurement of national

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character describes not only the inhabitants within a country but also the type of culture that likely emerges from such inhabitants. For example, a country with a high extraversion score will likely have citizens who are more extraverted, but their culture is also likely be more sociable, have more festivals and celebrations, etc. Interestingly, research has shown that national stereotypes do not align closely at all with national personality scores, suggesting the two constructs are fairly distinct (Terracciano et al., 2005). As noted above, existing research on national corruption has paid little research attention to psychological variables. One exception, however, is research examining the links between national corruption and national culture (which have been linked to national personality; see McCrae, 2001). Hofstede (1980; , 2001) defines culture as the collective programming of the mind and describes four different dimensions of culture. Individualism/ Collectivism (autonomy vs. assimilation with others), Masculinitiy/Femininity (valuing achievements and competition vs. caring and emotional attachments), Power Distance (the salience of social hierarchy and the degree of inequality) and Uncertainty Avoidance (the extent to which the unknown is seen as threatening). These four dimensions have been frequently studied in relation to other national characteristics. Husted (1999) examined the relationships between these cultural dimensions and national culture. Power distance was the strongest cultural predictor of corruption (r = .72), perhaps because high power distance countries tend to reward loyalty rather than merit, making subordinates be less likely to challenge the corrupt practices of their superiors. Masculinity showed a modest correlation with corruption (r = .27), consistent with claims that higher proportions of women in government reduce corruption (Dollar, Fisman, & Gatti, 2001; Swamy, Knack, Lee, & Azfar, 2001). Uncertainty avoidance showed a modest correlation with corruption (r = .32). Collectivism also showed a strong associated with corruption (r = .72); however, this relationship disappeared after controlling for wealth. To our knowledge, only one study has presented correlations between national personality and national corruption (van Hemert, van de Vijver, Poortinga, & Georgas, 2002). This study examined the relationships between national scores on the big three

personality traits (extraversion, psychoticism, and neuroticism, as well as a social desirability scale) and over 30 different other national variables, of which national corruption was one. Van Hemert et al. (2002) found that extraversion, psychoticism, and neuroticism were very weakly related to corruption (|r| < .14), but the social desirability scale was very strongly related to national corruption (r = .71). Although these links between personality and national corruption are particularly weak, we believe the relationships between these personality traits and national corruption merits reexamination for several reasons. First, the scope of van Hemert et al.s (2002) study afforded little attention to the theorizing about the relationships between these national personality and national corruption. As mentioned above, corruption was not the focus of this study at all, and its only treatment in the article was its tabled correlations and a few descriptive sentences. Second, van Hemert et al. (2002) culled their data on national personality scores from Lynn and Martin (1995), a source which has since been shown to have a number of inaccuracies in the scores reported based on the included samples (see Steel & Ones, 2002 for a discussion of some problems associated with data from this source). Correcting these errors is necessary lest national personality be otherwise dismissed from the study of national corruption entirely based entirely on potentially erroneous data. Third, no research has yet examined the combined effects of personality, the unique effects of each personality trait (controlling for the other traits, as well as for important economic variables). In addition, scholars of national cultural have begun debating about the roles of national personality and national culture in shaping the behavior of individuals. Hostede and McCrae (2004) jointly debate these discrepant perspectives. In this article, McCrae argues that nations differ in personality largely because of historical genetic differences and that these differences affect the personality and behavior of inhabitants of a nation, which in turn create the nations culture. In contrast, Hofstede argues that the culture of a nation strongly affects the way that individuals interpret and respond to their environment, which in turn affects the development of personality within that nation. In light of this debate, it is important that studies of national personality also consider its role in tandem with national culture. Thus, a final purpose of

19

the present study is to consider the joint roles of national personality and culture in predicting national corruption. Methods Sample Given that our study focuses on corruption at the national level, we created a database consisting of data on 62 countries (see Measures section below for a description of this database and Table 1 for a listing of countries included in our database). Of these 62 countries, 8 were in North America (12.9%), 8 were in South America (12.9%), 22 were in Europe (35.5%), 15 were in Asia (24.2%), 4 were from Africa (6.5%), 3 were from the Middle East (4.8%), and 2 were from Australia (3.2%). The Gross Domestic Product per capita (GDP per capita) for nations comprising our sample was .49 standard

deviations above the mean GDP per capita for all nations, and the mean national population of our sample was .49 standard deviations above the mean national population for all nations. In addition, the standard deviation of GDP per capita was 22% larger in our sample, and the standard deviation of the national population was 86% larger than the standard deviation for the national populations of all countries. Thus, our sample may not be entirely representative of all the nations in world. However, when considering that less than 200 recognized countries (by most counts) constitute the population of nations in the world, 62 nations constitutes a large proportion of the available population of nations. In addition, this sample is similar in size to other studies examining psychological variables at the national-level (e.g., McCrae, 2001; Steel & Ones, 2002; van Hemert et al., 2002).

Table 1. Countries in Our Database, Sample Sizes per Country, and Number of Corruption Perception Index (CPI) Ratings Country Argentina Australia Austria Bangladesh Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada Chile China Colombia Costa Rica Denmark Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Finland France Germany Greece Guatemala Hong Kong 732 949 811 1,336 1,301 1,330 171 377 4,691 3,477 111 153 37 425 6,646 7,907 127 23 88 1,000 175 164 567 172 252 30 737 36 1,396 1,038 1,257 715 164 2,861 1,075 1,057 690 1,328 1,884 654 EPQ Sample Size Hofstede Sample Sizes Time 1 Time 2 543 805 586 602 1,114 661 # CPI Ratings 10 10 9 4 10 10 7 10 10 9 10 8 10 7 7 7 10 10 10 10 6 9

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Studii i Cercetri Table 1 (continued) Country Hungary Iceland India Indonesia Iran Ireland Israel Italy Jamaica Japan Lithuania Malaysia Mexico Netherlands New Zealand Nigeria Norway Pakistan Panama Peru Philippines Portugal Romania Russia Singapore South Africa South Korea Spain Sri Lanka Sweden Switzerland Taiwan Thailand Turkey Uganda United Kingdom United States Uruguay Venezuela 1,476 1,476 1,198 3,236 3,967 175 217 27 318 3,731 1,027 80 106 62 1,200 994 1,030 1,128 951 1,304 1,160 71 1,163 1,014 1,067 785 349 209 600 58 518 30 1,202 430 802 360 37 152 138 158 459 70 26 152 161 243 988 876 1,318 1,404 175 498 593 173 27 518 1,204 240 1,050 802 624 EPQ Sample Size 962 1,144 981 231 186 115 119 142 1,797 181 2,345 24 4,103 28 116 132 215 Hofstede Sample Sizes Time 1 Time 2 # CPI Ratings 10 7 10 10 2 10 9 10 5 10 6 10 10 10 10 9 10 9 4 7 10 10 8 9 10 10 10 10 3 9 10 10 10 10 7 10 10 7 10 3

Yugoslavia 971 248 Note. Empty cells indicate measures for which data was not available.

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Measures Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI). To measure national corruption for each country, we created a composite index pooled from yearly scores on the Corruption Perceptions Index. The CPI is a yearly report published by Transparency International that rates nations on the extent of the misuse of public power for private benefit (Lambsdorff, 1995/2004). The CPI is regularly used by researchers and practitioners in economics, international politics, and international finance, and has been cited in over 70 journal articles (e.g., Habib & Zurawicki, 2002; Jain, 2001; Johnson, Kaufmann, & Zoido-Lobaton, 1998). The CPI is labeled as a survey of surveys; that is, the ratings it presents are calculated by combining responses to surveys on corruption from a variety of different sources. For a survey to be included in a years CPI rating, it must (a) sample across multiple countries, (b) contain some measure of global corruption within the country, and (c) have been conducted within the previous three years of a given CPI rating (e.g., the 2002 ratings for the CPI contained only surveys conducted between 2000 and 2002). Such surveys are usually conducted by large financial investors (e.g., the World Bank), but they are also conducted by advocacy groups and other Non-Governmental Organizations. Between 1995 and 2004, the CPI has included 71 administrations of 26 different surveys conducted by 21 different organizations. These 71 administrations of the surveys included between 11 and 155 countries, with a mean of 61.90 (SD = 46.29). These surveys have typically sampled managers, political and economic experts, expatriates, and the general public. Thus, the CPI represents a broad sampling of individuals and of methods of measuring corruption. Despite this breadth in sampling, the surveys show strong consistency: the 759 available intercorrelations of surveys have a mean correlation of r = .81 (SD = .14). The Appendix lists the sources and surveys included in the CPI, as well other information regarding the samples used and questions asked in these surveys. How the surveys are combined into the CPI has evolved through three different procedures. Initially, in the first procedure (1995-2000), survey results for each country were simply standardized (converted to zscores) and averaged. However, Lambsdorff (2001) point out that many of these surveys do not contain a random sample of countries. For

example, a survey may focus specifically on the worlds 20 most corrupt countries. If a survey sampling in such a way was included in the CPI, this survey would upwardly bias the CPI scores for most of these countries (i.e., approximately half of the countries would receive positive z-scores, whereas their truescore is well below the mean). Thus, the second procedure (2001) refined the procedure such that z-scores of the current survey results were used to adjust the countrys previous years CPI score. However, Lambsdorff (2002) show that such a procedure would continually constrain the variance in CPI scores. Thus, the third procedure (2002-2004) was introduced and used a matching percentiles technique. In this procedure, countries are ranked according the previous years CPI results. To create a new years CPI scores, countries sampled in a given survey are ranked according to the survey results. Based on these survey rankings, countries are matched to the rankings of the previous years CPI and are assigned a corresponding score th (for example, if a country was ranked 8 in a survey sampling 35 countries, that country would be assigned the previous years CPI th score of the 8 highest country out of those 35). Such matching continues to convert scores for all surveys, and those scores are then averaged across all surveys. Of the ten years for which the CPI has been computed, there are strong intercorrelations across years (M = .97, SD = .02), even for years without overlapping surveys computed using the first procedure (r > .94). In order to both maximize our sample and to create a more stable estimate of a countrys corruption, we created a composite overall CPI score that averaged all ten years of the CPIs scores ( = .997). This produced scores for 144 countries, 62 of which matched countries in our database. Finally, although high scores on the CPI typically represent lack of corruption in a country, we have reversed the signs of correlations and betas such that a positive correlation indicates that a variable is associated positively with corruption. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire To measure national personality, we used national means on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ). The EPQ is a commonly-used instrument designed around the three factor model of personality and measures three corresponding personality traits: Extraversion (E), Psychoticism (P), and Neuroticism (N). In addition, the instrument

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Studii i Cercetri

includes a measure of social desirability, the Lie (L) scale. The EPQ scales have shown internal consistencies between = .78 and = .90 (H. Eysenck, 1991), suggesting the instrument to have highly reliable scales. The EPQ was originally developed in Great Britain, but it has been translated into ___ languages. Despite this large number of translations, several studies have confirmed that the instrument retains its factor structure when administered in different languages and to different cultures (P. Barrett & Eysenck, 1984; P. T. Barrett, Petrides, Eysenck, & Eysenck, 1998). We obtained national-level data from Steel and Ones (2002), who made a number of corrections to data originally presented in Barrett and Eysenck (1984) and Lynn and Martin (1997). This data compiled national mean scores on E, P, N, and L scales based on national representative samples. This data was available for 39 nations for E, P, and N and for 24 nations for the L scale and was gathered between 1975 and 1998. Each country sampled 1,059 participants on average, with a range between 430 and 1912. This national level mean scores have also shown strong convergent validity and discriminant validity with national means on the NEO-PI-R (McCrae, 2001). Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions. To measure national culture, we used Hofstedes dimensions of national culture (Hofstede, 1980, 2001). Hofstede administered a measure of attitudes and values to 117,000 IBM employees in 72 countries. These employees spanned a variety of job classes, such as managers, sales representatives, and technicians. In administering the survey to employees, the survey was translated into 20 different languages. These translations were reviewed by bilingual reviewers to ensure equivalency. Hofstede (2001) factor analyzed national level mean scores for the 50 countries providing the largest samples. This analysis revealed four dimensions: individualism/ collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity/femininity. Scores on these dimensions for each of the 50 countries are provided in Hofstede (2001). Since first developed and released in 1980, these national level mean cultural scores have been used in a wealth of research, and Hofstede (2001) presents correlations of other national level variables with these cultural

dimensions from over 120 other sources. In addition, these national level mean scores have shown adequate test-retest reliability: a subset of the original 72 countries were surveyed twice within a four-year period. The mean scores of these countries showed strong consistency between administrations (Hofstede, 1980). On the whole, over 25 years of research have supported the reliability and validity of these scores. Wealth. To measure national wealth, data on the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita was culled from the statistics division of the U. N. (U.N. Statistics Division, 2005) for each country in our database. Gross domestic product is an estimate of the total value of all goods and services produced within a country per person for a given year. We calculated the average GDP per capita for each country from the period between 1990 and 1999, a period roughly concurrent with the time in which data was collected for the CPI and EPQ. Results To begin, means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations were calculated for all variables in our database. These statistics are presented in Table 2. In examining the correlations of personality variables with corruption, Psychoticism (r = .21) and the Lie scale (r = .57) were the strongest single personality predictors. This indicates that countries that are more Psychotic and have higher social desirability scores tend to also have more corruption. Several cultural variables also showed strong correlations with national corruption, specifically Individualism/ Collectivism (r = -.72), Power Distance (r = .69), and Uncertainty Avoidance (r = .41). This indicates that countries that are high in Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance but low in Individualism tend to be the most corrupt. Finally, national wealth was the strongest zeroorder predictor of national corruption (r = -.87). This finding suggests that poorer nations tend to have more corruption. Next, we examined the combined ability of these psychological variables to predict corruption by computing several multiple regression models. These regression models are presented in Table 3. In Model 1, all four personality variables were entered simultaneously, producing a multiple-Radj of Radj = .50 (N = 36). This suggests that national

23

Table 2. Country-level Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations for Personality, Culture, Wealth, and Corruption
Mean Extraversion Psychoticism Neuroticism Lie Scale Individualism Masculinity Power Distance Uncert. Avoid. Wealth* Corruption 18.26 4.67 14.37 15.24 43.94 48.86 55.98 65.90 10.78 5.23 SD 2.29 1.46 2.17 3.97 25.85 18.83 21.98 24.92 10.96 2.54 E 36 -.15 -.30 .16 .30 .20 -.12 .02 -.06 .09 36 .31 -.18 -.24 .27 .38 -.11 -.15 .21 36 -.23 -.15 .46 .51 .34 -.09 .15 24 -.38 -.56 .39 .07 -.68 .57 50 .07 -.67 -.35 .73 -.72 50 .06 -.03 .00 .15 50 .24 -.62 .69 50 -.27 .41 62 -.87 62 P N L I/C M/F PD UA Wealth Corrup

Note. Boldfaced correlations have 90% confidence intervals that do not include zero. Ns are presented in the diagonal and range from 15 to 62 for each cell. *Means and standard deviations are presented in thousands of dollars

personality is generally a very strong predictor of national corruption. In particular, examining the coefficients suggests that this prediction was driven primarily by Psychoticism ( = .23) and the Lie scale ( = .61), which was consistent with the zero-order correlations. Next, we examined the combined ability of national culture in predicting corruption. In Model 2, corruption was simultaneously regressed on all four cultural dimensions. This produced a multiple-Radj of Radj = .78 (N = 50), suggesting that national culture is strongly linked to national corruption. The coefficients suggest that corruption is most strongly predicted by Individualism ( = -.44) and Power Distance ( = .35). This suggests also that the relationship between Uncertainty Avoidance and corruption becomes considerably diminished once the other cultural variables are accounted for. Next, we compared the effectiveness of national personality and national culture in predicting corruption. Because these analyses were conducted using a moderately large number of predictors on a somewhat small sample (N = 15), we caution strongly against interpreting the -coefficients presented in these models. However, the sample size limitations do not as drastically affect interpretations of multiple-Radj values (Cohen, West, Aiken, & Cohen, 2002), which we focus on here. In Model 3, culture was first regressed on all four personality variables in Step 1, and the four cultural variables were added in Step 2. This suggested that adding national culture to national personality produced a change in multiple-Radj of Radj = .05. In Model 4,
24

corruption was regressed on national culture in Step 1, and national personality was added in Step 2. This showed that adding personality to national culture produced a change in multipleRadj of Radj = .09. Thus, although the Radj value in Model 2 of national culture alone was greater than the Radj value in Model 1 of national personality, national personality provided a greater increment over national culture for predicting national corruption. Finally, because national wealth was such a strong predictor of national corruption, we reran regression Models 1 and 2 with national wealth entered as a control variable. This data is presented in Table 4. When the four personality variables are added to wealth in predicting national corruption (Model 5), the multiple- Radj value actually decreased from Radj = .75 to .72. This finding suggests that effects of national personality on national culture may be fully mediated by national wealth. In model 6, national culture variables were added to predicting national corruption after national wealth was controlled for. In contrast to Model 5, the multiple-Radj value in Model 6 increased from Radj = .85 to Radj = .89. when national culture variables were added. However, the effect of Individualism is strongly diminished after national wealth is controlled for. This suggests that the effects of national culture on national corruption are partially mediated by national wealth, though culture likely has some independent effect on corruption as well.

Studii i Cercetri Table 3. Regression models of Combinations of Personality and Culture in Predicting National Corruption
Model 1: Personality Variable Step 1: Personality Extraversion Psychoticism Neuroticism Lie Scale Culture Individ. Masc. Power Dist. Unc. Avoid Step 2: Personality Extraversion Psychoticism Neuroticism Lie Scale Culture Individ. Masc. Power Dist. Unc. Avoid .06 .11 -.34 -.39 .06 .11 -.34 -.39 -.59 .68 .21 1.11 -.59 .68 .21 1.11 -.44 .16 .35 .17 .69 .05 .69 .09 -.11 -.26 .40 .45 .07 .23 .04 .61 -.30 .40 .21 .78 Radj .50 Radj - Radj .78 Model 2: Culture Radj - Model 3: Personality, Culture Radj .64 Radj - Model 4: Culture, Personality Radj .60 Radj -

Note. Boldfaced numbers indicate values for which the 90% confidence interval does not include zero. N = 36 for Model 1; N = 50 for Model 2; N = 15 for Models 3 and 4. Given the very low sample size for Models 3 and 4, extreme caution is warranted in interpreting the associated coefficients. Table 4. Regression models of Personality and Culture in Predicting National Corruption, Controlling for National Wealth
Variable Step 1: Wealth Step 2: Wealth Personality Extraversion Psychoticism Neuroticism Lie Scale Culture Individ. Masc. Power Dist. Unc. Avoid Model 5: Wealth, Personality Radj Radj .88 .85 --.88 -.03 -.86 .07 .03 .05 .03 -.10 .19 .17 .15 .89 .04 Radj Model 6: Wealth, Culture Radj .85 --.85

Note. Boldfaced numbers indicate values for which the 90% confidence interval does not cross zero. N = 36 for Model 1; N = 50 for Model 2

25

Discussion The purpose of this paper was to expand existing understanding of the correlates of national corruption to incorporate psychological variables. Past research has focused almost exclusively on describing economic and political antecedents to national corruption, with little theoretical or empirical attention paid to the influence of psychological variables on a nations level of corruption. However, the results described above show that psychological variablesspecifically, national personality and national cultureare strongly related to a nations level of corruption. Of the personality variables, psychoticism was consistently related to corruption, such that countries with higher mean levels of psychoticism also were higher in corruption. This finding is consistent with studies of psychoticism-related traits (conscientiousness, agreeableness, and integrity) at the individual level, which has shown these traits to be related to employee counterproductivity (Ones, Viswesvaran, & Schmidt, 1993; Salgado, 2002) and white collar crime (Collins & Schmidt, 1993). Therefore, the cause of this correlation between national level psychoticism and national level corruption may be because some nations possess individuals who are more likely to commit such acts. These nations may also have less success establishing and implementing laws, regulations, and punitive measures for such corrupt acts. Alternatively, the causal direction may point the other way: it may be that corruption within a country causes individuals to develop more psychotic personalities. In a country in which corruption is common and less strongly punished, psychotic behavior may be not only more common but also adaptive. That is, abiding by rules and laws in a society in which they are rarely followed may make an individual more vulnerable. Future research should delve more closely into understanding the nature of this relationship. In addition, national mean scores on a measure of social desirability were strongly predictive of national corruption. This finding is particularly interesting, given that there has been considerable debate in the research literature as to what these scores actually mean at the individual level. The classic perspective has been that these scores are useful for identifying individuals who have in

some way inflated their responses to personality items to present themselves in an overly positive way. From this perspective, individuals who score highly on a social desirability scale are being somewhat dishonest and deceitful in completing the personality measure. Interpreting our results from this perspective would suggest that nations whose inhabitants are deceitful and dishonest in completing a personality measure also tend to have inhabitants who are deceitful and dishonest in their professional behavior. Another perspective on social desirability scales is that these scales do not successfully flag dishonest responding at all but instead reflect aspects of several personality traits (specifically, conscientiousness and emotional stability; McCrae & Costa, 1983). Thus, it may be that national mean scores on a conglomerate of personality traits measured by social desirability scores is strongly related to national corruption. Future research on social desirability scales at both the national and individual level should seek to clarify the meaning of these relationships. In addition, several cultural variables were predictive of national corruption. Individualism was most strongly related to national corruption, though this relationship was largely diminished once wealth was statistically controlled. However, nations that were high in power distance and uncertainty avoidance were consistently higher in national corruption throughout our analyses. This may be because individuals in nations high in power distance may be less likely to blow the whistle on their corrupt superiors. In such environments, individuals may be more willing or likely to commit corrupt acts. Similarly, individuals in countries high in uncertainty avoidance may engage in more corrupt acts as a means of securing necessary outcomes (e.g., embezzling money to ensure financial solvency; Hofstede, 2001). Alternatively, the causal direction may point the other way: high amounts of corruption within a country mean that individuals welfare is less secure, which would make forms of uncertainty more threatening. Thus, in addition to scrutinizing national personality, future research should also continue to scrutinize the impact that national culture may have on corruption. Our analyses also examined aspects of an on-going debate as to whether national personality or national corruption is more central within a culture (Hofstede & McCrae, 2004). Aspects of our results speak to both

26

Studii i Cercetri

sides of this debate. National culture was a much stronger predictor of corruption than was national personality, and national culture had unique contributions to predicting national corruption above national wealth. However, national personality provided a greater increment above national culture in predicting national corruption, suggesting that national personality may make more unique contributions to the prediction of corruption. Thus, our findings point to the need for further research as these complimentary and competing perspectives continue to evolve. The findings presented here have implications for a wide variety of areas of research and application. First, for individuals working closely with national corruption (e.g., researchers and international investors and politicians), this paper highlights a need for greater attention to incorporating national-level psychological variables into studying national corruption. In particular, national culture had considerable impact on corruption above and beyond national wealth. These national-level psychological variables may have an impact on corruption that cannot be accounted for by the customary economic and political indicators. Clearly, future research is needed to expand the available national-level psychological data, both in terms of the number of countries for which such data is available and the number of nationa-level psychological indicators available. In addition, these national-level findings may have implications for organizations, as well. Organizations continually use personality measures to select individuals who will make their organization a strong performer that is free from corruption, and organizations also attempt to foster an organizational culture that advances the same goals. Yet, most research conducted in this area has focused on individual-level relationships, with comparisons across organizations on organizational variables being terribly rare. Given that such data is terribly difficult to obtain, our results here may shed some light on the effects of personality on counterproductivity in the aggregate. In other words, what makes for corrupt nations may also make for corrupt organizations. This is clearly an area in need of future research, yet our results here may offer a preliminary understanding of aggregate processes of personality. In discussing the findings and their implications here, several limitations of this

study should be born in mind. First, the samples included in our database are not a random sampling of the worlds nations. Specifically, Europe and North America are likely overrepresented, whereas Africa, South America, Asia, and the Middle East are likely underrepresented. Furthermore, our sample may be more culturally homogenous than the remainder of the world (e.g., only cultures accepting of psychological testing are represented here). However, if this is the case, this would likely create range restriction on our predictor variables, making our analyses here a conservative test of the relationships between corruption and national personality and culture. As more data becomes available with the globalization of psychological testing, this will allow for more representative sampling of nations. In addition, our measure of corruption, the Corruption Perceptions Index, is based entirely on individuals perceptions of corruption in a country. Although the CPI samples from a large base of different individuals and therefore incorporates many different though agreeing perspectives, it is possible that these perceptions do not validly reflect the actual amount of corruption in a country. In a recent Science article, Terracciano et al. (2005) showed that nationallevel stereotypes do not accurately reflect the national personality of a country, and it is possible that the same national misperception affects the CPI. However, in contrast to this research, the CPI surveys generally incorporate individuals who are either experts in corruption or who are likely to have some firsthand knowledge of corrupt behavior. Nonetheless, future research should reexamine this question using an alternate index of national corruption that is not based on perceptions. The present study has provided a more detailed examination of the effect of national personality on corruption and has made a strong case for considering the effects that national psychological variables may have on the corruption of an entire nation. As research continues to emerge that allow for a more complete understanding of the mechanisms through which these psychological variables function, improved interventions may be designed to alleviate the corruption within corrupted countries. Given the terrible consequences associated with national corruption, this topic merits further scrutiny from all relevant fields.

27

References Akindele, S. T. (1995). Corruption: An analytical focus on the problems of its conceptualisation. IFE Psychologia: An International Journal, 3, 55-69. Baehr, M. E., Jones, J. W., & Nerad, A. J. (1993). Psychological correlates of business ethics orientation in executives. Journal of Business & Psychology, 7, 291-308. Barrett, P., & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1984). The assessment of personality factors across 25 countries. Personality and Individual Differences, 5, 615-632. Barrett, P. T., Petrides, K. V., Eysenck, S. B. G., & Eysenck, H. J. (1998). The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire: An examination of the factorial similarity of P, E, N, and L across 34 countries. Personality and Individual Differences, 25, 805-819. Berry, C. M., Ones, D. S., & Sackett, P. R. (2005). A Critical Review and Meta-analysis of the Relationships Between Interpersonal Deviance, Organizational Deviance, and Their Common Correlates.Unpublished manuscript. Bouchard, T. J., & Loehlin, J. C. (2001). Genes, evolution, and personality. Behavior Genetics, 31, 243-273. Cohen, J., West, S. G., Aiken, L., & Cohen, P. (2002). Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Collins, J. M., & Schmidt, F. L. (1993). Personality, integrity, and white collar crime: A construct validity study. Personnel Psychology, 46, 295-311. Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual. Odessa , FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Digman, J. M. (1990). Personality structure: Emergence of the Five-Factor Model. Annual Review of Psychology, 41, 417-440. Digman, J. M. (1997). Higher-order factors of the Big Five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1246-1256. Dollar, D., Fisman, S., & Gatti, R. (2001). Are women really the "fairer" sex? Corruption and women in government. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 46, 423-429.

Eysenck, H. (1991). The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised. Sevenoaks: Hodder and Stoughton. Eysenck, H. J. (1970). The Structure of Human Personality. London: Methuen & Co. Goldsmith, A. A. (1999). Slapping the grasping hand: Correlates of corruption in global markets. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 58, 865-883. Habib, M., & Zurawicki, L. (2002). Corruption and foreign direct investment. Journal of International Business Studies, 33, 291-307. Hofstede, G. S. (1980). Culture's Consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hofstede, G. S. (2001). Culture's Consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hofstede, G. S., & McCrae, R. R. (2004). Personality and culture revisited: Linking traits and dimensions of culture. CrossCultural Research: The Journal of Comparative Social Science, 38, 52-88. Husted, B. (1999). Wealth, culture, and corruption. Journal of International Business Studies, 30, 339-359. Jackson, D. N., Paunonen, S. V., Fraboni, M., & Goffin, R. D. (1996). A five-factor versus sixfactor model of personality structure. Personality and Individual Differences, 20, 33-45. Jackson, H. L. (2006). Ethical Misconduct of Senior Leaders: Counterproductive Work Behaviors at the Top. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. Jain, A. K. (2001). Corruption: A review. Journal of Economic Surveys, 15, 71-121. Johnson, S., Kaufmann, D., & Zoido-Lobaton, P. (1998). Regulatory discretion and the unofficial economy. American Economic Review, 88, 387-392. Judge, T. A., Locke, E. A., Durham, C. C., & Kluger, A. N. (1998). Dispositional effects on job and life satisfaction: The role of core evaluations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 17-34. Klein, K. J., Bliese, P. D., Kozlowski, S. W. J., Dansereau, F., Gavin, M. B., Griffin, M. A., et al. (2000). Multilevel analytical techniques: Commonalities, differences, and continuing questions. Multilevel theory, research, and methods in organizations, 51, 512-553. Klein, K. J., Dansereau, F., & Hall, R. J. (1994). Levels issues in theory development, data

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Studii i Cercetri collection, and analysis. Academy Management Review, 19, 195-229. of Ones, D. S., Viswesvaran, C., & Schmidt, F. L. (1993). Comprehensive meta-analysis of integrity test validities findings and implications for personnel selection and theories of job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 679-703. Salgado, J. (2002). The Big Five personality dimensions and counterproductive behaviors. International Journal of Selection & Assessment, 10, 117-125. Steel, P., & Ones, D. S. (2002). Personality and happiness: A national-level analysis. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 83, 767781. Swamy, A., Knack, S., Lee, Y., & Azfar, O. (2001). Gender and Corruption. Journal of Development Economics, 64, 25-55. Terracciano, A., Abdel-Khalek, A. M., Adam, N., Adamovova, L., Ahn, C., Ahn, H. N., et al. (2005). National character does not reflect mean personality trait levels in 49 cultures. Science, 310, 96-100. van Hemert, D. A., van de Vijver, F. J. R., Poortinga, Y. H., & Georgas, J. (2002). Structural and functional equivalence of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire within and between countries. Personality & Individual Differences, 33, 1229-1249. Xin, X., & Rudel, T. K. (2004). The context for political corruption: A cross-national analysis. Social Science Quarterly, 85, 294-309.

Lambsdorff, J. G. (1995/2004). Background paper to the Corruption Perceptions Index: Transparency International and the University of Passau Lynn, R., & Martin, T. (1995). National differences for thirty-seven nations in extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism and economic, demographic and other correlates. Personality and Individual Differences, 19, 403-406. Lynn, R., & Martin, T. (1997). Gender differences in extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism in 37 nations. Journal of Social Psychology, 137, 369-373. McCrae, R. R. (2001). Trait psychology and culture: Exploring intercultural comparisons. Journal of Personality, 69, 819-846. McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. (1983). Social desirability scales: More substance than style. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 882-888. Miceli, M. P., van Scotter, J. R., Near, J. P., & Rehg, M. T. L. E. A. (2001). Responses to perceived organizational wrongdoing: Do perceiver characteristics matter? In J. M. Darley, D. M. Messick & e. al (Eds.), Social influences on ethical behavior in organizations (pp. 119-135). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Appendix Characteristics of surveys incorporated in the 1995-2004 Corruption Perceptions Index

Organization Business International

Source

Years administered 1980

Yearly Sample/Size Staff of journalists

# of Countries 68

Subject Degree to which transactions involve corruption or questionable payments Severity of corruption within the state Losses and costs due to corruption The misuse of public office for private gain

Years in CPI 1995-6

Columbia University DRI/McGraw-Hill

State Capacity Survey Global Risk Service Country Risk Service and Country Forecast

2001-2003

224-251 country experts (US) Expert staff

95-121

2002-4

1997

106

1997

Economist Intelligence Unit

1998-2004

Expert staff (expatriates)

115-142

19982004

29

Freedom House

Nations in Transit

1998, 20002004

Experts (US, regional, and in-country experts)

27/28

Extent of corruption as practiced in governments, as perceived by the public and as reported in the media as well as the implementation of anticorruption initiatives.

19992004

Gallup

50th Anniversary Survey

1997

34000 in the general public

44

A lot, many, few or no cases of corruption for politicians, public officials, policemen, and judges.

1997-9

Gallup International/Trans parency International

Corruption Survey

2002

835 Senior business people

21

How common are bribes to politicians, senior civil servants, and judges and how significant of an obstacle are the costs associated with such payments for doing business?

2002-4

Goettingen University

Internet Corruption Perception Index

1997

246 Internet users

71

Are public officials often, sometimes, or rarely asking for bribes

1997

Information International

Survey of Middle Eastern Businesspeople

2003

165 Senior businesspeo ple from Bahrain, Lebanon and UAE

31

How common are bribes, how costly are they for doing business and how frequently are public contracts awarded to friends and relatives in neighboring countries Bribing and corruption exist in the public sphere/economy

2003-4

International Institute for Management Development

World Competitiveness Yearbook

1992-1994, 1996-2004

2515-4166 Executives in top and middle management ; domestic and international companies

46-51

19952004

International Working Group

International Crime Victim Survey

1997, 2000

20,00040,000 in the general public

11

During 1995, has any government official, for instance a customs officer, police officer, or inspector in your own country, asked or expected you to pay a bribe for his services

1999, 2000

Merchant International Group

Grey Area Dynamics

2004

Expert staff and network of local corresponde nts

155

Corruption, ranging from bribery of government ministers to inducements payable to the humblest clerk."

2004

30

Studii i Cercetri
Political & Economic Risk Consultancy Asian Intelligence Newsletter 1997-2004 280->1000 Expatriate business execs. 12, 14 How bad do you consider the problem of corruption to be in the country in which you are working as well as in your home country? Levels of corruption 19972004

Bank Executives Survey Political Risk Service Expert staff Survey

1992-1994

60 senior executives of banks Expert staff

10

1995-6

1988, 1998

128

Likeliness to demand special and illegal payments in high and low levels of government Assessment of "corruption in government" Frequency of corruption in various contexts (e.g. obtaining import/export permits or subsidies, avoiding taxes) How widespread is the incidence of corruption?

1996, 1998

International Country Risk Guide PriceWaterhouse Coopers Opacity Index

2000

Expert staff

140

19992000 2000-3

2001

1,357 CFOs, equity analysts, bankers and PwC staff 398 Experts within the bank

34

Unnamed

A Multilateral Development Bank Survey

2002

47

2003-4

Wall Street Journal, Central European Economic Review World Bank

Annual Survey

1997

Business analysts in Europe and US 10,900 Senior managers

26

Effect of corruption on attractiveness of country as a place to do business

1999

World Business Environment Survey

2001

79

Frequency of bribing and "corruption as a constraint to business"

2000-3

World Development Report, Private Sector Survey World Bank/ERBD Business Environment & Enterprise Performance Survey (BEEPS) Global Competitveness Report

1997

3500 Business executives

73

1999, 2002

3000/6500 senior business people 1537-8700 Senior business leaders 582/1,800 senior business leaders

20/25

Irregular, additional payments are common and represent an obstacle to doing business Frequency of irregular additional payments; how problematic is corruption for business? Undocumented extra payments connected with various government functions. How problematic is corruption? Are irregular, additional payments required? In large amounts? The likelihood of encountering corrupt officials, ranging from petty bureaucratic corruption to grand political corruption.

1998-9

2000, 2003-4

World Economic Forum

1996-2004

40-104

19982004

Africa Competitiveness Report

1998, 2000

20, 26

19992002

World Markets Research Center

Risk Ratings

2002, 2004

Expert staff

186

2003-4

31

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THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN STRESS, WELL-BEING, JOB SATISFACTION, AND COPING IN THREE EUROPEAN COUNTRIES Peter T. van den Berg Tilburg University, The Netherlands Horia D. Pitariu University Babe-Bolyai, Romania
1

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between stressors, job satisfaction, well-being, the influence of coping on these relationships and differences for Great Britain, Romania and The Netherlands using the Occupational Stress Indicator-2. 224 participants in Great Britain, 239 participants in Romania and 242 participants in the Netherlands filled in the questionnaire. The stressors workload, hassles and poor organisational climate did have a negative relationship with wellbeing, as expected. The stressor personal responsibility had a positive relationship with well-being. Country was moderating the relationship between managerial role and well-being and personal responsibility and well-being. Coping was mediating the relationships of poor relationships and well-being, and home/work balance and wellbeing. Well-being did not have a significant relationship with job satisfaction. Scopul acestui studiu a fost acela de e examina relatiile dintre stresori, satisfacia la locul de munc, stare de bine, influena capacitii de adaptare la aceste relaii i difereni i difereele intre Marea Britanie, Romania si Olanda, folosind OSI-2 (Occupational Stress Indicator-2). Chestionarul a fost compeltat de ctre 224 participani din Marea Britanie, 239 participani din Romnia i 242 participani din Olanda.Dup cum s-a ateptat, stresorii incrctura muncii, certurile i un climat organizaional nesatisfctor au corelat negativ cu starea de bine. Stresorul responsabilitate personal a corelat pozitiv cu starea de bine. Variabila stat a moderat relatia dintre rolul managerial i starea de bine, i responsabilitatea personal i starea de bine. Capacitatea de adaptare a mediat relatiile dintre relaiile deficitare si starea de bine, i balana familie/loc de munca i starea de bine. Starea de bine nu a corelat semnificativ cu satisfacia la locul de munc.
Key-words: stress, job satisfaction, well-being, coping, cultural differences
1

INTRODUCTION

During the last 10 years much research has been done on well-being in general, but less research has been done on mental well-being in relation to work and the influence that culture can have on this relationship. These relationships are important since work is an important part of individual
1

Adresa de contact: Peter T. van den Berg, Work and Organizational Psychology, Tilburg University, P.O. Box 90153, 5000 LE Tilburg, The Netherlands. Electronic mail may be sent to P.T.vandenBerg@uvt.nl.

lives and society as a whole. The purpose of this study is therefore to examine the relationships between stressors, job satisfaction and mental well-being and the effect of coping on those relationships. Furthermore, the influence of the national culture of Great Britain, Romania and the Netherlands will be examined. Since the Occupational Stress Indicator 2 (OSI-2) combines different scales, this instrument will be used. The original OSI was developed as a standardised measure that can be used in different sectors in different countries (C.L. Cooper, personal communication, July 18, 2006). The OSI-2 measures, among other

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things, well-being, job satisfaction, stressors and coping. Mental Well-being Well-being is peoples positive evaluation of their lives, and it includes positive emotion, engagement, satisfaction and meaning, (Seligman in Diener & Seligman, 2004). There are two types of well-being. The first type is physical well-being and the second type is mental well-being. Physical well-being can be measured subjectively and objectively. In the case of physical well-being, the presence of several diseases, cardiovascular diseases and cancer for example, can be objectively measured. The subjective measurement of well-being is achieved by asking people to assess their physical and/or mental well-being. During the last 10 years quite a lot of research has been done on the relationships of well-being and other concepts. For some time researchers assumed that a higher income would make people happier. But the mental well-being of people has decreased over the last decades, while prosperity has increased (Diener & Seligman, 2004, Gaillard, 2003). Research has found that after reaching a certain amount of gross national product, there is no relationship between prosperity and wellbeing (Diener & Seligman, 2004, Larsen & Buss, 2002). Income has a very weak effect on happiness when basic needs are met (Larsen & Buss, 2002). In poor countries, where basic needs are not met yet, an increase of income does have a positive effect on happiness. These basic needs are, among other things, food, security and shelter (Larsen & Buss, 2002). This study will focus on mental wellbeing and its relationships with other concepts, since it is interesting to examine what can contribute or harm well-being, so that employers will know what to do to make or keep their employees happy and satisfied. Well-being has been measured differently by different researchers, measuring different concepts (Diener & Seligman, 2004). Warr (in Sui, 2002) categorised, among other constructs, job related tension, job related depression, job related burnout and morals as job related well-being. The OSI-2 measures well-being by using three concepts, namely contentment, resilience and peace of mind. In studies by other authors using the OSI these three concepts are called state of mind, resilience and confidence level or anxiety-

depression, resilience and worry, which is linked to the categorisation of Warr. Job Satisfaction Besides well-being, job satisfaction is also an important concept in work and organisation literature. Work is important in peoples lives. Not only do they spend a reasonable amount of time at work and they will, because of social factors in a country, have to continue working longer than a decade ago, work can also be an important part of life in terms of identity. Since work is important in peoples lives, satisfaction with work is also important. Brief in Sparks, Concoran, Nabors and Hovanitz (2005, p. 923) defined job satisfaction as a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job experiences. For Spector (1997) job satisfaction is how people feel about their jobs and different aspects of their jobs. As it is an attitudinal variable (p. 2). Previous research that has been done, focused, for example, on the relationship between job satisfaction and personality characteristics and mood (Ilie & Judge, 2002), the relationship between job satisfaction and life satisfaction and the possible influence of commitment on this relationship (Moser & Schuler, 2004) and the relationship of job satisfaction with professionalism, rewards and market orientation (Hampton & Hampton, 2004). Stressors Stressors are stressful events. Stressors are therefore the causes of stress (the state) and the stress reaction (the results) (Gaillard, 2003). At the beginning of research on stress the focus was on these stressors, but these stressors cannot completely account for a stressful experience (Taylor, 2003). Therefore it is important to make a distinction between stressor and stress. Past research has pointed out some stressors as conditions that are likely to cause stress (Taylor, 2003). These can be divided in 4 broad categories of stressors at work, namely workload, work organisation, physical aspects and psychosocial aspects (Gaillard, 2003). Examples of the concepts that are part of these categories are work pace, pressure of time, extent of autonomy, loud noises and poor relationships, both at home and at work (Gaillard, 2003, Taylor, 2003). Some of these stressors can be measured objectively, like the amount of work and loud noises, but the majority, like social

33

support, can only be assessed subjectively. The stressor will be appraised by a person. All events are primary appraised to assess their consequences as positive, neutral or negative. If these consequences are appraised as negative, they have to be appraised to the extent of harmfulness or threat for the future, or the possibility of a challenge and also appraised secondarily, which means that the sources of coping skills and sources to cope with the threat or challenge are assessed (Taylor, 2003). Only when the event is appraised as negative and there are not enough sources of coping skills stress occurs (Taylor, 2003). Stress is a state in which a person is not able or does not consider himself/herself to be able to meet with the demands of the environment (Gaillard, 2003, p. 127). According to Kompier (Kompier in Gaillard, 2003, p. 127) there are some conditions that have to be added to this definition, for instance that the person has to have interest in the situation, the person has something to lose if the situation ends badly, the person cannot or does not want to withdraw from the situation, and the person must feel insecure about the course of the events. Coping Coping is the process of dealing with demands, which are thought of as exceeding the sources of that person. There are several taxonomies, which were developed by different researchers. One of the first taxonomies of coping was developed by Lazarus and Folkman (Lazarus& Folkman in Bennett, 2000) which divided two main types of coping, namely problem focused coping and emotion focused coping. Among them are several coping strategies, like confrontive coping, distancing, self-control, seeking social support, accepting responsibility, avoidance, planful problem solving and positive reappraisal (Lazarus & Folkman in Bennett, 2000, p. 177). A taxonomy that divides three coping strategies is the taxonomy of Endler, Parker and Summerfeldt (Endler, Parker & Summerfeldt in Bennet, 2000). These coping strategies are task-oriented, emotion-oriented and avoidance-oriented. Some concepts have a relationship with coping; personality for example can influence the selection of coping responses and strategies (Taylor, 2003). Cultures and Countries In this study 3 countries, Great Britain, Romania and The Netherlands will be

classified on basis of the 5 dimensions of Hofstede (2001). These 3 countries were chosen since they differ on the cultural dimensions of Hofstede and on the economical and political situation, which can all have an impact on work life. First the dimensions of Hofstede will be discussed and after that the economical and political situations. Hofstede defines the first dimension, power distance as the power distance between a boss B and a subordinate S in a hierarchy is the difference between the extent to which B can determine the behaviour of S and the extent to which S can determine the behaviour of B, (2001, p. 83). In countries in which power distance is high there are large organisation pyramids; the ideal boss is somebody showing autocratic leadership and managers are not satisfied with their career (Hofstede, 2001). The second dimension is uncertainty avoidance. Uncertainty consists of 3 components, namely rule orientation, employment stability and stress (Hofstede, 2001). The component rule orientation means if people think that rules of a company can be broken, if people, for example, think that rules always have to be complied with, then this indicates an intolerance of uncertainty (Hofstede, 2001). The second component, employment stability, refers to the time the person expects to work for the same company. The third component, stress, refers to how often the employee feels nervous or tensed during work (Hofstede, 2001). The third dimension is individualismcollectivism. Individualism indicates care for oneself opposed to care for the group one belongs to (Berry, Poortinga, Segaal & Dasen, 2002). The fourth dimension is masculinityfemininity. Masculinity refers to the extent of emphasis on work goals and assertiveness as apposed to interpersonal goals and nurturance (Berry et al., 2002, p. 64). People, who live in countries that score high on the dimension masculinity, live, in general, to work and managers are expected to be assertive, decisive and aggressive (Hofstede, 2001). The last dimension, which was added later on, is long term versus short term orientation. Long term orientation stands for the fostering of virtues oriented towards future rewards, in particular, perseverance and thrift. The opposite pole, short term orientation, stands for the fostering of virtues related to the past and present, in particular, respect for tradition, preservation of face, and fulfilling social obligations, (Hofstede, 2001, p. 359). Long term orientation concerns the values in

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the country that focus on the future and short term orientation, concerns about the values in the country that focus on the past and present. The economical situation in Romania is very different from those of Great Britain and the Netherlands, partly due to the great political changes this country has gone through over the last the past years (Pitariu, 2004). The political changes influenced the economy and job market, which can cause stress. Even though the country is working towards a strong competitive economy, it is not yet the same as Great Britain or The Netherlands. Great Britain and the Netherlands are also quite different. Although both are stable democratic countries, their economic situation can be quite different, also due to the direct economical link between the Netherlands and the European Union, which can influence the job market and, thus possible stress in the state. The Relationships Between the Constructs The relationships between the constructs, well-being, sources of pressure, coping and job satisfaction, for managers in Hong Kong and Taiwan were studied (Siu, Lu & Cooper, 1999). Since only a limited group in Asia was studied here, more research is necessary to study the relationships between the constructs for people that have different functions. In the study of Siu. (Siu et al.,1999) it becames clear that there were differences in the relationships between the two countries. For managers in Hong Kong, for instance, organisational climate had a negative relationship with mental well-being and for managers in Taiwan, managerial role and hassles had a negative relationship with mental well-being. The relationship between stressor and wellbeing Since there is a large amount of possible stressors it is not possible to study all these stressors and, therefore, a selection is made of stressors examined in this study, based on the OSI-2. The specific stressors of the OSI were psychometrically determined by the developers of this instrument after multivariate analysis (C.L. Cooper, personal communication, July 18, 2006). These stressors are: workload, poor relationships, home/work balance, managerial role, personal responsibility, lack of recognition, hassles and organisational climate. Some of these stressors were studied before in relation to well-being, others have not yet been studied. Even though the same stressors were

examined in the study of Siu et al. (1999), not every stressor was considered thoroughly. Therefore, for some stressors reference will be made to other research and for some stressors there will be no further information available yet. Since the study of Siu et al.(1999) indicated that sources of stress have a negative relationship with well-being, a negative relationship will be assumed between well-being and the stressors that were not thoroughly considered by Siu et al.(1999) or examined in other research. In some studies, which examine the relationship between stressors and well-being, there was a limited group of participants, which makes the outcomes possibly not generalisable to other professional groups. Workload. Some research has been done on the relationship between workload and well-being. Rydstedt, Johansson and Evans (1998) for example conducted a longitudinal research on the relationships between workload, health and well-being for bus drivers. The research was concerned with workload that was perceived by the participants and participants were actually asked if they thought that the workload was too high. Well-being was measured by asking the participants how much they had to make an effort to do their jobs on an average workday. The results showed that change in workload predicted the perceived effort, so change in workload predicted well-being. What was remarkable was that there was no difference in the relationship between workload and wellbeing for men and women. Other research on the relationship between workload and wellbeing is the study of Geurts, Kompier, Roxburgh and Houtman (2003). In this study the focus was on the mediating role of workhome interference on the relationship between workload and well-being. Two indicators of well-being were used, namely affective wellbeing and subjective health. The researchers used the Effort-Recovery Model that assumes that recovery of workload effects, when the person is not working, plays a crucial role in the relationship between workload and wellbeing. The research shows that home/work interference fully mediated the relationship between workload and well-being. Workload has therefore no direct relationship with wellbeing, but this effect is present because of spill over of workload through which recovery in leisure time is hindered. The hypothesis, based on previous research is therefore:

35

Hypothesis 1a: Workload has a positive relationship with home/work balance. A relationship that is connected with this relationship is between home-work balance and well-being. Home/work balance. Home/ work balance is a term that is not used frequently. The terms work-to-home, work-to-familyconflict or family-to-work conflict are used more frequently. According to Geurts et al.(2003) work-to-home interference is the same as work-to-family conflict. Home/work balance is more concerned with family- to-work conflict, where a person can not function well at work because of responsibilities at home. This is less frequently occurring than work-to-family conflict (Geurts et al., 2003), but family-to-work conflict has a significant relationship with stress and, besides that, there is a moderately strong relationship between work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict (Anderson, Coffey & Byerly, 2002). It is therefore useful to examine the explored relationships of work-tofamily conflict and well-being. In a study by Parasuraman, Purohit, Godshalk and Beutell (1996) well-being was measured for entrepreneurs by using 3 indicators, namely career satisfaction, family satisfaction and life stress. Results showed that work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict both influenced well-being, though they influenced different aspects of well-being. Work-to-family conflict had a relationship with increased life stress and family-to-work conflict with a decreased career satisfaction. A few years later Grant-Vallone and Donaldsson (2001) conducted a longitudinal study on the consequences of work-family conflict on the well-being on employees. Well-being was measured by using the General Well-being scale. Results showed that work-family conflict, social desirability being checked for, is a longitudinal predictor of positive well-being. Longitudinal research has also been done on the relationship between work-to-family conflict, well-being and satisfaction (Kinnunen, Geurts & Mauno, 2004). Well-being was measured by well-being in the parental role and general well-being. Results showed that the relationship between these variables was different for men and women. For women work-to-family conflict predicted job dissatisfaction, well-being in the parental role and the psychological symptoms of general well-being one year later. For men low job satisfaction or well-being precedes work-tofamily conflict. Research of Anderson et

al.(2002) shows furthermore an indirect negative relationship between family-to-work conflict and job satisfaction. The following hypothesis is based on the results of the preceding studies described. Hypothesis 1b: home/work balance has a negative relationship with well-being. Poor relationships. The stressor poor relationships is concerned with the possible pressure caused by absence of consultation and communication at work, the lack of encouragement of managers and inadequate feedback on performance. In the past years research has mainly been done on the influence of support of the manager on wellbeing of the employee, which is part of the stressor poor relationships. The first study on this topic was done in the seventies (Gavin, Kelly in Gilbreath & Benson, 2004). Moyle (1998) has done research on the influence of support of the manager on well-being of the employee. Support of the manager was found to be influencing job satisfaction. Managerial support also had a relationship with mental health. Gilbreath and Beson (2004) found support for their hypothesis that the behaviour of the supervisor influences the well-being of the employee. They examined a lot of different kinds of behaviour of supervisors, for instance job control, leadership, communication and consideration. Some of these behaviours of the supervisor will also be examined in this study. Relationships are thus very important for the employee and the hypothesis is therefore: Hypothesis 2: Poor relationships have a negative relationship with well-being. Lack of recognition. Lack of recognition is not working at the appropriate level in terms of skills, unclear promotion expectations, the lack of potential career progress and possibilities for personal development. Arnold (1994) examines, among other things, the relationship between possibilities to use skills and well-being. Skill use is part of recognition. Well-being was measured through 3 aspects, namely self -assurance, adjustment and life satisfaction. The possibility to use skills only had a relationship with one aspect of wellbeing, namely self assurance. The hypothesis based on these results is as follows: Hypothesis 3: Lack of recognition has a negative relationship with well-being.

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Organisational climate. The stressor organisational climate consists of different aspects, such as changes in the way the employees are asked to do their jobs, factors that are not under the control of employees, moral and organisation climate itself and characteristics of the organisations structure and design. Research of Mkikangas and Kinnunen (2003), which measured well-being on basis of job satisfaction, emotional exhaustion, mental distress and physical symptoms, showed that a poor organisation climate had a positive relationship with one negatively formulated aspect of well-being, namely emotional exhaustion and a negative relationship with one aspect of well-being, namely job satisfaction for women, while for men a poor organisation climate had a significant relationship with all indicators of well-being. The hypothesis, based on the results of preceding research, is as follows: Hypothesis 4: A poor organisational climate has a negative relationship with well-being. The other stressors in this study that might be important are managerial role, personal responsibility and hassles at work. The stressors managerial role means the stress that can be caused by the tasks of a manager, such as firing people and business travel. Examples of personal responsibility are taking risks, making decisions, dealing with ambiguous situations and the implications of mistakes. Examples of hassles are keeping up with innovations, attending meetings and being available. At this moment there is only research of Siu et al.(1999) known studying the relationship between these stressors and wellbeing. For the stressors hassles, managerial role and personal responsibility a negative relationship with well-being is expected, as explained earlier. Hypothesis 5: Hassles have a negative relationship with well-being. Hypothesis 6: Managerial role has a negative relationship with well-being. Hypothesis 7: Personal responsibility has a negative relationship with well-being. Besides the direct relationship between stressor and well-being culture can also influence the extent to which a potential stressor is perceived as a stressor. For power distance an effect is expected on the extent to

which managerial role is perceived as a stressor and for uncertainty avoidance on personal responsibility. For employees in a culture that scores low on the dimension power distance, being seen as the boss and having to fire people can be perceived as something very unpleasant, since people in these countries prefer to have small power distance between superior and subordinate. The power distance is expected to be higher in Romania than in Great Britain and The Netherlands. Hypothesis 8: For employees from Great Britain and the Netherlands, the relationship between managerial role and well-being will be stronger than for employees from Romania. For employees in a culture that scores high on the dimension uncertainty avoidance, having a lot of responsibility, taking risks and dealing with ambiguous situations can be experienced as very stressful. Romania is expected to have the highest ranking, of these three countries, on uncertainty avoidance, followed by Great Britain and The Netherlands. Hypothesis 9: For employees from Romania, the relationship between personal responsibility and well-being is stronger than for employees from Great Britain and The Netherlands. Coping as a mediator of the relationship between stressor and well-being The role of coping has been discussed for years. Since the following research shows that coping has a relationship with well-being and has a mediating role in the relationship of stressor and job satisfaction, this study will examine the mediating role of coping. Research has shown that problem-focused coping has a positive effect on well-being (Aryee, Luk, Leung & Lo, 1999; Hart, Wearing & Headey, 1995; Guppy & Weatherstone, 1997). The concept well-being was measured once more by different indicators. Research of van Hart et al.(1995) found that emotionfocused coping had a negative effect on wellbeing. Guppy and Weatherstone (1997) found that avoidance coping had a negative relationship with well-being. Research of Aryee et al.(1999) showed a relationship between problem focused coping and job and family satisfaction. In this research job satisfaction, family satisfaction and life satisfaction were seen as indicators of well-being. Research of Elfering et al.(2005) showed no main effect of problem focused coping and palliative coping

37

on well-being. The positive effect of problem focused coping on well-being did increase when controllability increased. The relationship between palliative coping and well-being is more positive in situations that are less stressful than in situations that are more stressful. Besides these studies there also has been done research on coping as mediator of, among other things, the relationship between stress and job satisfaction (Fogarty et al., 1999). It showed that coping has a significant relationship with stress and job satisfaction and stress also had a significant relationship with job satisfaction. The following hypothesis results from the previous discussed research: Hypothesis 10: Coping is a mediator for the relationship between stressors and well-being. The relationship between well-being and job Workload Home- work balance satisfaction

Research of Kohan and OConner (2002) has shown that job satisfaction has a relationship with some indicators of well-being that were used by the researchers. Judge and Watanabe (in Sparks et al., 2005, p. 923) found that the correlation of subjective wellbeing with job satisfaction 5 years later is stronger than the correlation of job satisfaction with subjective well being 5 years later. The effect of subjective well-being on job satisfaction seems larger than the effect of job satisfaction on subjective well-being. The hypothesis, based on these researches, is the following: Hypothesis 11: There is a positive relationship between well-being and job satisfaction. The previous hypotheses are combined and shown in model 1.

Lack of relationships

Country

Managerial role
Country

Well-being

Job Satisfaction

Personal responsibility

Coping

Hassles

Lack of recognition

Organization climate

Figure 1. The model of stress effects

Method Sample and procedures The Netherlands In total 565 questionnaires were sent, with permission, to employees of three different companies. For every company the most suitable method of sending was used,

which meant that in two companies the questionnaire was sent to the team or branch managers, who distributed the questionnaire to their subordinates and in one company the questionnaire was distributed by two secretaries. Since the first organisation was the largest organisation of the three, 400 questionnaires were actually distributed there. Besides the fact that filling in the questionnaire

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was voluntarily, team managers also made the decision to distribute the questionnaires or not. One hundred and seventy questionnaires were returned and made the response rate 42.5%. In the second company 100 questionnaires were distributed by two secretaries. This was to all the employees of the company in one region. 54 questionnaires were returned, which made the response rate 54.0 %. In the third company 65 questionnaires were distributed, which was to all the employees of the company, 18 questionnaires were returned, which made the response rate 27.69%. In total 242 questionnaires were returned, making the

overall response rate 42.83%. The distribution of the sample is shown in table 1. Great Britain and Romania In Romania employees of one factory filled in the questionnaire. The questionnaires were filled in by managers in both countries. The distributions of these two samples are also shown in table 1. In Great Britain 224 questionnaires were returned and in Romania 239. Since educational systems are quite different in the three countries, distribution of educational level is presented in a different table, table 2, in their original language.

Table 1. Distribution sample

Variables Age (in years) Mean SD Gender Male Female Did not answer Marital status Married Cohabiting Single Other Did not answer Number of years with present company Mean SD Managerial position Yes No Number of hours supposed to work Mean SD Range Number of hours beyond hours supposed to work Mean SD Range Number of employees in Great Britain (%) 42.52 11.08 Romania (%) 34.55 6.56 The Netherlands (%) 41.50 10.59

117 (52.2) 106 (47.3) 1 (0.4)

161 (67.4) 78 (32.6) 0 (0)

138 (57.0) 104 (43.0) 0 (0)

174 (77.7) 11 (4.9) 23 (10.3) 15 (6.6) 1 (0.4)

179 (74.9) 0 (0) 45 (18.8) 14 (5.9) 1 (0.4)

147 (60.7) 40 (16.5) 40 (16.5) 15 (6.2) 0 (0)

15.44 9.18

8.29 5.33

17.18 11.49

224 (100) 0 (0)

239 (100) 0 (0)

31 (12.8) 211 (87.2)

36.08 6.02 0-50

41.05 4.24 8-56

35.12 6.88 8-40

8.84 8.03 0-60

2.85 7.16 -25-45

1.30 3.71 0-40

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company Up to 100 100-500 500-1000 1000-5000 Over 5000 Quitting intentionsa Never Rarely Sometimes Somewhat often Quite often Extremely often Did not answer

2 (0.9) 3 (1.3) 4 (1.8) 134 (59.8) 81 (36.2)

0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 239 (100) 0 (0)

18 (7.4) 0 (0) 0 (0) 224 (92.6) 0 (0)

53 (23.7) 41 (18.3) 83 (37.1) 10 (4.5) 22 (9.8) 14 (6.3) 1(0.4)

69 (28.9) 81 (33.9) 60 (25.1) 12 (5) 9 (3.8) 7 (2.9) 1 (0.4)

69 (28.5) 74 (30.6) 74 (30.6) 0 (0) 20 (8.3) 5 (2.1) 0 (0)

Note: aa five point scale was used in the Dutch sample, excluding somewhat often.

Table 2. Sample distribution for educational level

Education United Kingdom (%) Secondary education College Associates degree Undergraduate MA/MSc PhD Other Did not answer 59 (26.3) 77 (34.4) 8 (3.6) 59 (26.3) 14 (6.3) 4 (1.8) 2 (0.9) 1 (0.4) Romania (%) coala Primar Gimnaziale Studii liceale Studii superioare Dcotorat Other 0 (0) 0 (0) 5 (2.1) 230 (96.2) 3 (1.3) 1 (0.4) The Netherlands (%) Lager (beroeps) onderwijs Middelbaar beroeps onderwijs Hoger (beroeps) onderwijs Wetenschappelijk onderwijs 14 (5.8) 148 (61.2) 64 (26.4) 16 (6.6)

Comparing the samples The samples in the three countries are different on some background variables. The mean age of Romania is lower than of the other two countries, which could also explain the difference on number of years with present company. The distribution of gender among the three countries is also different for Romania compared to Great Britain and The Netherlands. The number of people cohabiting is larger in The Netherlands than in the other two countries, which might indicate a culture difference. The employees in Romania are supposed to work more hours than the employees of The Netherlands and Great Britain and the hours that are actually worked (the hours supposed to work plus the hours beyond) are also different since there are employees in Romania that actually work less hours than they are supposed to work. The samples of Romania and The Netherlands are

more similar on quitting intention compared to Great Britain. Instrument Participants were first asked for some demographics information. These questions can be divided in 3 categories: the person and their family, education, and work history. Examples of questions in the person and their family category are sex, age, marital status, number of children living at home and age of the children. In the category education participants were asked to indicate their educational level. In the last category, work history, participants were asked how many years they were working for their present company, how many employees there are in their company or organisation, how many hours they are supposed to work in a typical week and how many hours they actually work in a typical week. The participants were also asked about their quitting intentions.

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After being asked to give some background information, participants were asked to fill in some parts of the Occupational Stress Indicator 2 (OSI-2), namely the parts that measure stressors, coping, mental wellbeing and job satisfaction. The OSI-2 is a short version of the original Occupational Stress Indicator (Spector, Cooper & Aguilar-Vafaie, 2002). The OSI-2 consists of 90 items, of which only 74 were use in this study. The scales of the parts were left complete, but the parts that measure physical well-being, type A behaviour and Locus of Control were excluded. Most research has focused on the reliability and validity of the original, longer English version (Spector et al., 2002). The part measuring job satisfaction has in the original version a Cronbachs alpha of .85 (Spector et al., 2002). The OSI-2 was translated to Dutch with help of a bilingual person and an English teacher. Job satisfaction was measured by using twelve items that were scored on a 6point scale, score 1 indicating very much dissatisfaction and 6 indicating very much satisfaction. Mental well-being was measured using the three concepts contentment, resilience and peace of mind. Contentment was measured by five items that were scored on a 6-point scale, resilience was measured by four items, that were scored on a 6-point scale and peace of mind was measured by three items, which were scored on a 6 point scale. For every item there was a different meaning of score 1 and 6. Coping was measured using

10 items and a 6-point scale. Score 1 indicated never used and 6 used frequently. The last part, measuring eight potential sources of stress, consisted of 40 items. Workload was measured by six items, poor relationships by eight items, home/work balance by six items, managerial role by four items, personal responsibility by four items, hassles by four items, lack of recognition by four items, and organisational climate by four items. Participants were again asked to score on a 6point scale and for this scale score 1 indicated that it was not a source of stress and 6 indicated it was certainly a source of stress. Since countries on the whole score on the cultural dimensions, the scores described by Hofstede (2001) will be used to explain the interaction effects of countries. Reliability of scales Table 3 presents the reliability of the scales that were used in the three samples. Since for the scales managerial role and recognition, the reliability increased by deleting an item, item 1 and 23 were deleted. Reliability for the total sample of the managerial role scale became alpha= .74 and for the recognition scale alpha= .70. The reliability for the total sample was for all scales good, for Great Britain and Romania on the other hand there were some scales, managerial role for Great Britain namely and managerial role, hassles, recognition and organisational climate for Romania, with a low reliability.

Table 3. Reliabilities of sources of stress, job satisfaction, mental well-being and coping
United Kingdom Sources of stress Workload Poor relationships Home/work balance Managerial role Personal responsibility Hassles Lack of recognition Organisational climate Job satisfaction Mental well-being Coping Mean 128.29 20.41 25.91 14.22 11.58 13.01 12.62 12.09 14.96 41.93 44.43 39.52 SD 23.86 6.03 7.42 5.31 3.29 3.28 3.20 4.35 3.53 8.89 8.25 4.62 Alpha 0.91 0.81 0.88 0.76 0.49 0.74 0.62 0.84 0.77 0.89 0.76 0.62 Mean 145.90 20.56 33.98 19.53 13.42 14.11 12.07 15.42 12.36 48.30 51.11 10.23 Romania SD 23.41 5.62 6.28 4.94 3.50 3.66 3.51 3.49 3.43 Alpha 0.89 0.72 0.78 0.64 0.55 0.66 0.54 0.56 0.55 The Netherlands Mean 105.85 13.45 23.69 11.97 8.61 10.25 9.88 11.64 11.70 49.81 60.17 63.46 SD 27.84 5.70 7.39 5.08 3.52 3.52 3.26 4.59 3.66 73.99 95.17 148.24 Alpha 0.94 0.85 0.85 0.84 0.68 0.80 0.67 0.65 0.72 1.00 0.99 1.00 Total sample Mean 127.13 13.44 23.63 11.92 8.59 10.24 9.87 11.61 11.70 46.81 52.12 49.10 SD 29.98 5.70 7.35 5.03 3.51 3.51 3.26 4.58 3.67 Alpha 0.93 0.85 0.85 0.83 0.68 0.80 0.67 0.65 0.72

6.95 0.86 8.23 0.77 43.46 0.89

43.96 1.00 56.53 0.99 87.73 1.00

Results

Demographics, well-being, job satisfaction and home/work balance

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Since there were many background variables, the influence of these background variables on the dependent variables wellbeing and job satisfaction was tested before testing the separate hypotheses by performing 2 regression analyses of these background variables on well-being and job satisfaction. The results are presented in table 4. Since educational systems were so different in the three countries, the influence of the background variable education was tested for every country separately. Only for The

Netherlands did educational level have a weak influence on a variable, namely on job satisfaction. None of the demographics had an effect on mental well-being. Age of the children had an influence on job satisfaction and educational level of The Netherlands had an influence on job satisfaction. Number of years with present company and hours people were supposed to work had an influence on home/work balance.

Table 4. Results of the regression analysis of the background variables on well-being and job-satisfaction. Values of the significant models are given (p0.10)
Gender Age Number of children Education levela Number of year working with present company t Hours expected to work t Hours beyond expected hours to work t -

Well-being Job Satisfaction

T -

T -

t -

.13

t 1.83*

Marital Status Well-being Job Satisfaction -

married t -

cohabiting t -

single t -

other t -

Age of children: Well-being Job Satisfaction

Not applicable (no children) -.17 t -1.49*

preschool -.15 t -1.75**

Preschool and school -.18 t -1.98**

School -.17 t -2.00**

School and post school t -

*p<0.10; **p<0.05; ***p<0.01 Note: a values of The Netherlands are given. Values of other countries were not significant.

Testing the hypotheses The correlations between the different factors are shown in table 5. The result of testing the mediating role of home/work balance between workload and well-being is presented in table 6 and was obtained by performing a hierarchic regression analysis of workload, coping and home/work balance on well-being. Coping was added since hypothesis 10 stated that coping was a mediator for the relationships between stressors and well-being.
Table 5. Correlations between the different factors

According to Baron and Kenny (1986) a variable has a mediating role if the variations in levels of the independent variable significantly account for variations in the presumed mediator, variations in the mediator significantly account for variations in the dependent variable, and when the relationship between the independent and dependent variable increases significantly when the presumed mediator is added in the regression.

42

Studii i Cercetri

X 1 2 3 4 Well-being Contentment Resilience Peace of mind 5 6 Workload Poor relationships 7 Home/work balance 8 Managerial role 9 10 Hassles Personal responsibility 11 Lack of recognition 12 Organisationa l climate 13 Job satisfaction 14 Coping 9.92 8.34

SD

N 703 703 703 703

1 1 .99***

10

11

12

13

14

15.12 56.53 22.12 23.51 13.21 20.45 10.78 13.29

1 1 .95*** 1

.99*** .97*** .98*** .97***

18.09 6.67 27.92 8.33

699 699

-.35*** -.33*** -.23*** -.14*** -.09** -.07

-.18*** -.16***

1 .47*** 1

15.28 6.02

697

-.15*** -.10*** -.11***

-.13***

.62*** .52***

3.26

687

-.12*** -.11***

-.03

-.13***

.52*** .48*** .60***

44.50 3.53 12.44 3.85

701 701

-.36*** -.32*** -.28*** -.32*** -.26*** -.23***

-.15*** -.23***

.63*** .41*** .44*** .40*** .61*** .52*** .53*** .57***

1 .59*** 1

3.44

701

-.06

-.06

.03

-.11***

.31*** .65*** .47*** .36***

.23*** .31***

12.96 3.80

700

-.33*** -.31*** -.24***

-.14***

.51*** .38*** .29*** .24***

.52*** .48*** .27***

46.81 43.96

703

.00

.00

.01

-.01

-.04

-.04

.00

.06

-.06

.01

-.04

-.11***

41.19 6.42

696

.12*** .11***

.16***

-.03

.09**

.25*** .17*** .09**

.01

.09** .22**

-.01

.02

*p<0.10; **p<0.05; ***p<0.01

Table 6. The mediating role of home/work balance and coping for workload on well-being
Variable Workload Coping Home/Work balance Step 1 -.35*** Step 2 -.36*** .15*** R=.14 R=.02 Step 3 -.42*** .14*** .09* R=.15 R=.01

R=.12 *p<0.10; **p<0.05; ***p<0.01

Home/work balance was not mediating the relationship of workload and well-being. Though workload explained 38.2% of the variance of home/work balance (=0.62, p<0.05) and home/work balance explained 2.1% of well-being (= -0.35, p<0.05), which satisfied the first two conditions set by Baron and Kenny (1986), the relationship between workload and well-being did not significantly decrease after home/work balance was added to the regression analysis. Hypotheses 1a and 1b had to, therefore, be rejected and for further analysis workload and home/work balance were regarded as stressors that both influence well-being. Workload did have a significant negative relationship with well-being. Home/work balance had a weak relationship with well-being when coping was not in the regression.

The results of testing hypothesis 2 through 10 are presented in table 7 and were obtained by performing a hierarchic regression analysis of the stressors, the interaction effects and mediating role of coping on well-being. The interaction terms in the hierarchic regression analysis were obtained by multiplying the standardised score of managerial role and personal responsibility respectively with the score given to the country. Hypothesis 2, that the stressor poor relationships has a negative relationship with well-being, was not rejected at first. Poor relationships did have a significant relationship with well-being when the other stressors were also put in the regression, but when coping was added poor relationships did not have a significant relationship with well-being.

43

Hypothesis 3 which stated that lack of recognition has a negative relationship with well-being was rejected. Lack of recognition did not have a significant relationship with mental well-being. Hypothesis 4, that a poor organisational climate has a negative relationship with well-being was confirmed. Hypothesis 5, that hassles have a negative relationship with well-being was confirmed. Hypothesis 6, that managerial role has a negative relationship with well-being was not confirmed, managerial role did not have a significant relationship with well-being when

the interaction between country and managerial role was added. Hypothesis 7, which stated that personal responsibility had a negative relationship with well-being, was rejected. Personal responsibility had a positive relationship with well-being. The results for hypothesis 8, which predicted that the country was a moderator for the relationship between managerial role and well-being was confirmed. This means that the relationship between managerial role and well-being was stronger for Romania than for the Netherlands and Great Britain.

Table 7. Results of the hierarchic regression analysis on well-being

variable Workload Poor relationships Home/work balance Managerial role Personal responsibility Hassles Lack of recognition Organisation climate Interaction managerial role*country Interaction personal responsibility*country Coping Step 1 -.21 *** .09* .09* .10** -.19*** -.16*** -.00 -.13*** Step 2 -.14*** .11** .08* .02 .35*** -.17*** .02 -.14*** .12* -.63*** R=.23 R=.04 Step 3 -.15*** .08 .07 .01 .39*** -.16*** .01 -.13*** .14** -.67*** .14*** R=.25 R=.02

R= .19 *p<0.10; **p<0.05; ***p<0.01

Table 8. Results of the hierarchic regression analysis on job satisfaction

Not applicable Preschool Preschool and school School Well-being

Step 1 -.11 -.07 -.10 -.13*

Step 2 -.11 -.07 -.10 -.13* .02

R=.01
*p<0.10; **p<0.05; ***p<0.01

R=.01 R=.00

Hypothesis 9, which stated that the country was moderator for the relationship between personal responsibility and wellbeing, was confirmed. This means that the positive relationship between personal responsibility and well-being was weaker for

Romania than for The Netherlands and Great Britain. Hypothesis 10 stated that coping was a mediator for the relationship between the stressors and well-being. This hypothesis was partly confirmed, coping was a mediator for

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Studii i Cercetri

some stressors. When coping was added to the regression analysis, the stressors poor relationships and home/work balance did not have a significant relationship. To test if well-being had a relationship with job satisfaction a hierarchical regression of age of the children and well-being on job satisfaction was performed. Since educational
Workload Country Managerial role Personal responsibility Hassles

level was only significant at a 10% level in one country, this background variable was excluded. The result of this hierarchic regression analysis is presented in table 8. Total well-being was not related to job satisfaction, which rejected hypothesis 11. The results of testing the hypotheses are also shown in figure 2.

Organization climate Home/work balance Lack of relationships Lack of recognition Coping

Well-being

Job satisfaction

Figure 2. The model resulting from this study

Discussion The purpose if this study was to examine the relationships between stressors, well-being and job satisfaction and the influence of coping and the differences between Great Britain, Romania and The Netherlands for some of these relationships. Besides some demographic questions, the OSI-2 was distributed to employees of different companies in three different countries. For this study, only some parts of the OSI-2 were used, namely the parts that measure stressors, wellbeing, job satisfaction and coping. For explaining the influence that the different cultures of the countries can have on the relationships the cultural dimension of

Hofstede (2001) were used. Though the reliability of the sample as a whole was acceptable, the reliability of one stressor in Great Britain and four stressors in Romania was not. Some of the stressors, namely workload, hassles and organisation climate, had a negative relationship with well- being, as predicted. This means that when people experience these sources of pressure wellbeing will decrease. Coping was a mediator for two stressors, namely poor relationships and home/work balance. This means that the relationship of poor relationships and home/work balance with well-being depend on coping.

45

Country was a moderator for the relationship between managerial role and wellbeing, and for personal responsibility and wellbeing. This means that the positive relationship between personal responsibility and well-being is stronger for Great Britain and the Netherlands than for Romania. This result is can be explained by using the Uncertainty Avoidance dimension. Romania has a higher ranking on the uncertainty dimension than the Netherlands and than Great Britain, personal responsibility therefore should be experienced as something negative. The relationship between personal responsibility and well-being is indeed less positive than in the Netherlands and in Great Britain. For managerial role it means that the weak positive relationship between managerial role and well-being is stronger for Romania than for the Netherlands and Great Britain. This suggests that pressure of managerial role increases well-being in Romania more than in the Netherlands and in Great Britain. This can be explained by the dimension power distance. Romania has a higher ranking on power distance, followed by the Netherlands and Great Britain. Being a manager is experienced therefore as less stressful in Romania than in The Netherlands and Great Britain. Though some of the predictions made on base of past research were confirmed, the study had some unexpected results. The stressor lack of recognition, for instance, did not have a relationship with well-being. Personal responsibility had a positive relationship with well-being. So even though personal responsibility can be stressful, employees experience it was positive for their well-being, which could be explained by theories about job decision latitude. Job decision latitude describes if employees are allowed to make decisions about how work is done (Keeley & Harcourt, 2001). Job decision latitude is related to personal responsibility. But unlike the stressor it has a positive relationship with positive health (Sparks, Faragher & Cooper, 2001). The relationship between personal responsibility and well-being did depend on the country. Managerial role did not have a relationship with well-being when the interaction between managerial role and country was added. Country was a moderator for this relationship. Well-being did not have a relationship with job satisfaction. Besides the results of this research it also has some limitations. For Romania for instance, translation procedure is unknown. Translations

can always cause problems, especially when asked about emotions or state of mind. Though the kind of organisations in Great Britain and Romania were unknown, of the 3 organisations that participated in the Netherlands, one was a non-profit, state organisation, one was a profitseeking international company and one was a profit-seeking national company. It is unknown if the organisations of the 3 countries were similar or representative for organisations in their country. The representative nature of the participating employees for the whole organisation is also unknown. It is possible that specifically employees experiencing specific problems returned the questionnaire and employees who experienced no problems did not. It is also possible that employees gave socially desirable answers, even though they were informed about the anonymity of the questionnaire. The last limitation of the study is that only 3 countries participated in the study, which means that the exact moderating effect of the cultural dimension could not be examined, and only speculations could be made on the explanation of the differences between the three countries. The results show that certain stressors have a significant relationship with well-being which can be useful information for organisations who want to keep the well-being and therefore job satisfaction of their employees as high as possible. Research has shown that high well-being is related with high performance (Wright & Cropanzano, 2000). Since there were differences between the three countries this study also indicates that the relationships between sources of pressure and well-being are not the same for every country and models can not be generalised to other countries and cultures without doing research in different countries. Further research in more countries is necessary to study if culture is a moderator between the sources of pressure and wellbeing. For the Netherlands a sample is necessary which includes more managers. Further research is also necessary for explaining the unexpected results in this study.

References
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LES CONDUITES ALLGEANTES ET LA REPRSENTATION DE LEUR VALORISATION SOCIALE SELON LE STATUT PROFESSIONNEL : UNE TUDE RALISE DANS LA PROVINCE DE BUENOS AIRES GANGLOFF Bernard Universit de Rouen (France) et Universit Fdrale de Paraba (Brsil) MAYORAL Luisa Universit du Centre de la Province de Buenos Aires ROMERO Maria del Carmen Universit du Centre de la Province de Buenos Aires
33 22 11

Abstract

La valorisation sociale d'une conduite et la dvalorisation de la conduite oppose constituent les caractristiques essentielles d'une norme sociale. Il a t constat, lors d'tudes rcemment ralises dans des entreprises de la province de Buenos Aires, que les cadres ayant du personnel charge valorisaient les subordonns allgeants, ce qui permet de penser l'existence d'une norme d'allgeance, et que les subordonns, ouvriers comme cadres (mais cadres sans charge de personnel), taient conscients de cette norme. Nous souhaitons ici savoir : 1) si les subordonns ont une conscience de cette norme de manire globale ou sils effectuent des diffrenciations entre ses diverses concrtisations 2) si, spontanment, ils suivent cette norme en ses diverses concrtisations ou de manire slective, et 3) si ces attitudes globalisantes ou diffrenciatrices des reprsentations et des conduites varient selon le statut (ouvrier ou cadre) du subordonn. Nous avons, pour rpondre ces questions, utilis le paradigme de l'autoprsentation surnormative versus contrenormative. C'est--dire que nous avons prsent 180 salaris de la province de Buenos Aires (90 ouvriers et 90 cadres sans personnel charge) une liste de conduites en leur demandant d'indiquer celles que, spontanment, ils taient tents d'adopter, celles qu'ils adopteraient sils souhaitaient donner une bonne image d'eux-mmes, et celles qu'ils adopteraient pour en donner une mauvaise image. Les rsultats obtenus confirment nos hypothses de slectivit des rponses et d'effet de la variable statut. The social valorization of a behavior and the depreciation of the opposite behavior constitute the essential features of a social norm. Recent studies realized in enterprises in the Buenos Aires region have proven that the allegiant subordinates are valorized by the load of staff managers. These findings permit us to believe that allegiance can exist under the form of a norm. Furthermore the subordinates, workers and managers also (but managers without load of staff), were conscious of this norm. With this study we are trying to respond at the following questions: 1) The subordinates have a conscience of this norm in a global manner or they do some differentiations
1

Adresa de contact: Laboratoire PRIS, Dpartement de Psychologie, Universit de Rouen (France) et Dpartement de Postgraduation en Gestion l'Universit Fdrale de Paraba (Brsil). Courrier lectronique : bernard.gangloff@univ-rouen.fr Universit du Centre de la Province de Buenos Aires, Tandil (Argentine). Courrier lectronique : lmayoral@eco.unicen.edu.ar 3 Universit du Centre de la Province de Buenos Aires, Tandil (Argentine). Courrier lectronique : romero@econ.unicen.edu.ar
2

49

between its various materializations? 2) They follow this norm spontaneously in its various materializations or in a selective manner? 3) These globalized or differentiated attitudes of the representations and behaviors vary along the statute (worker or manager) of the subordinate? To answer at these questions, we have used the paradigm of the over normative versus counter normative auto presentation. According to this paradigm we have presented to 180 employees of the province of Buenos Aires (90 workers and 90 managers without load of staff) a list of behaviors and have asked them to indicate those that, spontaneously, they were tempted to adopt, those that they would adopt if they wished to present a good image of themselves, and those that they would adopt to present a bad image. The results obtained confirm our hypotheses of selectivity of the answers and effect of the statute.
Key-words: allgeance, recrutement, statut professionnel

INTRODUCTION Toute situation de recrutement peut, pour un recruteur, se traduire par la question suivante: le candidat possde-t-il le bon profil ? Et l'on sait depuis longtemps que les aspects essentiels de ce profil concernent moins les comptences techniques que les comptences sociales, c'est--dire le savoirtre du candidat. Ce savoir-tre est notamment constitu de ce que l'on appelle la personnalit, et l'heure actuelle il existe chez les psychologues un quasi-consensus pour considrer que cette personnalit peut tre dcrite grce 5 grandes dimensions, de 5 grands traits qui sont l'Energie, l'Amabilit, le Caractre consciencieux, la Stabilit motionnelle, et l'Ouverture d'esprit ; c'est le modle du Big Five (cf. Rolland, 1994, p 65 ; Caprara, Barbaranelli et Borgogni, 1997, p13). On observe alors (Gangloff, 2000) que le candidat idal est gnralement un candidat nergique (c'est--dire dynamique et dominant), aimable (faisant preuve de coopration et de cordialit), consciencieux (c'est--dire mticuleux et persvrant), motionnellement stable (contrlant ses motions et ses impulsions), et l'esprit ouvert (ouvert la culture et l'exprience). Pour autant, il est rcemment apparu qu'un autre critre de savoir-tre, qu'un autre facteur, non personnologique mais normatif, a encore davantage d'importance que chacune de ces 5 dimensions personnologiques, a encore plus d'importance que la personnalit : il s'agit de l'adhsion la norme d'allgeance. Cette adhsion se traduit par l'vitement de toute conduite de remise en cause de l'environnement social, et notamment de toute remise en cause de la hirarchie des pouvoirs

dans un systme social donn (cf. pour une revue : Gangloff, 2002). L'individu adhrant cette norme sera ainsi non seulement soumis sa hirarchie mais lui aura galement prt une sorte de serment de fidlit, vitant notamment toute conduite, en paroles ou en actes, pouvant lui porter quelque ombrage. Et il apparat que les recruteurs prfrent systmatiquement un candidat non nergique, non aimable, non consciencieux, motionnellement instable ou l'esprit obtus mais faisant preuve d'allgeance, par rapport un candidat possdant la personnalit idale mais potentiellement rebelle (Gangloff et Huet, 2004). Enfin, il a aussi t observ que les candidats un recrutement, ou plus globalement que les salaris sans position de commandement, sont conscients de cette prfrence, sont conscients de la valorisation sociale de l'allgeance (cf. Gangloff, 2002). Si la plupart des tudes prcdemment cites sur la norme d'allgeance ont t conduites en France, des recherches complmentaires ont cependant galement t menes en Argentine, avec des rsultats similaires. Il a notamment t observ que, dans les entreprises argentines, les cadres responsabilits hirarchiques prfrent eux aussi travailler avec des subordonns allgeants plutt qu'avec des subordonns potentiellement rebelles (Gangloff, Mayoral et Duringer, 2005 a). Il fut aussi constat que les subordonns, ouvriers comme cadres (mais cadres moyens, qui sont donc, malgr leur statut de cadre, des subordonns), ont une "clairvoyance normative" de l'allgeance (pour reprendre l'expression de Py et Somat, 1991), c'est-dire qu'ils sont conscients de la valorisation de l'allgeance et que, spontanment, ils se

50

Studii i Cercetri

montrent davantage allgeants que rebelles (Gangloff, Mayoral et Quiroga, 2005 b ; Mayoral, Gangloff et Duringer, 2005). Mais l'allgeance peut se concrtiser par diverses conduites et rsulter de diffrentes causalits. Il nous a donc sembl ncessaire d'affiner les rsultats antrieurement obtenus, d'une part en tudiant leurs possibilits de diffrenciations, et d'autre part en examinant si ces ventuelles diffrenciations variaient en fonction du statut du subordonn. C'est l'objet du prsent travail, conduit sur une population constitue d'ouvriers et de cadres moyens argentins. Trois questions sont plus prcisment au centre de la prsente recherche, savoir : 1) si ces subordonns ont une conscience de cette norme de manire globale ou sils effectuent des diffrenciations entre ses diverses concrtisations, 2) si, spontanment, ils suivent cette norme en ses diverses concrtisations ou de manire slective, et 3) si ces attitudes globalisantes ou diffrenciatrices des reprsentations et des conduites variaient en fonction du statut du subordonn concern (cadre ou ouvrier).

Procdure L'tude a t ralise sur une population masculine de 180 salaris de la province de Buenos Aires rpartis en deux groupes : 90 ouvriers et 90 cadres sans personnel charge. Les sujets de chacun de ces deux groupes furent invits un questionnaire d'allgeance dj employ en France (Gangloff et Caboux, 2003) et constitu de 12 items (cf. annexe). Mais nous avons, dans chacun de ces deux groupes, constitu trois er sous-groupes de trente sujets : dans le 1 , les sujets devaient rpondre au questionnaire en tentant de donner la meilleure image possible me d'eux-mmes, dans le 2 ils devaient me rpondre de manire honnte, et dans le 3 ils devaient fournir des rponses censes donner la plus mauvaise image possible d'euxmmes. La rpartition des sujets dans chacun des six sous-groupes figure dans le tableau 1 suivant.

Tableau 1. Rpartition des sujets en fonction de leur statut et de la consigne

Consigne Surnormative (N = 60) Ouvriers (N = 90) N = 30 Consigne Honnte (N = 60) N = 30 Consigne Contrenormative ( N = 60) N = 30

Cadres (N = 90)

N = 30

N = 30

N = 30

Quant aux trois consignes, elles figurent plus prcisment ci-dessous, telles qu'elles furent transmises respectivement aux ouvriers et aux cadres : - Consigne sobrenormative (CS) : "Il vous est prsent ci-dessous un questionnaire compos de 12 affirmations. Nous vous demandons de le complter comme s'il s'agissait d'un document que vous devez annexer votre CV, document qui sera prsent un recruteur qui dcidera ensuite si il vous embauche pour un poste d'ouvrier (vs de cadre). Il vous est demand d'indiquer, face chaque affirmation, si vous tes d'accord ou si vous n'tes pas d'accord, en cochant les cases "d'accord" ou "pas d'accord".

Nous vous demandons enfin de rpondre en tentant de donner la meilleure image possible de vous-mme, comme si vous vouliez vraiment mettre toutes les chances de votre ct pour tre recrut par cette entreprise". - Consigne honnte (CH): "Il vous est prsent ci-dessous un questionnaire compos de 12 affirmations. Nous vous demandons de le complter comme s'il s'agissait d'un document que vous devez annexer votre CV, document qui sera prsent un recruteur qui dcidera ensuite si il vous embauche pour un poste d'ouvrier (vs de cadre). Il vous est demand d'indiquer, face chaque affirmation, si vous tes d'accord ou si vous

51

n'tes pas d'accord, en cochant les cases "d'accord" ou "pas d'accord". Nous vous demandons enfin de rpondre de la manire la plus honnte possible". - Consigne contranormative (CC): "Il vous est prsent ci-dessous un questionnaire compos de 12 affirmations. Nous vous demandons de le complter comme s'il s'agissait d'un document que vous devez annexer votre CV, document qui sera prsent un recruteur qui dcidera ensuite si il vous embauche pour un poste d'ouvrier (vs de cadre). Il vous est demand d'indiquer, face chaque affirmation, si vous tes d'accord ou si vous n'tes pas d'accord, en cochant les cases "d'accord" ou "pas d'accord". Nous vous demandons enfin de rpondre en tentant de donner la plus mauvaise image possible de vous-mme, comme si vous vouliez vraiment n'avoir aucune chance d'tre recrut par cette entreprise".

1. Diffrences entre les items intra groupe Notre premire analyse a consist calculer les taux d'approbation/dsapprobation obtenus chacun des items puis examiner les similitudes (versus diffrences) de ces proportions en comparant les items deux deux. Statistiquement parlant, nous avons utilis le test de diffrences de proportions de 4 McNemar sur chantillons apparis . La lecture des tableaux 2 7, dans chacun desquels nous avons 66 diffrences possibles, permet alors de remarquer 22 diffrences pour le groupe SOC, 26 pour le groupe HOC, 4 pour le COC, 30 pour le SMC, 29 pour le HMC et 6 pour le CMC. Cela signifie qu'il y a bien, comme nous en faisions l'hypothse, une diversification des rponses selon les items, diversification dont l'amplitude
L'application de ce test signifie donc calculer le nombre d'individus ayant formul leur accord l'une comme l'autre de 2 questions et le nombre d'individus ayant formul leur dsaccord l'une comme et l'autre de ces 2 questions (mettant part le nombre d'individus n'ayant t d'accord qu' l'une de ces 2 questions ou n'ayant t en dsaccord qu' l'une des 2 questions). En consquence, 2 questions peuvent aboutir la mme proportion d'accords sans pour autant que chacune se diffrencie d'une mme troisime question (ainsi, par exemple dans le tableau 2 suivant, les questions 6 et 11 prsentent des proportions identiques, mais seule la 6 aboutit une diffrence significative par rapport la 10).
4

varie, notamment en fonction de la consigne, mais aussi du statut. Nous remarquons ainsi un beaucoup plus grand nombre de diffrences inter-items avec les consignes surnormatives et honntes qu'avec les consignes contrenormatives, et galement plus de diffrences chez les cadres que chez les ouvriers. Par ailleurs, sachant que chaque item peut conduire 11 diffrences significatives, nous avons not les items conduisant plus de 5 diffrences (c'est--dire un nombre de diffrences suprieur la moyenne, qui est de 5.5). Nous pouvons alors relever que se dtachent : dans le groupe SOC les items 7 et 10, dans le groupe HOC les items 10, 12 et 7, dans le groupe SMC les items 10, 12, 3 et 8, et dans le groupe HMC les items 10, 7 et 2. C'est--dire que l'item se dtachant le plus frquemment des autres quels que soit la consigne et le statut du rpondant est l'item 10 (qui correspond l'acceptation du contrle des mthodes de travail et qui conduit systmatiquement, sauf avec les consignes contrenormatives, une rponse d'acceptation). Il convient cependant d'aller plus loin dans l'analyse et de se demander tout d'abord si la variation du nombre de diffrences observes signifie ou non une polarisation des rponses par rapport la moyenne thorique. Cette question fait l'objet du point 2. 2. Diffrences la moyenne thorique Nous nous sommes ici demand si les rponses fournies par nos sujets diffraient de la moyenne thorique, et nous avons effectu ces comparaisons grce au test exact de Fisher. Les rsultats dtaills figurent au tableau 8 et sont rsums dans le tableau 9. Nous remarquons alors notamment: chez les ouvriers, que 4 items donnent lieu des rponses suprieures la moyenne thorique aussi bien avec la consigne neutre qu'avec la surnormative : les items 1 (abandon de toute autonomie dcisionnelle), 2 (excution systmatique des ordres), 7 (viter de crer des problmes) et 10 (acceptation du contrle des mthodes de travail). Par ailleurs, en consigne contrenormative, l'item 2 conduit galement des rponses infrieures la moyenne thorique. Cela signifie que cet item 2 est, dans cette population, celui qui donne lieu la plus forte variation interconsignes, et qu'il constitue donc l'item la plus forte claivoyance normative;

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Studii i Cercetri

Tableau 2. Valeurs des p obtenus en cas de diffrences significatives (i.e. <0,05) de rponses entre les 12 items du questionnaires chez les ouvriers avec emploi, avec la consigne surnormative (Surnormative Ouvriers Avec emploi). Figurent en ordonne les moyennes des accords obtenus par question (en donnes brutes et en pourcentages).
SOC R1 (26 ; 87%) R2 (27 ; 90%) R3 (13 ; 43%) R4 (22 ; 73%) R5 (18 ; 60%) R6 (21 ; 70%) R7 (28 ; 93%) R8 (19 ; 63%) R9 (17 ; 57%) R10 (28 ; 93%) R11 (21 ; 70%) R12 (15 ; 50%) R1 R2 R3 <0.01 <0.01 R4 R5 .022 .022 <0.01 <0.01 .039 <0.01 <0.01 .012 <0.01 <0.01 R6 R7 R9 .022 <0.01 <0.01 R8 R10 R11 R12 .013 <0.01

<0.01 <0.01 .039 .039 <0.01

Tableau 3. Valeurs des p obtenus en cas de diffrences significatives (i.e. <0,05) de rponses entre les 12 items du questionnaires chez les ouvriers avec emploi, avec la consigne honnte (Honnte Ouvriers Avec emploi). Figurent en ordonne les moyennes des accords obtenus par question (en donnes brutes et en pourcentages).
HOC R1 (23; 77%) R2 (25; 83%) R3 (18 ; 60%) R4 (18 ; 60%) R5 (14 ; 47%) R6 (20 ; 67%) R7 (26 ; 87%) R8 (14 ; 47%) R9 (15 ; 50%) R10 (27 ; 90%) R11 (19 ; 63%) R12 (8 ; 27%) R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 .035 <0.01 R6 R7 R8 .035 <0.01 R9 .021 .013 R10 R11 R12 <0,01 <0.01 .013 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01

.039 .039 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01

.012 .012 <0.01 .039 <0.01 <0.01

<0.01 <0.01 <0.01

Tableau 4. Valeurs des p obtenus en cas de diffrences significatives (i.e. <0,05) de rponses entre les 12 items du questionnaires chez les ouvriers avec emploi, avec la consigne contrenormative (Contrenormative Ouvriers Avec emploi). Figurent en ordonne les moyennes des accords obtenus par question (en donnes brutes et en pourcentages).
COC R1 (11; 37%) R2 (6; 20%) R3 (17 ; 57%) R4 (14 ; 47%) R5 (11 ; 37%) R6 (8 ; 27%) R7 (11 ; 37%) R8 (7 ; 23%) R9 (8 ; 27%) R10 (11 ; 37%) R11 (10 ; 33%) R12 (10 ; 33%) R1 R2 R3 <0.01 .012 .021 <0.01 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12

53

Tableau 5. Valeurs des p obtenus en cas de diffrences significatives (i.e. <0,05) de rponses entre les 12 items du questionnaires chez les cadres avec emploi, avec la consigne surnormative (Surnormative Cadres Avec emploi). Figurent en ordonne les moyennes des accords obtenus par question (en donnes brutes et en pourcentages).
SMC R1 (23 ; 77%) R2 (27 ; 90%) R3 (12 ; 40%) R4 (22 ; 73%) R5 (15 ; 50%) R6 (23 ; 77%) R7 (27 ; 90%) R8 (13 ; 43%) R9 (17 ; 57%) R10 (29 ; 97%) R11 (22 ; 73%) R12 (8 ; 27%) R1 R2 R3 <0.01 <0.01 R4 R5 <0.01 .013 <0.01 <0.01 <0,01 .013 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 .022 .039 .012 <0.01 <0.01 R6 R7 R8 R9 .013 <0.01 <0.01 R10 .031 <0.01 .039 <0.01 R11 R12 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01

.013

Tableau 6. Valeurs des p obtenus en cas de diffrences significatives (i.e. <0,05) de rponses entre les 12 items du questionnaires chez les cadres avec emploi, avec la consigne honnte (Honnte Cadres Avec emploi). Figurent en ordonne les moyennes des accords obtenus par question (en donnes brutes et en pourcentages).
HMC R1 (12; 40%) R2 (24; 80%) R3 (8 ; 27%) R4 (11 ; 37%) R5 (9 ; 30%) R6 (7 ; 23%) R7 (22 ; 73%) R8 (6 ; 20%) R9 (11 ; 37%) R10 (25 ; 83%) R11 (14 ; 47%) R12 (6 ; 20%) R1 R2 <0.01 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 .013 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 .013 <0.01 <0.01 R8 R9 R10 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 .021 .039 <0.01 R11 R12

<0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01

<0.01 <0.01

<0.01 <0.01

<0.01 <0.01 .039

Tableau 7. Valeurs des p obtenus en cas de diffrences significatives (i.e. <0,05) de rponses entre les 12 items du questionnaires chez les cadres avec emploi, avec la consigne contrenormative (Contrenormative Cadres Avec emploi). Figurent en ordonne les moyennes des accords obtenus par question (en donnes brutes et en pourcentages).
CMC R1 (11; 37%) R2 (5; 17%) R3 (16 ; 53%) R4 (13 ; 43%) R5 (12 ; 40%) R6 (15 ; 50%) R7 (11 ; 37%) R8 (10 ; 33%) R9 (11 ; 37%) R10 (8 ; 27%) R11 (5; 17%) R12 (16; 53%) R1 R2 R3 <0.01 R4 R5 R6 .013 .013 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 <0.01

.013

<0.01

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Studii i Cercetri

chez les cadres, que des rponses suprieures la moyenne thorique sont obtenues pour les items 2 (viter de crer des problmes) et 10 (acceptation du contrle des mthodes de travail), aussi

bien en consigne surnormative qu'en consigne honnte, et que l encore l'item 2 conduit, avec la consigne contrenormative, des rponses infrieures la moyenne.

Tableau 8. Nombre d'accords obtenus par item (en donnes brutes, et entre parenthses en pourcentages), chez les ouvriers et chez les cadres avec emploi (soit 6 groupes), avec en italiques la significativit par rapport la moyenne thorique en cas de diffrence significative (chaque item donnant lieu une cotation en 0 ou 1, la moyenne thorique par item est de 0,5, soit, pour 30 sujets par groupe, une moyenne thorique globale par groupe de 15). La premire lettre (S, H ou C) signifie me respectivement consigne Surnormative, Honnte, Contrenormative ; la 2 (O ou M) signifie Ouvriers me ou Cadres, la 3 (C) signifie Avec emploi.
1 26 (87%) <0.01 23 (77%) 0.03 23 (77%) 0.03 12 (40%) 11 (37%) 11 (37%) 2 27 (90%) <0.01 27 (90%) <0.01 25 (83%) <0.01 24 (80%) 0.01 6 (20%) 0.01 5 (17%) <0.01 3 13 (43%) 12 (40%) 18 (60%) 8 (27%) 17 (57%) 16 (53%) 4 22 (73%) 22 (73%) 18 (60%) 11 (37%) 14 (47%) 13 (43%) 5 18 (60%) 15 (50%) 14 (47%) 9 (30%) 11 (37%) 12 (40%) 6 21 (70%) 23 (77%) 0.03 20 (67%) 7 (23%) 0.03 8 (27%) 15 (50%) 7 28 (93%) <0.01 27 (90%) <0.01 26 (87%) <0.01 22 (73%) 11 (37%) 11 (37%) 8 19 (63%) 13 (43%) 14 (47%) 6 (20%) 0.01 7 (23%) 0.03 10 (33%) 9 17 (57%) 17 (57%) 15 (50%) 11 (37%) 8 (27%) 11 (37%) 10 28 (93%) <0.01 29 (97%) <0.01 27 (90%) <0.01 25 (83%) <0.01 11 (37%) 8 (27%) 11 21 (70%) 22 (73%) 19 (63%) 14 (47%) 10 (33%) 5 (17%) <0.01 12 15 (50%) 8 (27%) 8 (27%) 6 (20%) 0.01 10 (33%) 16 (53%)

SOC

SMC

HOC

HMC

COC

CMC

Tableau 9. Numro des items, pour les ouvriers et les cadres avec emploi, pour lesquels l'accord est significativement suprieur ou infrieur la moyenne thorique
Ouvriers 1,2,7,10 1,2,7,10 Cadres 1,2,6,7,10 2,10 6,8,12 2,11

Surnormative Honnte Contrenormative

Suprieur la moyenne Infrieur la moyenne Suprieur la moyenne Infrieur la moyenne Suprieur la moyenne Infrieur la moyenne

2,8

3. Diffrences intergroupes par question Notre dernier questionnement a enfin port sur les ventuelles diffrences de rponses inter groupes, examen l encore ralis grce au test exact de Fischer. L'examen du tableau 10 nous permet alors de constater que ce sont les items 6 (l'allgeance par carririsme), 1 (abandon de toute autonomie dcisionnelle) et 11 (reconnaissance de l'expertise du chef) qui conduisent aux variations les plus frquentes.

La variable consigne permet de constater, entre la consigne surnormative et la contrenormative, 9 diffrences significatives (sur 12 possibles) chez les ouvriers (SOC/COC) et 8 chez les cadres (SMC/CMC). Si maintenant on se centre sur la variable statut, on remarque qu'elle ne conduit des diffrences qu'avec la consigne honnte (HOC/HMC): avec les questions 1, 3 (autocensure de son propre point de vue) , 6 et 8 (reconnaissance de la lgitimit du chef), les ouvriers tant, sur ces 4 items, plus allgeants que les cadres.

55

Tableau 10. Valeurs des p attestant d'une diffrence significative (i.e. quand ils sont infrieurs 0,05) intergroupes, par question (ainsi, entre SOS et COC, la question 4, la diffrence est significative p=0,04). La premire lettre (S, H ou C) signifie respectivement consigne Surnormative, Honnte, me me Contrenormative ; la 2 (O ou M) signifie Ouvriers ou Cadres, la 3 (C) signifie Avec emploi.
1 SOC HOC COC SMC COC HMC CMC HMC CMC CMC <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 2 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 0.02 0.04 3 4 0.04 5 6 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.03 0.03 7 <0.01 <0.01 0.03 0,04 <0.01 0.01 8 <0.01 9 0.02 10 <0.01 <0.01 11 <0.01 0.02 12

HOC COC SMC HMC

<0.01 <0.01

<0.01 <0.01

<0.01 <0.01

0.04 <0.01

Discussion-Conclusion Les diffrences observes entre consignes surnormatives et consignes contrenormatives (c'est--dire le fait que nos sujets fournissent des rponses diffrences selon qu'il leur est demand de se mettre en valeur ou de se faire mal voir) attestent qu'il y a bien clairvoyance normative. Pour autant, ces diffrences ne portent pas sur la totalit des items, ce qui signifie, conformment nos hypothses, que cette clairvoyance est slective. Nous remarquons notamment (cf. tableau 10) que les items 3 (l'absence de dfense de son propre point de vue) et 5 (l'absence de toute remarque son suprieur hirarchique) ne font l'objet d'aucune clairvoyance, ce quel que soit le statut du rpondant (c'est--dire qu'il soit ouvrier ou cadre). Nous remarquons galement que, spontanment, les ouvriers et les cadres que nous avons interrogs ne rpondent pas de la mme manire chacun des items, avec 26 diffrences inter-items dans le groupe HOC et 29 dans le groupe HMC (cf. tableaux 3 et 6). Nous constatons enfin que ces rsultats varient selon que l'on interroge des ouvriers ou des cadres, donne qui confirme l'effet de cette variable statut. Nous observons en particulier, avec la consigne surnormative, que les ouvriers effectuent pratiquement 1/3 de diffrenciations inter-items de moins que les cadres (22 contre 30 : cf. tableaux 3 et 6). Cette moindre slectivit des ouvriers tmoigne ainsi de la moins grande autonomie des ouvriers, de la moindre libert d'apprciation des normes qu'ils s'autorisent par rapport aux cadres. Un tel rsultat s'inscrit donc totalement dans les rles respectifs attribus aux ouvriers et aux cadres, rles

notamment explicits par Taylor et dont, aujourd'hui encore, et par del les discours ngationistes, nous observons ici la vigueur phnomnologique.
Bibliographie Caprara G.V., Barbaranelli C., et Borgogni L. (1997). Alter ego ; les 5 facteurs fondamentaux de la personnalit. Paris : E.A.P. Gangloff B. (2000). La saturation normative des tests dits de personnalit. Communication me au 27 Congrs International de Psychologie, Stockholm (Sude). Gangloff B. (2002). L'internalit et l'allgeance considres comme des normes : une revue. Les Cahiers de Psychologie Politique, n 2. Gangloff B., Caboux N. (2003). Conformismo a la norma de alineacin y reacciones a las me injusticias profesionales. 29 Congreso Interamericano de Psicologia. Lima, Peru. Gangloff B., Huet M. (2004). Poids respectif du gros cinq et de l'allgeant en situation de recrutement. Communication au 13me Congrs International de Psychologie du Travail et de Organisations, Bologne (Italie). Gangloff B., Mayoral L., Duringer L. (2005a). Los asalariados que prefieren los jefes argentinos : influencia del nivel de alineacion me y del gnero, 30 Congrs de la Socit Interamricaine de Psychologie, Buenos Aires (Argentine). Gangloff B., Mayoral L., Quiroga F. (2005b). La percepcion de los obreros argentinos en cuanto al nivel de alineacion conveniente me para ser reclutados, 30 Congrs de la Socit Interamricaine de Psychologie, Buenos Aires (Argentine).

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Mayoral L., Gangloff B., Duringer L. (2005). La percepcion de los mandos medios argentinos en cuanto al nivel de alineacion conveniente me para ser reclutados, 30 Congrs de la Socit Interamricaine de Psychologie, Buenos Aires (Argentine). Py J., Somat A. (1991). Normativit, conformit et clairvoyance : leurs effets sur le jugement valuatif dans un contexte scolaire. In : J-L. Beauvois, R-V. Joule et J-M. Monteil (Eds),

Perpectives cognitives et conduites sociales. Cousset : Del Val, vol. 3, 167-193. Rolland J-P. (1994). Dsirabilit sociale de marqueurs des dimensions de ma personnalit du modle en 5 facteurs. Revue Europenne de Psychologie Aplique, 44(1), 65-71

Annexe Le questionnaire utilis

Ce questionnaire comprend 9 items portant sur les manifestations de l'allgeance (items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12) et 3 items portant sur les raisons de l'allgeance (items 6, 8, 11). Est indique ci-dessous entre parenthses et en gras la thmatique de chacun des items (ces thmatiques ne figuraient videmment pas dans les questionnaires remis aux sujets) : 1. Au travail, il me semble normal de demander systmatiquement laccord de mon chef avant de prendre une dcision (abandon de toute autonomie dcisionnelle). 2. Dans mon travail, il me parat normal dexcuter tous les ordres que me donne mon suprieur (excution systmatique des ordres). 3. Au travail, avec mon chef, je tente rarement de dfendre mes ides (non dfense de son propre point de vue) 4. Au travail, quand la direction annonce ses choix, il est rare que je me plaigne ouvertement (non questionnement des dcisions). 5. Au travail, jvite de faire des remarques mon suprieur, mme si, dans certaines situations, il le mrite (absence de toute remarque). 6. Au travail, je trouve normal daccepter toutes les dcisions de mes suprieurs si je veux gravir les chelons (carririsme). 7. Au travail, quelles que soient les conditions de travail, je trouve normal dviter de crer des problmes (vitement de la cration de problmes). 8. Au travail, jaccepte plus facilement un ton autoritaire quand il vient de mon chef (reconnaissance de la lgitimit du chef). 9. Au travail, dans toutes circonstances, je trouve normal que lavis de mon suprieur soit plus important que le mien (acceptation de la prdominance du point de vue du chef). 10. Au travail, je trouve normal que mon suprieur puisse nimporte quel moment vrifier si je respecte les mthodes de travail (acceptation du contrle des mthodes de travail). 11. Au travail, je me dis souvent que mon patron est le mieux plac pour savoir ce qui est bon pour son entreprise (reconnaissance de l'expertise du chef). 12. Au travail, je trouve normal que mon patron ne justifie pas ses dcisions auprs de moi, mme si elles me concernent directement (renoncement demander justification des dcisions).

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BIG-FIVE OR BIG-SIX? A ROMANIAN EXPLORATORY STUDY BASED ON A NONVERBAL MEASURE Mihaela Minulescu Universitatea Spiru Haret
1

Abstract

The Five-Factor Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire, FF-NPQ (Paunonen, Ashton & Johnston, 2001) is an psychometric, structured, nonverbal measure of personality traits defined within the Big-Five model of personality (Costa & McCrae, 1992). The questionnaire has been experimented on Romanian population and the psychometric properties have been studied on a normative sample of 1800 subjects (Iliescu, Minulescu, Nedelcea, 2005).This study presents the results of an exploratory factorial analysis that was carried out in Romania on the items of the Five-Factor Nonverbal Personality Inventory (FFNPQ). The article is focused on the emergence of a 6-factor factorial solution, in some points different from Costa and McCraes (1992) model, which has been the fundament of FFNPQ construction. Chestionarul nonverbal de personalitate cu 5 factori, FFNPQ (Paunonen, Ashton & Johnston, 2001) este unul psihometric, structurat, o msur nonverbal a trsturilor de personalitate definit n modelul Marele 5 al personalitii (Costa & McCrae, 1992). Chestionarul a fost experimentat de populaia romn i proprietile psihometrice au fost studiate pe un eantion normativ de 1800 subieci (Iliescu, Minulescu, Nedelcea, 2005). Acest studiu prezint rezultatele unei analize factoriale exploratorii care a fost ndeplinit n Romnia pe itemi al inventarului nonverbal de personalitate cu 5 factori (FFNPQ). Acest articol este focalizat pe soluia de ieire a 6 factori de fabric, n anumite puncte diferit de modelul lui Costa i McCrae (1992), care a fost fundament la construcia FFNPQ-ului.
Key-words: personalitate, chestionare nonverbale, analiz factorial, Marele 5
1

INTRODUCTION

One of the current issues in scientific debates on personality is the cross-cultural validity and universality of the Big Five paradigm. A large part of studies in early nineteens have replicated in different language families the same five-factor model underlining the personality structure: USA (Goldberg, 1981; John, 1990; Costa & McCrae, 1985), Germany (Angleitner, Ostendorf & John, 1990), Holland (Hofstee, W. K. B., 1990, De Raad, 1992), Italy (Perugini, , Leone, Galluci, Lauriola, 1994; van Heck, Perugini, Caprara, Froger, 1994; Caprara, Barbaranelli, & Comrey,1995), Spain ( Silva, Avia, Sanz & al, 1994), France (Marvielde, 1994), Hungary (De Raad & Smiszek, 1994), Croatia (Mlacic &
1

Knezovic, 1994), Solomon islands and India (White, 1980), dialects from Japan (Bond, 1979; Bond & Forgas, 1984), Filipines (Church & Katigbak, 1989 cf. Angleitner 1990) etc. Costa and McCrae assessed the cross-cultural generalizability of five-factor model using data from translations of NEO PI R in 5 distinct language families in comparison with American factor structure (McCrae, Costa, 1997, 1998). Minulescu (1996) reviews this evidence concluding the structure of individual differences in personality is uniform across several cultures: All of them underlined optimum factorial structures of five super factors although the standard selection methodology (of the items) was not used by all. Of course the factorial solutions are different, especially in terms of significance and order... (p. 138)

Adresa de contact: mminulescu@rdslink.ro

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Studii i Cercetri

However, in some of those studies the emergent factorial model consisted of 6 or 7 big factors, and the general explanation focused on the cultural factor underlining personality (Zhou & Wang, China, 2005, 7 factors collected with the FFNPQ ; Wang & Cui, 2002, 2004, 7 factor using a standard verbal methodology). An earlier study, reported a 6 factor structure, with Conscientiousness factor splitting into an Achievement factor and a Methodicalness factor (Jackson D.N., Paunonen S.P., Fraboni M., D.Goffin R.D., 1996). Some recent developments introducing the higher order factor analyses suggests that is possible to reduce the five to only two broader factor (Block, 2001). With FFNPQ, the lexical perspective and the nonverbal perspective have been challenged as equally capable to elicit the fivefactor solution. The present study allows a trial on this last hypothesis and brings forward some explanations regarding the structure of factors emerging in the Romanian culture. PURPOSE OF THE PRESENT RESEARCH The present study offers additional data on the dispute regarding the universality of the Big Five model; the specific objective consisting in exploration of the factorial structure emerged in Romania based on data collected with the nonverbal items of the FFNPQ between 2004 and 2005 vs. the Romanian five factor structure emergent from the lexical approach (Minulescu, 1996, 2002, 2004). Materials The Five Factor Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire, FFNPQ (Paunonen, Jackson & Ashton, 2004) is a structured omnibus nonverbal tool that offers a psychometric measure for the Big Five factors proposed by Costa & McCrae (1992): N (Neuroticism), E

(Extraversion), O (Openness to Experience), A (Agreeableness) and C (Conscientiousness). The measure has 60 items, each of the 5 meta-factors being addressed by 12 items, these being 3x9 cm drawings of actual behaviors. The answers to the items are collected by means of a 7-step Lickert scale. Psychometric data presented by the test authors on the basis of several studies (Paunonen, Ashton & Jackson, 2001; Paunonen & Ashton, 2002; Paunonen, Jackson & Ashton, 2004) and by Romanian authors (Iliescu, Minulescu & Nedelcea, 2005) are satisfactory and the questionnaire is without doubt a valid tool in a cross-cultural context. Studies carried out in Romania by the authors validate both the psychometric value of the FFNPQ as well as its cross-cultural coherence in measuring the Big Five model. Internal consistency is the most commonly used index of the reliability of tests and measures. Internal consistency, calculated as coefficient alpha, can be roughly understood as the degree to which items in a scale measure the same thing, are homogeneous. The first cross-cultural studies with FFNPQ addressed a sample of 701 students from seven countries: Canada, Finland, Germany, Norway, Poland and Russia (Paunonen & al. 2001; Paunonen & Ashton, 2002). The authors concluded FFNPQ is adequate for cross-cultural studies. Means of internal consistency Alpha indices of the seven countries have very similar values for the five scales, ranged from .66 to .77. The translation of FFNPQ and experimentation on Romanian 1800 subjects sample reported very similar values with the five scales, ranged from .50 to .75, with a mean of .68. These values are acceptable for scales with 8 to 12 items. The authors concluded FFNPQ to be a reliable test and measure (Iliescu, Minulescu, Nedelcea, 2005).

Table 1. Internal Consistency of five FFNPQ scales, international samples vs. Romanian sample
FF-NPQ scale Means of internal Consistency ** Internal Consistency for Romanian sample*** Extraversion 0.75 0.74 Agreeability 0.72 0.69 Conscientiousness 0.71 0.73 Neuroticism* 0.64 0.50 Openness 0.77 0.75 * The FF-NPQ scales have all 12 items, except for Neuroticism with only 8 items. ** Every alpha coefficient is a mean of 7 countries coefficients under study. (Paunonen, Jackson & Ashton, 2004, p. 37). ***Internal consistency indices have been computed for 900 women and 900 men with age over 12.

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The Romanian lexical replication (Minulescu, 1996, 2002, 2004) followed the classical research approach (John, Angleitner & Ostendorf, 1988, De Raad, 1992) concluding to a five-factor solution: Extraversion, Immaturity, Agreeability, Conscientiousness, and Self Actualization. Principal components are covering of 68.6% the data variance: Extraversion 21.2%, Immaturity 14.2%, Agreeability 13.1%, Conscientiousness 11.4%, and Self Actualization 8.6% Factor analysis The factor analytical process is based on the answers obtained from the Romanian normative sample of N=1800 subjects (N=900 men and N=900 women). The sample is representative for the Romanian population aged over 12 years. The sampling method used was random sampling with an additional quota control on demographic parameters. The variables controlled in the sampling are gender, age, education and urban/rural area; the sampling error is <3%. The initial factorial solution obtained by extracting the principal components from the 60 items of the test is unexpectedly complex. It is a solution on 16 factors, three of them having clear significance for the construct of Neuroticism (N), three referring to specific facets of Extraversion (E), two being specific for Openness to Experience (O), three for Agreeableness (A) and one for Table 2. Factorial structure of the FFNPQ in Romania
Items F1 F2 F3 F7 F9 F5 F8 F10 F4 F13 F6 F11 F14 F12 F15 F16 Achievement through study Aggressiveness Influence via humor Care Order Phobia Anxiety Need of support Variety of interests Gregariousness Solitude in nature Helpfulness Lack of care for others Leadership Intolerance to failure Failure in learning 7 6 9 6 3 5 4 2 7 2 4 2 2 3 1 8 C 17.64 % 0.56 -0.80 -0.71 0.65 0.64

Conscientiousness (C). The other factors have a rather unusual meaning, combining specific facets for different dimensions, for instance O and C or A and E. The initial 16 factor solution was submitted further to a second-order factor analysis, a procedure used also by de Marsh & Hocevar (1985) and Marsh & Richards (1987) in similar cases when the dimensions of the original factors were doubtful or impossible to grasp clearly. Such a procedure allows to maintain untouched the initial 16 components, while also offering important leads on discovering their psychological meaning of these components, in relation to the five classic dimensions. The method employed was again the extraction of principal components, followed by a Varimax rotation with Kaiser Normalization. The second-order solution resulted in six components, covering 58,07% of the data variance. Out of the six components, five clearly outline the Big Five dimensions and the sixth is a factor combining meanings of N and C. We will in the following refer to these secondary factors with Roman numerals from I to VI. RESULTS The synthetic presentation of the factorial structure is given in Table 2.

N 11.13%

O 8.59%

A 7.64%

E 6.58%

I 6.49

-0.38 0.77 0.74 0.48 -0.31 0.74 -0.61 0.38

0.30 0.32 0.56 0.51 0.65 0.86 0.66 0.75

FFNPQ is clearly able to assess Big Five dimensions, even if in a global manner

and without detecting the facets indicated by Costa & McCrae (1992), each of the

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dimensions being clearly marked in the final factorial solution. Some of the five dimensions are more detailed, more emphasized, as it is the case of Conscientiousness, while others, like the emergence of Extraversion, are rather sketchy and incomplete, limited to only one facet. The rank order in terms of variance is different from FFNPQ, with Conscientiousness the first factor, Neuroticism the second, followed by Openness, Agreeableness and Extraversion and the sixth factor, Intolerance. Factor I. Conscientiousness This first factor covers 17.64% of the data variance and joins the following primary factors: F1 - Achievement through study (0.56), F2 - Aggressiveness (-0.80), F3 - Influence via humor (-0.71), F7 - Care (0.65) and F9 - Order (0.64) This factor mingles the conformism and conscientiousness concepts in a pro-social way, with some contents related to:what one should do, whatis right to do, inclination for study, and for order; care, especially for children but also for ones own person, for the personal environment, and for close acquaintances, friends, career. The factor also suggests the lack of aggressiveness and a penchant for a conventional, common behavior, coupled with a strong negative feeling towards being the centre of attention in jokes, humorous puns or at parties. F1. Self accomplishment through education has a loading of 0.56 and is a facet reflecting conscientiousness in studying, the desire for notable intellectual performances, and capacity of studying hard, in a structured school system. This facet has 7 items, the FFNPQ items 8,18,28,30,38,43,53. The items have contents related to the capacity for a structured and constant effort, dreams of self accomplishment (8, 43, 53), emphasis on order (18), and long term and constant labor (28), interest for studying (30, 38, 43, 53). The capacity for studying hard in order to achieve self accomplishment is therefore an obvious dimension for Conscientiousness. F2. Aggressiveness, with a negative loading of -0.80 on the Conscientiousness factor, is a facet of aggressiveness in interpersonal contexts and towards animals; the relevant behavior for the C factor are the low scores. This facet contains 6 items: 11, 12, 22, 32, 42, and 52. The content of the items refer exclusively to aggressive behaviors towards other people or animals, except for item 11 that

refers to leading a demonstration, based on a dominant leadership model. Items 2, 27, 36, 57, although loading over .30 the Aggressiveness factor, have bigger or similar factorial loadings on other factors and facets, shaping as such the meaning of the Aggressiveness facet. Item 2 has the major loading on facet F15 (Intolerance to loss), included in Factor VI (Intolerance to failure) and the content is related to an aggressive emotional response in competitive settings. Item 27 has a similar loading on facet F14 (Carelessness for the others), corresponding to the Agreeableness dimension and a content related to the care for sick people. Item 36 has a major loading on facet F14 (Lack of care for others) corresponding to the Agreeableness dimension and a content related to the care for children. F3. Influence via humor, with a loading of -0.71 on the dimension Conscientiousness is a facet describing persons who would dearly like to be the centre of social attention and who use to this end humor, puns and exhibitive behaviors. The relevant score for factor I are the low scores of this facet. Facet F3 has 9 items: 6, 16, 26, 36, 46, 51, and 56. The content of the items refer to: partying, ones accomplishments being acknowledged in public, playing with others, making a show of oneself in front of a group, group meetings, having fun. The negative loading on the Conscientiousness dimension underlines that persons with high scores on this facet have rather the tendency of opposing or eluding the common code of conduct through exhibitionism or humor, and are probably opposed to conventionalism, order and social conformity. Items 1 and 11, loading above 0.30 on this facet, have also major factorial loadings on other factors, thus additionally shaping the meaning of the facet F3. Item 1 has a bigger loading (.36) on facet F13 (Gregariousness), allocated to the Openness dimension and the content is related to one being the host of a party. Item 11 has major loading on facet F2 (Aggressiveness), also on the Conscientiousness dimension and the content is related to leading others, respectively being the leader of a demonstration. F7. Care, with a loading of 0.65 on the first factor (Conscientiousness), identifies nurturing persons, especially those exhibiting care for children, but also with a high preference for feminine interests, or interests related to taking care of others.

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Facet F7 has 6 items: 7, 17, 37, 45, 47, and 58. The content and significance of the items is related to taking care of children or developing activities for children (excursions) as well as domestic/ household activities (item 45). Items 47 and 58, although loaded over 0.30 on the Care facet, have major factorial loadings on other factors, thus additionally shaping the meanings of facet F7. Item 47 has a major loading on facet F11 (Helpfulness) allocated to the Agreeableness dimension and the content is related to a serviceable interpersonal behavior. Item 58 has a major loading on the Order facet (F9), also allocated to the Conscientiousness dimension and a content related to a highly ordered behavior. F9. Order, with a loading of 0.64 on the Conscientiousness dimension, identifies persons who are very conscious in tiding up and keeping clean. Those individuals have a very ordered and coherent manner, both in terms of their own behavior and in a relational context. They have high intolerance to mess and a reactive behavior to the lack of neatness in others. The F9 facet comprises 3 items: 3, 33 and 58. All the contents of these items are convergent, describing states of an ordered behavior, either expressed in terms of ones own behavior, or in relation to the environment or to those around. Factor II. Neuroticism Factor II covers 11.13% of data variance and consists of facets F5 -Phobia (0.77), F8 - Anxiety (0.74) and F10 - Need for help (0.48). Factor II is a dimension for emotional instability and vulnerability, translated in fear, anxiety, sadness, refuse of social participation, desperate search for social support, a self-defeating attitude, feelings of helplessness and interpersonal dependency. It is probably worth mentioning that among the other facets shaping the Neuroticism we have primary factor F13 Gregariousness, which has its primary loading on the Openness dimension (-0.61 as compared to -0.31 on the N dimension); it also shapes factor N, as getting social support depends on the presence of the subject in social contexts and consists most of the time in having a social oriented, gregarious behavior. F5. Phobia, with a loading of 0.77 on Neuroticism, identifies persons with very specific object fears. Facet F5 has 5 items: 4, 24, 34, 44 and 55. The contents of those items refer to

specific fears, fear of spiders (24), snakes (44), and mice (4) as well as nightmares and threatening daydreams (34, 55). Item 55 has a similar loading on facet F8 (Anxiety), thus emphasizing the psychological meaning of the scale, as phobic reactions represent a sub-class of anxiety. F8. Anxiety, with a loading of 0.74 is a primary factor for unspecific anxiety, distinguishing persons with unspecific fears, distrust, need for support and sleeping disorders. Facet F8 has 4 items: 9, 14, 29 and 49. Their contents refer to insomnia (9), distrust and suspicion against others (14), need for social support (29, 49). This factor is obviously one of irrational fears, a generic factor of anxiety; although a paranoid aspect might be involved. The items related to need of support, also shape an interpersonal dependency level, specific also for agoraphobics. Although having significant loadings on the Anxiety facet, items 34 and 55 contribute with bigger loadings on facet F5 (Phobia). Through their contents related to nightmares and threatening daydreams with the subjects as main character, the two items clearly emphasize the inner anxiety. F10. Need of support, with a loading of 0.48 on the N dimension, is a very interesting primary factor, identifying persons with a high level of need for social support, with feelings of helplessness and even a high level of interpersonal dependence. The F10 facet has only two pure items: 39 and 59. The contents of these items refer to support and encouraging behaviors expressed by others in situations of personal failure (in exams, love etc.), indicating the need and desire to look for social support. Thus, facet F10 would identify persons who depend on the support of those close to them, in order to cope with straining situations, with an implicit meaning of interpersonal dependence. Item 49 has a higher loading (0.45 as compared to 0.42) on facet F8 (Anxiety) and a content that strengthens the meaning related to the need for social support. Therefore, we denominate factor F10 need for support. All its items come from the homonymous scale of the NPQ (Paunonen, Jackson & Ashton, 2002), thus confirming, as a secondary conclusion, the factorial stability of the latter. Factor III. Openness to Experience

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Factor III covers 8.59% of the data variance and combines the primary factors F4 Variety of interests (0.74) and F13 Gregariousness (-0.61). The primary factors F6 and F9 have also loadings on O (0.38 and 0.38 respectively), but with a primary loading on A (0.56) and C (0.64). Openness to experience, as revealed in our study, is mainly a motivational dimension identifying intellectual interests, interests for nature and excursions in nature, openness to intellectual experiences. It has also a component indicating the preference for loneliness, as shown by the negative high loading (-0.61) of the F13 facet (Gregariousness). F4. Variety of interests, with a loading of 0.74, identifies individuals with a structure of interests equally various and intellectually oriented, based mainly on a strong need for knowledge. Facet F4 has 7 items: 5, 15, 40, 50, 54 and 60. Their contents suggest to very varied and mainly intellectual interests, connected with nature, arts, natural sciences. All items have convergent meanings, obviously shaping a facet related to the structure of ones interests. Item 45 has a higher loading (0.35 as compared to 0.33) on facet F7 (Care) and the content is related to washing laundry in the nature, a feminine domestic activity. F13. Gregariousness, with a loading of -0.61 identifies for Openness persons who do not enjoy being in proximity with humans, part of a group. F13 is a contributor to nevrotism (lack of) and to agreeability in its positive meaning. We would have expected the Gregariousness dimension to score under the Extraversion factor, as it was the case for most of Big Five models up to now. The F13 facet has 3 items: 1, 21 and 23. Their contents are related to socialization, pleasure of working with others, of enjoying time with others, of just being within a social situation. Item 23 has a content related to the refuse of continuing a solitary job (in expectation of achievements/ future rewards), when colleagues are having fun. Factor IV. Sensitivity Factor IV covers 7, 64% of data variance and is comprised of factors F6 Solitude in nature (0.56), F11 - Helpfulness (0.51) and F14 Lack of care for the others (0.65). This is a factor of emotional sensitivity, capturing a specific meaning of Agreeableness: empathy, the tendency of

being close to others, of being nurturing and helpful. It identifies individuals with a kind and friendly behavior, interested in the positive quality of emotions. Facets F10 (Need for support) and F13 (Gregariousness) have both loadings on this factor. They have, however, primary loadings on N (0.48) and O (-0.61) dimensions respectively, the loadings on the Sensitivity dimension (0.30 and 0.32) being smaller. These facets are additionally shaping the meanings of the Sensitivity factor with their content. F6. Solitude in nature, with a loading of 0.56, is a factor indicating the preference for travels in the nature and solitude, so it identifies persons with sensitivity and receptivity for the experience of natural environments. Facet F6 has 4 items: 10, 20, 25 and 35. The content of the items is related to the solitary experience of nature. Item 5 has a major loading on facet F4 (Variety of interests), under the Openness dimension, but loads also 0.30 on this facet; its content refers also to solitary experiences in the nature, but rather as scientific knowledge and research of nature. F11. Helpfulness, with a loading of 0.51 is a factor that groups nurturing behavior towards others, even when they display deviant behaviors. The factor captures a way of being kind, identifying individuals willing to help others even if this is not directly asked for. Facet F11 has 2 items: 47 and 48. The content of the items is related to kind and helping behaviors towards others. Item 48 has an additional content related to order. F14. Lack of care for others, with a loading of 0.65 is a factor somehow unusual, as by its meaning it is a kind of negative left over from factor F7 (Care). It is a factor grouping rather non empathic behaviors and responses, in the way of toughness and carelessness about others. It also indicates a behavior lacking emotional resonance. Facet F14 has 2 items: 27 and 57. The content of the items refers to aggressive responses or bantering persons who are in situations of suffering or personal failure, thus mandating its name. Factor V. Extraversion Factor V covers 6, 58% of data variance and contains the F12 - Leadership primary factor. It is a factor related to leadership, identifying individuals with an active need for emotional rewards generated by social

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involvement, with a high assertiveness and a need of social recognition. F12. Leadership, with a loading of 0.86 is a factor defining the pleasure of leading others, of being in the centre of others attention, the tendency of being seen as an example and the will of coordinating and supervising other people. Facet F1 has 3 items: 13, 31 and 41. Their contents refer to hard and constant work, public recognition of personal achievements and the pleasure of being at the head, of leading others. The facet actually combines 3 contents that define fundamental meanings of leadership; the propensity to leading involves the desire for social recognition and social conspicuousness. Also, item 16, even while having a significant loading on this facet, has a major loading on the F3 factor (Influence via humor), allocated to the Conscientiousness dimension and a content related to the public recognition of personal achievements, thus further consolidating the interpersonal meaning of this facet. Factor VI. Intolerance to Failure Factor VI covers 6, 49% of data variance and groups the facets F15 Intolerance to failure (0.66) and F16 - Failure in learning (0.75). Factor VI does not relate with any of the classical Big Five dimensions. It is a factor of failure in interpersonal context, a failure in the desire of self-fulfilling, and failure in learning and academic achievement and it identifies individuals with a high awareness for the concept of failure or otherwise negatively influenced by failure. F15. Intolerance to loss, with a loading of 0.66 is a factor that emphasizes the difficulty in accepting the very idea of loss in competitions, even though the stake is not real or important. This facet identifies persons who do not enjoy losing and who display aggressive manifestations to loss. Facet F15 has only one item (3), with a content related to aggressive responses to loss in a sportive competition. Item 3 have also a loading of 0.35 on Aggressiveness, allocated to the Conscientiousness dimension, thus shaping the meaning of the F15 facet with a touch of aggressive behavior. F16. Failure in learning, with a loading of 0.75, has an opposite meaning to the F1 (Achievement/ Study) factor, allocated on the Conscientiousness dimension. It is a facet of failure in learning and academic achievement and has only one item, 19, with a content

related to rejection due to failure. Although the factor has no significant meaning on any of the classical Big Five dimensions, we consider that it has rather a meaning associated to N (Neuroticism). Item 8 have the major loading on the F1 facet (Achievement through study) allocated to the C dimension, although it has also a loading higher than 0.30 on the Failure. This item is supplementing the significance of the facet with a content related to failure in studying, failure in school or in academic accomplishments. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISONS Obviously, in terms of facets and contents combined under each of the 6 factors, we finally have a global portrait significantly differing from Costa & McCraes (1992) model that was the starting point for constructing the FFNPQ; the structure of the original fivefactors is significantly different. Conscientiousness, which is the most explicit dimension in the present research, retains only one common facet with the NEOPI-R, F9 (Care). Facet F2 (Aggressiveness) allocated to the Conscientiousness dimension with a negative loading, does not appear as such in the Costa & McCrae (1992) solution, where opposite behaviors are combined on the Hostility facet allocated to Neuroticism, or to low scores on Agreeableness. The negative loadings of aggressiveness should be seen as denial of aggressive in the context of being conscientious. In Romanian lexical solution, aggressiveness is a major component of the second ranked factor, Immaturity. The F3 facet (Influence via humor), that is found with a negative loading in the content of the Conscientiousness factor, includes a category of meanings that is not captured in the classical Big Five model, and is more prominent in the Romanian culture. On the other hand, in the lexical approach, humor is a positive facet (with markers such as: practical joker, humorous, genial, flexible, open minded) and appears as a Romanian specific to Extraversion (E3). In nonverbal terms, humor seems to be connected with the denial of need of being the centre of attention by humor, and by the usage of humor and of playful spirits in order to socialize and to obtain social support. It also contains an aspect related to a slight deviance from social norms, like for example high alcohol consumption in parties.

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Facet F7 (Care) is grouped on the Conscientiousness factor, although similar contents are usually allocated rather to Agreeability. This condition seems to support the cultural hypothesis, as the care for other people, especially children, older and sick people is a behavioral component strongly valued in the traditional role models of Romanian culture and even in the Orthodox religion, recognizable also as such in a series of moral norms, roles and attitudes delineating those behaviors that gain social respect and those that dont. On the Neuroticism dimension one may also find a classical facet, F8 (Anxiety). Facets F5 (Phobia) and F10 (Need of help), also components of Neuroticism in our research, are not to be found in the classical Neuroticism factor, this could also signal a cultural determination of personality. The Openness to Experience dimension is completely different from the one in the NEO-PI-R solution, combining aspects related to a variety of interests and to openness in ones social and interpersonal life. In the current factor analyses solution, facet F13 (Gregariousness), belonging to Extraversion in NEO-PI-R, is allocated to Openness. The F13 facet additionally loads more than 0.30 on two other factors, Neuroticism and Agreeability. Facet F4 (Variety of interests) may be considered as a global estimator for Openness to experience, as such a divergent approach of interests would probably also favor the variety and multitude of experiences. The lexical approach also reveled facets connected with Selfactualization consistent with F4: in depth thinking, openness, sophistication, independence and creativity. The Sensitivity dimension corresponding to Agreeability (A) in the NEOPI-R Big Five solution has no common facet in this solution, although contents related to F11 (Helpfulness) and F14 (Lack of care for others) may be found in the classical approach. Sensitivity has a particular facet in the present study, the one related to solitude in nature (F6). Most likely, the meanings of solitude embedded in the items of this facet determined the fact that F6 it is part of the Sensitivity factor rather than of Openness to experience. The meaning of the factor is shaped by interrelation with others with F13 and F14 secondary loadings. Extraversion is represented in the present study by a single facet (Leadership) and is the least shaped dimension of the five. It

is surprising that, although the primary factorial analysis identified 3 components, F12 (Leadership), F13 (Gregariousness) and F3 (Influence via humor), that are normally assimilated with their contents to Extraversion; only one of them had a relevant loading on the Extraversion dimension. This suggests that relatively similar behaviors might be related to different personality constructs in different cultures. In lexical replication Extraversion is a first rank factor with activism, optimism, humor, interpersonal ability and success seeking as facets. We consider that the differences in rank order and internal structure of Extraversion in nonverbal and verbal studies suggest the intervention of a mediating influence of projection in the generating of responses to figural items. Intolerance to failure denominates the sixth factor. The six factor solution is different from most of the studies which emphasize the universal features of the Big Five model solution (Jackson, Paunonen, Fraboni & Goffin, 1996); and especially different when compared to the five factors obtained by Minulescu (1996). Although factor VI is a residual factor, with a low loading, emphasizing meanings typical for N and (-) C, it still underlines a different dimension of personality. Intolerance to failure factor has psychological coherence as well as a specific historical and social resonance in the Romanian cultural context. As such, it is very likely to be connected to some real historical and social moments of the Romanian people and to be interpreted as an expression of a masochist feature, present in Romanian personality after centuries of domination and oppression. In terms of cultural heritage, the Romanian of the XXI Century, after 50 years of communist conformist pressure and further 16 years of failure to adapt to social transition, continuously confronted with a value crisis, came to see Conscientiousness rather as control and conformism; Aggressiveness and humor have negative meanings especially because they underline the lack of behavioral control. Neuroticism is expressed by fear (with or without a specific trigger) and need for help. Openness is a focus on the own individuality: openness of interests, intellectual targets and lack of the need for social contacts. Agreeableness becomes rather a need for isolation, of personal emotional feelings, and is expressed by contents related to solitude in nature, sensitivity to the needs of others, as

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opposed to the lack of care for others. Extraversion is directly assimilated to social success and a leading position. Factor VI Intolerance to failure is underlining a substantial dimension of personal insecurity related to life. Are the images much more a subject of peoples own projections, or are they indeed more objective in capturing the reality of the psychic structures? Are the inner factors subject to influence of long term socio-cultural influences? These two questions have to be answered by specific research. The present study enforces the value of nonverbal instruments, such as FFNPQ, in multicultural studies. We should probably consider designing research projects specifically tailored to identify such influences in different cultures. We are especially interested if the meanings allocated by respondents to the images of FFNPQ items are the same in different cultures, with the aim of identifying the items that better reflect the typicalities in each culture. References
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revised NEO Personality Inventory. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, vol., 29, No.1, 171 - 188 Minulescu, M. (1996), Replicarea modelului Big Five n limba romn. Specificul socio-cultural exprimat n coninutul factorilor. Chestionarul ABCD-M. Zlate M. (Ed.); Psihologia vieii cotidiene. Iai, Polirom. Minulescu, M. (2002), Replication of Big Five model in Romanian language. Paper. National Conference of Psychology, Neptun, Romania. Minulescu, M. (2004). Modern psycho-diagnosis. Personality questionnaires. Editura Fundaiei Romnia de Mine, Bucureti. Mlacic, B. & Knezovici Z. (1994), Big Five studies in Croatia: a transparent vs opaque format, paper, The VIIth EAPP Conference, Madrid Paunonen, S. V., & Ashton, M. C. (2002). The nonverbal assessment of personality: The NPQ and the FFNPQ. In De Raad, B., & Perugini, M. (Eds.), Big Five assessment. Gttingen: Hogrefe & Huber, 171-194. Paunonen, S. V., Ashton, M. C., & Jackson, D. N. (2001). Nonverbal assessment of the Big Five personality factors. European Journal of Personality, 15, 3-18.

Paunonen, S. V., Jackson, D. N., & Ashton, M. C. (2002). Manual of the Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire, and the Five-Factor Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire. Port Huron, MI: Sigma Assessment Systems. Paunonen, S. V., Jackson, D. N., & Ashton, M. C. (2004). NPQ manual. Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire and Five-Factor Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire. Port Huron, MI: Sigma Assessment Systems. Perugini, M., Leone, L., Galluci, M., Lauriola, M., (1994), Selection of a Short Adjective Check List to measure Big Five, paper, The VIIth EAPP Conference, Madrid Silva, F., Avua, D., Sanz, J., Martines-Arias, R., Grana J.L., Sanchez-Bernardos, L. (1994), The five factor model I. Contribution to the structure of the NEO-PI, Person. Individ. Diff., 17, 6, 741 - 753 Zhou, F., Wang, D. (2005). Will the Five-Factor model emerge? Assessing Chinese personality by a non-verbal scale. Testing International, 15, 1, 2-4. White, G.M., 1980, Conceptual universals in interpersonal language, American Anthropologist, 82, 759 781.

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ASPECTE PRACTICE ALE UTILIZRII TERAPIEI COGNITIVE N MANAGEMENTUL RESURSELOR UMANE DIN ORGANIZAIILE BANCARE
1

Mihai Aniei Universitatea Bucureti Oana Pnescu Psyho Global Consult S.R.L. Mihaela Popa Chraif Universitatea Bucureti

Abstract

Knowledge is increasingly recognized as a strategic asset and a source of competitive advantage. In organizations, change occurs for many reasons and takes on many forms. Though changes are often beneficial to organizations, employees are often initially reluctant to change. An influencing factor over the employees behavior and thus the relations with others at work is stress. According to the Stress Management, stress could cause anxiety and depression to the employee. The purpose of the present research is focused on experimenting how the organizational consequences as depression and anxiety can be managed by Behavioral Cognitive Therapy, changing the employees behavior to healthfully response to stress, anxiety and depression. tiina este tot mai mult recunoscut ca o valoare strategic i ca o surs de avantaj competitiv. n organizaii, schimbarea se produce din mai multe cauze i ia diverse forme. Dei schimbrile, de cele mai multe ori, aduc beneficii organizaiilor, angajaii privesc, de obicei, ovitor aceste shimbri. Un factor care influeneaz comportamentul angajailor i relaiile lor cu ceilali la locul de munc este stresul. Potrivit Managementului Stresului, stresul poate produce anxietate i depresie n rndul angajailor. Scopul cercetrii este de a experimenta cum anume consecinele organizaionale, ca depresia i anxietatea, pot fi controlate prin terapia cognitiv, schimbnd comportamentul angajailor cu un rspuns adaptativ la stres, anxietate i depresie.
Key-words: Behavioral Cognitive Therapy, stres adaptation, relaxation therapy,

reactivity to stres, flexibility in cognition INTRODUCERE

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n mediile organizaionale se pot manifesta o serie de disfuncii care vizeaz organizarea, stilul de conducere i deciziile care pot fi vulnerabile i respinse, iar ca efect al acestora poate avea loc o participare formal bazat pe constrngere i pe angajare parial. Ca efecte indirecte ale unor asemenea fenomene apar comportamentele demotivate i contraproductive, personalul nemulumit profesional i spiritual, tensiuni i
1

Adresa de contact: mihai.anitei@unibuc.ro

conflicte ntre membrii organizaiei i ntre ei i conducerea organizaiei precum i uzura fizic i psihic a acestora. Din ce n ce mai des organizaiile sunt traversate i bulversate de fenomene precum: disfuncii organizaionale ca abateri repetate ale conduitelor de la norme, valori, reglementri formale; crize organizaionale i manageriale ca dereglri, confuzii i pierderi grave trite la nivel intra/inter i transpersonal; ca momente critice, dar i ca momente intense de transformare; boli mentale i profesionale ca dereglri psihice aprute n mediile i contextele profesionale; boli organizaionale ca

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perturbri de natur psiho-comportamental extinse la nivelul integrrii organizaiei. Toate aceste fenomene produc efecte dezadaptative grave i generalizate care influeneaz nu doar viaa personal a membrilor organizaiei, ci i viaa lor socio-profesional. Ele afecteaz capacitatea de munc a membrilor organizaiei, relaiile formale i informale dintre ei, starea lor de bine subiectiv i mai presus de toate randamentul muncii. Astfel, cu timpul organizaia se transform dintr-una sntoas i eficient ntr-un bolnav, morbid i total neproductiv (Zlate, 2007). Avnd n vedere toate acestea, terapia cognitiv comportamental reprezint o metod practic, elaborat conform unui plan cognitiv ce poate fi utilizat n asigurarea proteciei individuale i reducerea riscului apariiei bolilor profesionale. PATOLOGIA ORGANIZATIONALA: DE LA INDIVID LA ORGANIZATIE Morgan (1986), comparnd organizaia cu corpul uman a lansat cele 8 metafore ale organizaiilor dintre care metafora organizaia ca organism viu , adaptabil asemntor corpului uman este adus n discuie. Aa cum organismul uman traverseaz stri de sntate dar i de boal, organismul organizaional traverseaz stri de sntate i boal. Un mediu organizaional sntos se definete printr-o nalt productivitate, o mare satisfacie a salariailor fa de condiiile muncii lor, existena unor contexte securizante, un numr limitat de prsiri i absene de la locul de munc i randament ridicat. Sntatea sistemelor organizaionale poate fi influenat de o serie de factori benefici care o fortific dar i de alii nocivi, care o fragilizeaz. Din aceast cauz, problematica sntii sistemelor organizaionale, mai ales a sistemelor de munc din cadrul acestora, formate n principal din oameni, sarcini de munc, condiii i constrngeri ale mediului ambiant (fizic i social), ncepe s fie conexat cu medicina, patologia, psihiatria social, psihologia social i psihopatologia (Zlate, 2007). Consecina fireasc a acestui fapt a reprezentat-o explozia n literatura de specialitate a unor termeni cum ar fi: psihopatologia muncii (Le Guillant, 1984; Dejours, 2000); psihologia social clinic; clinica muncii i patologia organizaional (Kets de Vries, 2002). Cu toate c noiunile lansate au fost multe i variate, ele pot fi grupate n dou categorii: unele care graviteaz n jurul muncii,

a condiiilor i constrngerilor ei ca posibile surse patogene ceea ce a dus la prefigurarea psihopatologiei muncii, altele, n jurul organizaiilor, a factorilor i condiiilor mediului organizaional n calitate de surs generatoare ale unor dereglri psihocomportamentale, fapt ce a contribuit la apariia patologiei /psihopatologiei organizaionale. Dejours (2000) citat de Zlate (2007) propune patru tipuri de patologii aprute n mediile de munc i cele organizaionale: patologiile de suprancrcare datorate multitudinii sarcinilor de munc ce revin personalului, ritmului crescut n care trebuie executate urgene i presiuni exercitate asupra subiectului (unele de natur fiziologic, altele cu o mare ncrctur psihic burn out); patologiile post-traumatice generate de orice tip de accident, indiferent de locul unde i de momentul cnd se produce; patologiile distorsionrii simului comun produse de imperfeciunile sistemului de evaluare individualizat a performanelor angajaii neapreciai, lucrtorii buni, contiincioi vor suferi tulburri de gndire, imagine de sine etc.; patologiile solitudinii generate de frica de a fi concediat, izolat i marginalizat de colegi n propriul grup de munc, respins din procesul comunicrii. Sntatea fizic i psihic a angajailor reprezint, poate, una dintre resursele cele mai importante pe care organizaiile se pot baza. Din pcate stresul afecteaz grav starea de sntate a membrilor organizaiei fapt ce se repercuteaz, n final, asupra eficienei organizaionale. Cercetrile au artat c stresul (distresul) este implicat n 50-70% din toate formele bolilor fizice. El apare ca surs a bolilor de inim, a celor de stomac (ndeosebi a ulcerului), a diabetului, a bolilor infecioase (infecii respiratorii superioare, apariia herpesului i a altor infecii bacteriale). Stresul afecteaz i sntatea psihic/mental a angajatului conducnd la apariia psihogeniilor. ocul psihic, starea de criz, stresul posttraumatic sunt tot attea expresii ale unor perturbri psihice. (Derevenco i colab, 1992; Iamandescu, 2002). In studiul acestor efecte au fost aplicate dou metodologii: 1) metodologia prospectiv (nivelul stresului trit de indivizi la un moment dat este legat de sntatea lor anterioar; se constat c rata mbonlvirilor crete dup episoade de stres crescut); 2) metodologia voluntarilor (persoane sntoase sunt expuse, cu acordul lor, la condiii stresante sau nonstresante; s-a constatat c cei expui la condiii stresante au

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dezvoltat o serie de tulburri somatice sau psihice corespunztoare agentului patogen folosit). Cox (Cox, 1978, p.92) enumer principalele efecte ale stresului ca fiind: fiziologice (creterea glicemiei, creterea ritmului cardiac i a tensiunii arteriale, transpiraia abundent, dilatarea pupilei); subiective, psihoindividuale (anxietate, agresivitate, apatie, plictiseal, depresie, oboseal, frustrare, iritabilitate, scderea stimei de sine, nervozitate, sentimente de inferioritate); cognitive (incapacitatea de a lua decizii pertinente, reducerea capacitii de concentrare a ateniei, hiperscunibilitate la critic, blocaje mentale); comportamentale (predispoziii la accidente, toxicomanie, izbucniri emoionale, bulimie, abuz de alcool sau tutun, rs nervos, plns zgomotos); psihoorganizaionale (absenteism, scderea productivitii, alienarea la relaiile cu ceilali membri ai organizaiei, reducerea implicrii, insatisfacii n munc, scderea ncrederii i loialitii n/fa de organizaie). n legtur cu aceste efecte au fost aduse urmtoarele precizri (Zlate, 2007): sunt cel mai frecvent asociate cu stresul, ceea ce nu nseamn c stresul le cauzeaz ntotdeauna (n-ar fi exclus ca niciunul dintre ele s aib vreo legtur cu stresul, putnd fi cauzate de multe alte fenomene); totui, nu poate fi ignorat posibilitatea ca stresul s constituie una dintre cauzele primare sau adiionale ale lor; ponderea, semnificaia i gravitatea lor trebuie evaluate n funcie de mai multe criterii, dintre care unul foarte important este cel al nivelului la care se instaleaz (individual, psihosocial sau psihoorganizaional); aceasta pentru simplul fapt c gestionarea efectelor aprute la nivel individual se afl mai puin sub controlul organizaiei i, oricum, este, mult mai greu de realizat; efectele stresului organizaional nu trebuie interpretate n sine, ci i prin prisma posibilitii sau capacitii lor de a genera n lan alte efecte colaterale

cu urmri mult mai grave dect efectul iniial (responsabilitatea resimit fa de munc i poate stresa pe unii oameni; unele sunt ns efectele produse de stresul cauzat de responsabilitatea pentru oameni i cu totul altele cele produse de responsabilitatea pentru bunuri/obiecte/bunuri materiale; i ntrun caz i n altul pot avea loc accidente, cu pierderi ireparabile, irecuperabile sau dimpotriv uor de recuperat); gestiunea sau managementul efectelor stresului organizaional se cere a fi intreprins n cunotiin de cauz, adic n condiiile cunoaterii naturii, semnificaiei, ponderii efectelor aprute n contexte organizaionale, dac este posibil, chiar cu cunoaterea percepiei angajailor asupra gravitii lor. Ca o condiie sine-qua-non se impune cercetarea i diagnosticarea surselor generatoare de stres deoarece numai eliminarea cauzelor va conduce la eliminarea efectelor.

MANAGEMENTUL STRESULUI ORGANIZAIONAL Unii autori prefer s inventarieze modalitile i strategiile de gestiune a stresului organizaional pornind de la paradigmele stresului (Zlate, 2007). Astfel, Rasche i colab. (2003), pornind de la paradigma stresului ca stimul, ca agent stresor, consider c cel mai potrivit ar fi centrarea atentiei pe caracteristicile muncii i ale mediului de munc ce apar n calitate de factori stresori. Amenajarea locului de munc i a timpului de munc, redefinirea posturilor, organizarea echipelor semiautonome etc. sunt, n acest caz strategiile cele mai potrivite pentru gestiunea stresului. Cnd punctul de pornire l constituie paradigma stresului ca reacie a organismului, cele mai nimerite strategii de reducere a simptomelor stresului sunt aa numitele programme de ajutor a angajailor sau exerciiile corporale. Primele au fost propuse de companiile americane prin jurul anilor 30 ai secolului trecut i constau n recoltarea tuturor nemulumirilor, plngerilor angajailor, organizarea n exteriorul organizaiei a unui program de tratament a persoanelor mai grav afectate de stres, urmat de evaluarea rezultatelor obinute. Exerciiile de relaxare corporal (fitness, jocuri colective, jogging; relaxarea muscular, respiratorie, meditaie,

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biofeedback) au avut o mare rspndide n anii 80, dar, din pcate, fiind decontextualizate (nu ineau cont de specificul locului i mediului de munc) inteau, mai degrab, spre educarea angajailor pentru a suporta condiiile de munc, i nu spre schimbarea acestor condiii. Le Blank i colaboratorii (2000) pstreaz dimensiunea nivelului la care sunt amplasate strategiile gestiunii stresului (organizaional i individual) i le completeaz cu o a treia- dimensiunea nivelului de interfa ntre organizaie i individ. Apoi, ei introduc o nou dimensiune, i anume tipul interveniei n vederea realizrii gestiunii stresului. Sunt identificate cinci tipuri de intervenii manageriale: intervenia de identificare (care const n detecia prematur a stresorilor slujbei i a reaciilor la stres); intervenia de prevenire primar (ce propune reducerea stresorilor slujbei); intervenia de prevenire secundar (axat pe modificarea modului n care angajaii rspund la stresorii slujbei); intervenia de tip terapeutic (n vederea vindecrii angajailor care sufer de stresul sever al slujbei); intervenia de reabilitare (ntoarcerea/revenirea/reintegrarea la/n fosta slujb). Combinnd nivelurile strategiilor manageriale cu tipurile de intervenie managerial, autorii obin o matrice care este extrem de sugestiv. Oarecum asemntor procedeaz i ali autori care desprind trei nivele de intervenie organizaionale: primar (care este proactiv i preventiv avnd scopul de a reduce numrul sau intensitatea agenilor stresori), secundar (oscileaz ntre proactiv i reactiv i are scopul de a modifica rspunsurile indivizilor la stresori), teriar (bazat pe tratament i reabilitare cu scopul de a minimiza consecinele stresorilor i a contribui la starea de bine a individului) (Cooper, Dewe, ODriscoll,2001, pp. 189-197 ; citai n Zlate, 2007). Aamondt (1999) aduce n discuie cteva tehnici ce reduc proactiv stresul: 1. Planningul pentru contracararea stresului: exerciiile sportive notul, alergatul, cratul pe stnci, urcatul scrilor (cu argumentele ntririi sistemului cardiovasculator); umorul, rsul cu plcere vizionarea de comedii, discuii umoristice (reduce tensiunea arterial); dieta corespunztoare alctuit din legume i fructe crude, cereale, iaurt i mult ap, reducerea cofeinei i ciocolatei; reducerea fumatului; respectarea orelor de somn; grupuri de suport (Support Groups) constituirea de grupuri de prieteni i efectuarea de diferite

activiti mpreun; selfempowerment voluntariate. 2. Tehnici folosite n timpul expunerii la stres i dup expunerea la stres: tehnici de relaxare respiraie abdominal (calmeaz emoional), adaptarea unor poziii confortabile, relaxarea muscular, meditaia (pentru 15-20 min); managementul timpului este foarte important n lupta cu rezolvarea de sarcini n timp foarte scurt deoarece este o surs de stres inevitabil n orice organizaie. TERAPIA COGNITIV COMPORTAMENTALA SI MEDIUL ORGANIZATIONAL Terapia cognitiv comportamental a evoluat mult n ultimii 30 de ani, fiind una dintre soluiile posibile n faa sentimentelor negative, de anxietate, de depresie sau de eec. Psihoterapeutul care practic terapia cognitiv comportamental este departe de a fi un simplu spectator impasibil n faa destinului celorlali, el fiind un actor care l ajut pe pacient s modifice scenariul repetitiv n care a czut captiv. Modificarea interpretrilor negative ale realitii este punctul de plecare a scenariului cognitiv pe care persoana l va parcurge analiznd n ce msur aceste gnduri i declaneaz i i menin emoiile i comportamentele care i provoac suferin i pe care dorete s le modifice. Cottraux (2003) enumer prncipiile terapiei cognitive: 1. o persoan anxioas, deprimat sau coleric gndete ntr-o manier ilogic, sistematic negativ, acionnd fr s-i dea seama n detrimentul su; 2. cu ajutorul unui terapeut, este posibil s nvei cum s identifici i s elimini aceste gnduri i emoii negative; 3. odat sentimentele i ideile neplcute modificate, este posibil s devii mai productiv, s ai respect de sine i s fii mai fericit; 4. rezultatele se obin ntr-o perioad relativ scurt de timp (6 luni) care presupun aproximativ 20 de edine. Zapf D. (2001) a realizat o cercetare n care a studiat emoiile datorate muncii, diferii stresori organizaionali ca variabile predictoare pentru sindromul burnout la locul de munc. Beck (1991) a studiat de asemenea sindromul burnout ca funcie de stresul angajailor la locul de munc i aplicaiile terapiei cognitiv comportamentale n reducerea acestuia. Dat fiind faptul c stresul nu poate fi izolat de existena angajailor n resurse umane, terapia cognitiv comportamental propune diverse programe de gestionare a stresului. Astfel

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Cottraux (2003) propune urmtorul program ce se poate efectua fie n terapia individual, fie n grup cuprinznd 6 edine de cte dou ore pentru grupuri de max. 5 persoane: 1. Stres i relaxare; 2. Strategii cognitive de adaptare la stres; 3. Tehnici de comunicare i stres; 4.
Adaptare: -identificarea stresorilor; - rezolvarea problemei; - comunicare.

Tehnici de rezolvare a problemei i stresului; 5. Adaptarea la stres; 6. Generalizarea gestionrii stresului la situaiile cotidiene. Schema cognitiv a gestionrii stresului se prezint conform figurii 1.

Situaie stresant

Schimbarea gndurilor i a convingerilor: terapia cognitiv.

Interpretare

Diminuarea emoiilor: relaxarea

Emoii: furie, anxietate, depresie.

Stare fizic Rspunsuri cardiace

Figura 1 Schema cognitiv a gestionrii stresului (Cottraux, 2003).

Aa cum menioneaz Cottraux (2003), anumite tulburri emoionale, cum ar fi: anxietatea, depresia, furia i ostilitatea; pot fi considearate, o cauz major a ineficienei la locul de munc, afectnd capacitatea de concentrare i eficiena n munc i ajungnd pn la reducerea productivitii muncii n cazul n care se generalizez la majoritatea angajailor. n aceste cazuri acelai autor indic att terapii cognitiv comportamentale dar i alte metode de management al stresului menionate anterior. Strategiile respective, respective pe lng valenele pozitive pe care le conin, se asociaz i cu unele nempliniri, fapt care a atras dup sine o serie de critici. Considernd faptul c, nc de la nceputul nfiinrii organizaiilor se urmrete desfurarea unor activiti n condiii de maxim eficacitate, iar pe parcursul funcionrii organizaiile trebuie s se adapteze noilor condiii care apar n mediul intern i extern al acestora, dezvoltarea organizaionl (ca proces) cuprinde o gam larg de activiti: construirea unei echipe de conducere la nivelul managementului superior, proiectarea fiei postului i mbuntirea structurii

organizatorice. Astfel, Burke (1982) considera dezvoltarea organizaional ca pe un proces planificat de schimbare n cultura organizaiei utiliznd teoria i practica din domeniul comportamental i French (1969) apela la utilizarea consultanilor n tiina comportamentului sau n problemele schimbrii. Cu toate c terapia cognitiv comportamental ofer o alternativ eficient n tratarea anxietii, depresiei i stresului cauzat de anumii factori de stres la locul de munc un loc important l reprezint diagnoza climatului organizaional pentru a evidenia exact factorii care contribuie la apariia i meninerea acestora. Terapia cognitiv comportamental apare astfe, ca o metod complementar (Aamondt, 1999) n ameliorarea stresului, anxietii i depresiei ce cauzez insatisfacie i ineficien n munc precum i tensiuni i conflicte ntre angajai. Trecnd n revist literatura de specialitate i pornind de la anumite efecte sesizate n plan comportamental la nivelul departamentului de resurse umane n organizaia bancar analizat, scopul cercetrii de fa const n a evidenia rolul jucat de

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terapia cognitiv-comportamental n organizatii dar si necesitatea efecturii unei diagnoze a climatului organizaional. Obiective Obiectivele propuse au fost: identificarea problemelor cu care se confrunt personalul organizaiei bancare analizate ; propunerea unor tehnici de ameliorare a problemelor de ordin psihic, la locul de munc, n cadrul sucursalei bancare; testarea eficienei terapiei cognitive, avnd ca scop reducerea nivelului anxietii, stresului i depresiei personalului la locul de munc. METODA Cercetarea de fa s-a desfurat n cadrul unei instituii financiar-bancare, mai precis n cadrul unei sucursale apartinnd bncii respective. Participani Participanii la acest studiu au fost reprezentai de personalul sucursalei, n numr de 47 persoane, cu media de vrst de 38 ani, dintre care 15 femei i 32 brbai. Dintre acetia, cinci persoane au poziii de conducere, 16 persoane au contact direct cu publicul, restul de 26 de persoane lucreaz n departamentul IT i n departamentul operaiuni bancare. Instrumente 1. Interviul semistructurat. Acesta a vizat urmtoarele obiective: familiarizarea cu angajaii i cu problemele lor aa cum le percep ei, n special cele legate de locul de munc: condiii de lucru, relaii cu colegii, satisfacii, aspiraii, nemulumiri, eecuri; identificarea problemelor de ordin familial sau personal care pot sta la baza anumitor tulburri emoionale; identificarea factorilor stresori de la locul de munc; identificarea unor probleme de ordin psihofiziologic i psihic. 2. Scala pentru depresie Hamilton (Minulescu, 2004) este una dintre cele mai

utilizate scale pentru identificarea depresiei i este alctuit din 17 itemi. Scorurile acordate sunt cuprinse ntre 0 i 25 puncte. 3. Scala de anxietate Cattell (Minulescu, 2004) este un chestionar de anxietate, compus din 40 de itemi, care permite obinerea unei note generale de anxietate calculate n note standard cuprinse ntre 1 i 10. Cei 40 de itemi (ntrebri) sunt mprii pe cinci factori primari ai anxietii utilizai n msurarea anxietii cu scop clinic. Cei cinci factori care agregai formeaz Indicele global de anxietate sunt: Factorul Q3 (8 itemi), nota Q3 indic n ce msur anxietatea este legat de structurile caracteriale social aprobate ; Factorul C (6 itemi), nota C dovedete slbiciunea eului i a rolului su n apariia anxietii ; Factorul I (4 itemi), nota I dovedete contribuia sentimentului de insecuritate social la anxietate ; Factorul O (12 itemi), nota O exprim anxietatea derivnd din presiunea supraeului ; Factorul Q4 (10 itemi), nota Q4 dovedete rolul forelor pulsionale ale subiectului n geneza anxietii. Indicele global de anxietate n note standard, este calculat ca medie aritmetic a celor cinci factori n note standard i este indicat n msurarea anxietii fr a avea un scop clinic. 4. Scala de evaluare a capacitii de adaptare la stres (RQ Plus). Scala msoar abilitile personale de a nvinge stresul i dificultile cotidiene. Pe baza analizei factoriale au fost identificai patru factori: Activism, Reactivitate emoional, Adaptare, Relaxare. Factorul 1 (Activism)- include formele de coping caracterizate printr-o atitudine proactiv, de mobilizare fizic, emoional i mental n vederea depirii obstacolelor, atitudine constructiv i preventiv, cutare de informaii i aplicarea acestora ntr-un mod adecvat, perseveren n realizarea scopurilor propuse. Scorurile mari la acest factor indic o bun adaptare la stres n sensul descris, iar scorurile mici indic o atitudine pasiv, deci o slab adaptare. Factorul 2 (Reactivitate la stres)- se refer la reaciile individuale fa de situaiile neobinuite, fcnd referire n mod constant la componenta emoional. Scorurile mari indic o bun reactivitate fa de factorii stresani, deci o adaptare optim la stres, iar scorurile sczute o adaptare dificil la stres. Factorul 3 (Adaptare-flexibilitate)- vizeaz capacitatea de adaptare la situaii noi, acceptarea suportului social n vederea rezolvrii problemelor dificile, modificarea

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adecvat a planurilor de aciune n funcie de schimbri obiective, flexibilitatea n gndire i comportament. Scorurile mari la acest factor indic o bun adaptare i flexibilitate, iar scorurile mici o adaptare sczut. Factorul 4 (Relaxare)- itemii cu saturaie mare n acest factor se refer n mod sistematic la necesitatea rezervrii unui timp de relaxare n vederea refacerii, a exprimrii deschise a nevoilor i ateptrilor. Scorurile mari indic o bun adaptare n sensul factorului descris, scorurile mici indic maladaptare. Indicele global de adaptare la stres integreaz, n baza ponderrii, cei patru factori ; scorurile mari indic o bun capacitate de adaptare la stres. Procedura nainte de nceperea demersurilor propriu-zise de testare, personalul bncii a fost avertizat n legtur cu inteniile i scopurile demersului cercetrii pentru a nu exista o atitudine de suspiciune i team nejustificat din partea lor. De asemenea s-a asigurat confidenialitatea informaiilor furnizate. ntr-o prim etap s-a aplicat metoda interviului semistructurat pentru a identifica problemele i tendinele psihopatologice ale personalului sucursalei bancare. Realizarea interviurilor s-a desfurat pe parcursul a patru zile, la sediul instituiei care a apelat la intervenia terapeutic cognitiv comportamental. n urma interviurilor s-au constat tendine anxioase i depresive i s-au reliefat problemele predominante ale grupului de angajai. De aceea s-a urmrit n continuare realizarea unei evaluri a acestor tendine anxioase i depresive, folosind scala pentru depresie Hamilton, scala de anxietate Cattell i scala de evaluare a capacitii de adaptare la stres. Evaluarea subiecilor s-a realizat n dou momente: momentul A, n care a avut loc aplicarea celor trei instrumente nainte de intervenia terapeutic i momentul B al cercetrii, n care grupul de angajai a fost reevaluat dup o perioad n care s-a intervenit terapeutic urmrind evidenierea reducerii nivelului de stres, anxietate i depresie. Momentul A: aplicarea probelor s-a facut pe parcursul unei sptmni, pe grupuri mici, de cte 5-10 subieci, n funcie de programul de lucru al acestora. n urma realizrii interviurilor i aplicrii chestionarelor s-au evideniat dou categorii de probleme:

probleme ale angajailor i probleme ale organizaiei, aa cum reies din perspectiva angajailor. Pentru ameliorarea tendinelor anxioase i a strilor depresive i de stres a fost propus terapia cogniv-comportamental, fiind o intervenie terapeutic de scurt durat, cu efecte rapide. Terapia cognitiv-comportamental: durata terapiei a fost stabilit la trei luni cu ntlniri sptmnale i cu durata de dou ore. Au fost formate trei grupuri de terapie de cte 14, 15 persoane i, respectiv, 18 persoane. Demersul terapeutic propriu-zis a cuprins urmtoarele etape: monitorizarea strilor emoionale disfuncionale i a evenimentelor anterioare; identificarea gndurilor i convingerilor negative; explicarea i identificarea conexiunilor dintre gnd, emoie i comportament; testarea gradului de veridicitate a gndurilor i convingerilor negative prin verificare i adunare de dovezi pro i contra (de foarte mare ajutor a fost realizarea terapiei de grup, fiind astfel posibil verificarea acestor gnduri legate de situaiile de la locul de munc chiar mpreun cu colegii) i substituirea modelului negativ de a gndi cu unul mai pozitiv. Tehnicile folosite n timpul sesiunilor de terapie cognitiv comportamental au fost: Tehnici cognitiv-comportamentale (tehnica adresrii ntrebrilor cu caracter provocativ; tehnica metaforelor, tehnica examinrii avantajelor i dezavantajelor i tehnica transformrii unui eveniment negativ ntr-un avantaj); tehnici de relaxare i tehnica sarcinilor pentru acas. Obiectivul terapiei cognitivcomportamentale a fost de a determina subiecii s depeasc strile emoionale disfuncionale i comportamentale dezadaptative, prin modificarea formelor de gndire disfuncional. S-a constatat c nu att mprejurrile exterioare, ct maniera subiectului de a le interpreta, creeaz aceste stri afective negative. n acest sens, s-a dat participanilor (pe rnd) cte un exemplu n care aceeai mprejurare de via poate fi interpretat diferit de ctre diferii indivizi, iar aceste interpretri creeaz alte stri, diferite de starea de enervare. Formele de gndire disfuncional asupra crora s-a intervine psihologic au fost: gnduri i imagini obinuite i convingeri cu caracter disfuncional care stau la baza acestora reprezentnd un fel de reguli de via care sunt formate n ontogenez filtrnd capacitatea subiectului de a percepe realitatea.

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Gndurile perturbatoare urmrite n timpul terapiei cognitive au fost urmtoarele: 1. Conform expresiilor specifice: eu sunt lipsit de valoare pentru c, este ngrozitor s, nu suport aceasta pentru c; 2. n modelul ABC: A evenimentul activator exterior ex. colegul nu mi-a rspuns la salut; B convingeri iraionale care pot fi gnduri, imagini, supoziii, convingeri; (de exemplu: Inferene: Colegul m ignor. El este probabil suprat pe mine. Probabil nu m agreeaz. , Evaluri: Este ngrozitor ca cineva s nu te agreeze. ; RB convingeri alternative raionale cu care trebuie s le nlocuieti pe cele iraionale; C consecinele emoionale sub form de dispoziie depresiv i consecinele n plan comportamental ca de exemplu evitarea colegului care nu-mi rspunde la salut i care nu m agreeaz. Momentul B: Grupul de angajai a fost reevaluat cu aceleai instrumente (scala Hamilton, scala Cattell i Scala de evaluare a capacitii de adaptare la stres) pentru a verifica dac programul de terapie cognitivcomportamental efectuat la locul de munc a fost eficient. REZULTATE I DISCUII 1. n urma efecturii interviului semistructurat au fost evideniate urmtoarele aspecte: Aspecte privind subiecii, la nivel individual: adaptare dificil a angajaior

(trei persoane) recent tranferai n Bucureti datorit lipsei de prieteni, strii de nsingurare, depresiei, stresului creat de noul loc de munc; inflexibilitate, rigiditate; probleme de adaptare i adoptare a unui ritm de lucru comun; tendina exagerat spre detalii, care determin un ritm de lucru lent; lipsa de comunicare; programul prelungit impus de banc conform cruia se lucreaz i smbta; volum mare de sarcini, suprapunerea lor i termene scurte de ndeplinire; motivaiile financiare insuficiente; acordarea de sarcini i activiti noi fr ca angajaii s participe la instruiri pregtitoare. Aspecte privind organizaia: probleme de logistic; aplicaii IT insuficiente i nvechite; stagnarea proiectului informatic; aglomeraie la ghiee; implementarea dificil a procedurilor de lucru; rezultate sczute n vnzarea anumitor produse bancare. 2. Rezultatele obinute n urma aplicrii scalelor Hamilton, Cattlle i de evaluare a capacitii de adaptare la stres au fost analizate folosind procedura de statistic descriptiv (media i abaterea standard) i testul t pentru eantioane corelate ale programului SPSS 12.

Tabelul 1. Statistici descriptive i semnificaia diferenei dintre medii la probele psihologice administrate pre i post intervenie terapeutic
Variabile Scala de depresie Hamilton Scala de anxietate Cattell Indicele global de anxietate Scala de evaluare a capacitii de stres Factorul Activism Factorul Reactivitate la stres Factorul Adaptare-flexibilitate Factorul Relaxare Indicele Gobal de Adaptare la Stres 45 Itemi 17 40 Administrare 1 Media 7.43 5.91 36.30 9.43 15.41 7.82 172.19 A.S. 4.174 1.663 6.091 4.344 1.996 2.016 14.779 Administrare 2 Media 5.79 4.92 37.64 10.36 16.04 8.45 174.51 A.S. 2.312 1.283 2.921 4.569 2.079 1.764 13.638 t 4.699 5.905 -1.518 -1.632 -2.028 -2.093 -1.799 p 0.0001 0.0001 0.136 0.109 0.048 0.042 0.078

Tabelul 1 evideniaz valorile mediei i abaterii standard pentru scorurile obinute la aplicarea scalelor Hamilton, Cattell i de evaluare a capacitii de adaptare la stres. n urma folosirii scalei de depresie Hamilton nainte i dup programul de terapie

cognitiv au fost evaluate nivelele depresiei n situaiile A i B.. Astfel s-a constatat o reducere a nivelului depresiei msurat n momentul A (m=7.43 ; s.d.= 4.174 ) fa de momentul B (m=5.79 ; s.d.= 2.312 ). n urma aplicrii testului t pentru eantioane corelate s-a obinut

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o diferen semnificativ statistc ntre mediile celor dou eantioane (t(47)= 4.699)), (p<0.01). Lund n consideraie indicele d (Cohen) al mrimii efectului (0.22), cu toate c diferena semnificativ statistic ntre medii a fost obinut, acesta exprim un efect mic al terapiei cognitive n reducerea nivelului depresiei. Acest lucru se datoreaz faptului c n organizaie (la locul de munc) se menin n continuare o serie de factori stresori avnd ca efect depresia, astfel c intervenia terapeutic singular nu este suficient pentru a reduce nivelul depresiei. Nivelul anxietii, msurat cu scala Cattell, a fost evaluat nainte i dup programul de terapie. S-a constatat o reducere a nivelului anxietii msurat n momentul A (m= 5.91; s.d.= 1.663) fa de momentul B (m=4.92 ; s.d.= 5.905). Aplicnd tesul t pentru eantioane corelate s-a obinut diferen semnificativ statistic ntre mediile eantioanelor (t(47)=5.905), (p<0.01). Indicele d (Cohen), al mrimii efectului (0.86) indic un efect puternic al tratamentului terapeutic aplicat. Analiznd datele obinute n urma aplicrii scalei de evaluare a capacitii de adaptare la stres (tabelul 1) i n urma aplicrii testului t pentru eantioane corelate pentru fiecare subscal (factor) al acesteia, s-au obinut diferene semnificativ statistic ntre medii doar pentru factorul relaxare (t(47)=2.09), (p<0.05) i pentru factorul adaptareflexibilitate (t(47)=-2.28), (p<0.05). Astfel, evalund nivelul gradului de relaxare al subiecilor msurat cu factorul 4 (relaxare) nainte i dup programul de terapie s-a constatat o cretrere a dispozitiei de relaxare a subiecilor astfel nct media eantionului nainte de terapie (mA=7.82) a fost mai mic dect media eantionului dup terapie (mB=8.449). Indicele d (Cohen) al mrimii efectului (0.20) indic un efect mic al terapiei cognitive asupra dispoziei de relaxare a subiecilor i implicit n adaptarea la stres. Considernd datele din tabelul 1, pentru factorul adaptare-flexibilitate s-a constatat o cretere a capacitii de adaptareflexibilitate msurat n momentul A (m=15.41; s.d.=1.996) fa de momentul B (m=16.04; s.d.=2.079). Aplicnd testul t pentru eantioane corelate s-a obinut diferen semnificativ statistic ntre medii (t(47)=-2.28), (p<0.05). Indicele d (Cohen) al mrimii efectului indic un efect mic spre mediu al terapiei cognitive n influenarea capacitii de adaptare-flexibilitate a subiecilor. Dat fiind faptul c la aplicarea testului t pentru eantioane corelate att pentru factorul

activism (t(47)=-1.518), (p>0.05) ct i pentru factorul reactivitate la stres (t(47)=-1.632), (p>0.05) nu au fost obinute diferene semnificativ statistic ntre mediile eantioanelor, rezult c reducerea nivelului stresului la locul de munc prin aplicarea tratamentului terapeutic nu a putut fi realizat. Analiznd datele obinute la aplicarea testului t pentru eantioane corelate pentru indicatorul global de adaptare la stres, nu s-a obinut diferen semnificativ statistic ntre medii (t(47)=-1.315), (p>0.05). De asemena conform tabelului 1 pentru indicele global de adaptare la stres s-a obinut o medie a eantionului nainte de efectuarea terapiei (mA=172.19) mai mic dect media dup efectuarea terapieie (mB=174.51). Din acest fapt a reieit faptul c n organizaie exist surse de stres ce nu pot fi diminuate sau eliminate prin tratamentul terapeutic cognitiv comportamental efectuat. Pentru a diminua sau elimina aceste surse ce provoac i menin stresul la locul de munc este necesar, mai nti detectarea lor, fapt ce impune, n continuare, realizarea unei diagnoze a climatului organizaional. CONCLUZII Aa cum reiese din analiza datelor, programul de terapie cognitiv a avut efect n reducerea nivelului anxietii i depresiei. Prin intermediul terapiei cognitiv-comportamentale s-a contientizat tendina de ngrijorare excesiv, nelinitea, incapacitatea de relaxare a unora dintre angajai. Avnd n vedere acestea, s-a observat o detensionare a strii de ncordare a subiecilor prin nvarea i practicarea tehnicilor de relaxare pe parcursul terapiei. Subiecii au fost mai interesai i mai receptivi n privina aspectelor legate de anxietate nelinite, ncordare, incapacitate de relaxare i s-a lucrat terapeutic predominat pe aceste aspecte. De asemenea, s-a constatat faptul c, subiecilor supui edinelor de terapie cognitiv-comportamental le-a crescut capacitatea de adaptare la situaii noi, flexibilitatea, precum i capacitatea de recuperare dup perioade de stres i de eforturi, aceasta artnd asimilirea unor atitudini care sa le permit meninerea constant unui nivel mai sczut de stres. Conform rezultatelor obinute s-a dovedit c efectul terapiei cognitive a constat n reducerea semnificativ a nivelului anxietii (rezultatele obinute n urma aplicrii testului pentru eantioane pereche pentru datele

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obinute la aplicarea chestionarului Cattell). Sa propus continuarea terapiei pentru a obine reduceri semnificative i n cazul tendinelor negative pentru care nu s-au obinut rezultate semnificativ statistic (factorul activism i factorul reactivitate la stres). Efectul pozitiv al terapiei asupra relaxrii se explic prin faptul c tratamentul terapeutic cognitiv al anxietii conine dou elemente de baz: relaxarea i modificarea cognitiv. Cu alte cuvinte, interventia terapeutic pentru reducerea nivelului anxietii influeneaz semnificativ statistic media eantionului la factorii adaptareflexibilitate i relaxare dup terapie; obinnduse o diferen semnificativ statistc ntre medii. Avnd n vedere c scala de adaptare la stres mai conine doi factori (activism i reactivitate la stres), conform analizei datelor obinute la aplicarea testului t pentru eantioane pereche, nu s-a obinut o difern semnificativ ntre medii, astfel c, reducerea nivelului stresului cu programul de terapie cognitiv nu a putut fi confirmat. Avnd n vedere datele obinute i analiza lor, s-a ajuns la concluzia c programul de terapie cognitiv este insuficient n tratarea stresului i depresiei, deoarece stresul poate fi generat de anumite surse ce nu pot fi detectate, reduse sau eliminate cu ajutorul terapiei cognitiv comportamentale. n aceste condiii s-a propus realizarea unei diagnoze a climatului organizaional concomitent cu continuarea desfurrii pe nc o perioad de trei luni a programunlui de intervenie prin terapie cognitiv comportamental.
Bibliografie Aamodt & Michael, G. (1999). Applied Industrial/Organizational psychology. Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publish. Beer, M. (1980). Organization Change and Development: A System View, Reading, and ass: Addison-Wesley. Beck, A. T. (1991). Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders Burke: Penguin Books ,W. (1982), Organization Development, Principles and Practices, Boston:Mass: Little Brown. Cattell, R.B. (1982). The inheritance of personality and ability: Research methods and findings. New York: Academic Press. Christophe Dejours (2000). Travail, usure mentale , Paris: Bayard.

Cooper, Cary L., Dewe, Philip J., O'Driscoll & Michael, P. (2001) Organizational Stress. London: Sage Publications. Cox, T. (1978). Stress.Baltimore: University Park Press. Cottraux, J. (2003). Terapiile cognitive. Cum s acionm asupra propriilor gnduri. Iai: Ed. Polirom . Derevenco, P., Anghel, I. & Balan, A. (1992). Stresul n sntate i boal. Cluj- Napoca: Ed. Dacia. De Vries & Kets (2002). The Happiness Equation, Meditations on Happiness and Success, London: Vermilion. Ellis, A. (1997). The Practice of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. New York:Springer Netherlands French, J. P. R. Jr. & Raven, B. (1960). The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright and A. Zander (eds.), Group dynamics , New York: Harper and Row French, W. (1969). Organization Development, Objectives, Assumptions and Strategies. California Management Review 12. Folkman, S. (1997). Positive psychological states and coping with severe stress. Social Science and Medicine, Social Science and Medicine, 8, 1207-1221. Greenberg, J. & Baron, R. A. (1993). Behavior in Organizations. Understanding and Managing the Human Side of Work, Allyn&Bacon, Boston,London. Hendriks, P.J.H. (2004). Assesing the role of culture th in knowledge sharing. 5 European Conference on Organizaional Knowledge, Learning and Capabilities, Insbruck. Iamandescu, I.B. (2003). Psihologie Medical.Bucureti: Ed. Infomedica. Jacqueline Barus-Michelle, (1996). Crises, Approche psychosociale clinique. en coll. avec F. Giust-Desprairies et L. Ridel. Paris : Descle de Brouwer, coll. Reconnaissances. James L Gibson, John M Ivancevich, Jr, James H Donnelly & Robert Konopaske (2002). Organizations: Behavior, Structure, Processes from McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Kahn, RL., Byosiere, P., Dunnette, MD. & Hough, LM. (1992). Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Palo Alto CA: Consulting Psychologist Press. Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer Publishing Company. Lazarus, R. S., & Launier, R. (1978). Stress-related transactions between person and environment. In L. A. Pervin & M. Lewis

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(Eds.), Perspectives in interactional psychology New York: Plenum Press. Louis Le Guillant (1984). Quelle psychiatrie pour notre temps ? Paris: Ers Publsh. Morgan, G. (1986). Images of Organization, Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Rascle, N., Sifakis, Y & Bruchon-Schweitzer, M. (2003). Etude des dterminants de la recherche active de l'emploi et de l'tat dpressif de cadres chmeurs : Test d'un modle structural. European Review of Applied Psychology, 53 (1),57 Selye & Hans (1936). A Syndrome Produced by Diverse Nocuous Agents - The Journal of

Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 10, 230-231 Zapf, D. (2001). European research on bullying at work. In P. McCarthy, J. Rylance, R. Bennett, & H. Zimmermann (Eds.), Bullying. From backyard to boardroom (2nd ed.) Leichhardt, NSW, Australia: The Federation Press. Warner Burke, W. (1982). Organization Development: Principles and Practices, Boston: Ed. Little, Brown

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EMOIILE N VIA A SOCIAL. RUINEA I VINOVIA N SPAIUL PUBLIC POSTCOMUNIST DIN ROMNIA Septimiu Chelcea Universitatea din Bucureti
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Abstract

In acest articol prezint unele aspecte ale vieii sociale din Romnia postdecembrist care susin teza c emoiile i au originea n relaiile sociale. Voi aduce argumente teoretice i dovezi empirice n sprijinul ipotezei c ruinea i vinovia sunt emoii sociale distincte, corelate organic. Propun, de asemenea, o Tipologie psihosociologic a ruinii i avanseaz ideea reconceptualizrii teoriei Spirala tcerii. Mai atrag atenia asupra alienrii proletariatului emoional n condiiile extinderii muncii emoionale n societile moderne. Pe baza postulatului c nainte de a fi sapiens, homo a fost sentiens i c n timp real emoiile sunt primordiale, se formuleaz cteva cerine pentru cercetarea vieii sociale i pentru aciunea social. In this article I present some aspects of social life in Romania which support the thesis that emotions are socially determined. I will present theoretical and empirical proofs that shame and guilt are distinct social emotions, organically intertwined. I advance a psychosociological typology of shame and I support the reconceptualization of spiral of silence theory. I also mention the alienation of emotional proletariat in modern societies. Based on the axiom that prior to being sapiens, homo was sentiens and also on the fact that in real time emotions are primordial, I formulate some suggestions for the future research of social life and action.
Key-words: emoii, vinovie, ruine
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n urm cu 70 de ani, cel care va deveni figura emblematic a psihologiei ieene i romneti, Vasile Pavelcu publica n Analele de psihologie studiul Funcia afectivitii n care arta c Majoritatea sentimentelor sunt de origine social [...] Astfel, cunoaterea altora [...] este un act prin excelen afectiv (Pavelcu, 1936,1999, 172). Emoiile o construcie social Ideea c emoiile sunt de natur social, c i au originea n relaiile sociale
Adresa de contact: schelcea@yahoo.com Not. n acest context, folosesc cu acelai neles termenii de afect i emoie. De cele mai multe ori, n literatura anglo-saxon termenul emotions (lat. emovere) este utilizat ca un concept-umbrel, intrinsec fuzzy, echivalent semantic cu cele de feeling i affect. Sunt ns autori reputai care cer utilizarea mai selectiv a conceptelor din domeniu (Damasio, 1994,2005; Ekman & Davidson, 1995). Se face astfel distincie ntre emotion i sentiments sau ntre emotion episode (stare psihic de scurt durat, pe care indivizii o contientizeaz i despre care pot relata, avnd
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este astzi larg acceptat n psihosociologie. Nimeni nu se ndoiete c emoiile sunt reglate de constrngerile sociale, de valorile i normele sociale. Este larg mprtit i conceptualizarea emoiilor ca rspunsuri la evenimentele (ntmplrile) i entitile sociale. Emoiile sunt sociale i n alt sens, aa cum voi ncerca s art n continuare.

durata de 0,5 pn la 4 secunde), mood (stare psihic ce poate dura ore, zile sau sptmni, emoie cu intensitate sczut), emotional disorders (sindrom psihiatric: depresie, manie, anxietate etc.) i dispositions (ca trsturi de personalitate, ca tendine spre o anumit emoie, ce rmn relativ constante de-a lungul vieii). Pentru mai multe detalii a se vedea Understanding Emotions de Keith Oatley i Jennifer M. Jenkins (1996, 124-128). Pentru c abordarea tiinific a oricrui fenomen impune o definire formal a obiectului de studiu, am preluat definiia emoiilor propus de W. Gerrod Parrott n The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social Psychology (1995/1996, 198): Emoiile sunt reacii valenced la evenimentele semnificative pentru persoane, incluznd reacii fiziologice, comportamentale, cognitive i experiene subiective (feeling) de plcere sau neplcere.

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n tratatul de psihologie social sociologic, editat de Morris Rosenberg i Ralph H. Turner (Social Psychology. Sociological Perspectives, 1981), Steven L. Gordon afirm: Viaa social produce dimensiunile emergente ale emoiilor, care rezist reduciei ca proprieti inerente organismului uman (Gordon, 1981, 563). Care sunt dimensiunile sociale ale emoiilor ce transced nivelurile fiziologic i psihologic? Steven L. Gordon le prezint n urmtoarea succesiune: originea, cadrul temporal, structura i schimbarea. Voi ncerca s exemplific aceste dimensiuni referindu-m la viaa social din Romnia de dup decembrie 1989. 1) Originea. ntr-o lucrare mai veche a sociologului englez Thomas H. Marshall (1936), comentat elogios de Jack M. Barbalet (2001, 71) n capitolul intitulat Clasa i resentimentul, se arat c Structura relaiilor sociale este important pentru c ea determin nivelul resentimentelor de clas. Nivelul resentimentelor de clas este important pentru c el determin nivelul conflictelor de clas. De aici rezult c emoiile au att o baz n relaiile sociale, ct i o eficacitate social n schimbarea acestor relaii. Resentimentele i invidia domin societatea postcomunist din Romnia. n limba german exist un termen intraductibil printr-un singur cuvnt, Schadenfreude (Schaden, pagub + Freude, bucurie). Emoia ca atare o combinaie de invidie i bucurie gnerat de necazul altuia (Oatley & Jenkins, 1996, 88) se ntlnete, cel puin, n cultura european i nord american. n cultura romn, Shadenfreude semnific emoia trit de o persoan cnd moare i capra vecinului. n Romnia postdecembrist aceast emoie pare a fi larg diseminat. 2) ncadrarea temporal. Ca procese psihosociale, emoiile se desfoar n timp. Societatea este cea care le msoar. Durerea sufleteasc, dezndejdea, tristeea, invidia, ruinea, vinovia se prelungesc sau i scurteaz viaa dup cum dicteaz societatea. n de acum celebrul Apel ctre lichele, Gabriel Liiceanu cerea fotilor nomenclaturiti s se retrag din prim-planul vieii publice semn c le-ar fi ruine. Ct timp s fie stpnii de o astfel de emoie? Toat viaa? Unii nu au trit nicio clip aceast emoie, alii zile, luni sau ani. Tot ce are un nceput are i un sfrit. Nici debutul emoiilor, nici diluarea sau dispariia lor nu depind numai

de factorii fiziologici, importani, firete, dar nu determinani. Societatea impune ncadrarea temporal a emoiilor, chiar dac exist o mare variabilitate individual n trirea emoiilor. 3) Structura. Emoiile sociale au o structur, se desfoar dup un scenariu impus de societate, uneori diferit de la o cultur la alta. O nmplare relatat ntr-un raport de cercetare (Jderu, 2006) relev diferenele culturale n trirea emoiei de ruine. La antierul Naval de la 2 Mai, cumprat de firma sud-corean Daewoo, un muncitor a fost surprins cnd ncerca s fure o canistr de benzin. S-a hotrt sancionarea lui. Liderul sindical a propus s fie afiat n perimetrul antierului fotografia hoului. Ce, vrei s se sinucid de ruine?! a fost replica patronului sud-corean. Emoiile sunt dup Steven L. Gordon (1981, 566) pattern-uri construite social de senzaii, gesturi expresive i judeci culturale (cultural meanings) organizate n jurul relaiilor cu obiectele sociale i cu alte persoane. Lacrima lui Traian Bsescu n faa naiunii la anunarea hotrrii c va candida din partea alianei D.A. n alegerile electorale din 2004 la funcia de Preedinte al Romniei, dat fiind starea de sntate a celui pe care Aliana D.A. l desemnase iniial (Theodor Stolojan, propus de PNL) nu se ncadra n pattern-ul emoiei impus social. Din aceast cauz puini ceteni au crezut c n acel moment Traian Bsescu era ndurerat, c tria cu adevrat o emoie de compasiune intens. De altfel, dup victoria n alegeri a Alianei D.A., Theodor Stolojan a fost numit consilier prezidenial. Nici zmbetul lui Iliescu pe care l afia larg n public pe vremea cnd era Preedinte al Romniei nu era expresia unei bucurii autentice. Pe Ion Iliescu l-a trdat medicul francez Guillaume-Benjamin Duchenne (1862), care a observat c zmbetul unei bucurii adevrate necesit contracia concomitent a muchilor marele zigomatic (din jurul gurii) i orbicularis oculi. Muchiul marele zigomatic poate fi activat voluntar, orbicularis oculi nu. Orict ar contracta cineva n mod voluntar marele zigotic, dac involuntar nu este activat i orbicularis oculi nu rezult c acel cineva ar tri dulcile emoii ale sufletului cum spunea Guillaume-Benjamin Duchenne (apud Damasio, 1994,2005, 170). Zece ani mai trziu, Charles Darwin a folosit din plin observaiile medicului francez n Expresia emoiilor la om i animale (1872). Dac avem n vedere emoia de ruine, care aa cum remarca Thomas J.

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Scheff (1990) nu implic doar o evaluare a self-ului, doar reflectarea self-ului n interaciunea cu alii, ci i comportamente verbale i nonverbale, retragerea din spaiul public, vom constata c acest sentiment, ca i altele, precum gelozia, recunotina, mndria, invidia etc. sunt o construcie social. 4) Schimbarea. Emoiile au via. Nu de mult a aprut o foarte incitant carte cu titlul The Social Life of Emotions, coordonat de Larissa Z. Tiedens i Colin Wayne Leach (2004), centrat pe ideea c nelegerea emoiilor este necesar pentru nelegerea experienelor i

comportamentelor sociale n msura n care ele dau lumii un sens (meaning). Modificarea strilor afective constituie un rspuns la schimbarea relaiilor sociale, la schimbarea social, n general. Referitor la acelai comportament, de la ruine se poate trece la mndrie. Lory Britt i David Heise (2000, 252) au analizat cum convertesc micrile sociale ruinea i singurtatea n mndrie i solidaritate. Au luat n discuie situaia homosexualilor, considernd c participarea la aciuni colective genereaz mndrie i solidaritate (Figura 1).

PLCERE Mndrie Activare Furie Ruine Fric NEPLCERE

Figura 1. Transformri emoionale n identitatea politic (Britt i Heise, 2000, 265) Problema poate fi pus i altfel: cum se trece de la mndrie la ruine i vinovie. Mndria de a fi fost Erou al Muncii Socialiste se poate transforma astzi n ruinea sau vinovia de a fi contribuit la edificarea societii comuniste?! Cei 3,5-4 milioane de membri ai Partidului Comunist Romn ci existau n decembrie 1989 se simt vinovai c au fcut parte dintr-un partid care a comis crime chiar n rndurile celor pe care pretindea c i reprezint? S ne gndim la cele 150 000 de persoane arestate, dintre care majoritatea rani, sau la cele 20 000 de persoane decedate n nchisoare (vezi ediia de colecie a Jurnalului Naional din 21 august 2006) sau la cele 400 de victime ale evenimentelor din decembrie 89 (cei care au fost ucii nainte de fuga lui Ceauescu). Putem vorbi de o vin colectiv a membrilor PCR i a familiilor lor? Modul cum se produc schimbrile polare ale emoiilor cetenilor din Romnia ar constitui o tem de cercetare psihosociologic de mare actualitate. La fel, studiul distinciei dintre vina individual i vina colectiv (Branscombe i Doosje, 2004), ca i dintre vina moral i vina legal, sancionat de Codul Penal (Teodorescu, 2006, 1). Clasificarea emoiilor: emoii primare i emoii secundare n mprejurri diferite, oamenii triesc i exprim aproximativ 100 de emoii distincte (Turner i Stets, 2005, 20). Estimarea numrului emoiilor ntmpin dificulti aproape insurmontabile n acest moment, cnd nu exist un tablou complet al culturilor lumii i un atlas lingvistic pe plan mondial. Nimeni nu se ndoiete ns de paleta extrem de larg a emoiilor, astfel c ncercarea de clasificare a acestora constituie o preocupare constant a psihologilor i sociologilor. Datele cercetrilor recente (Ekman, 1973, 1992; Ekman & Friesen, 1971, 1975, 1976; Ekman & Rosenberg, 1997) susin teza universalitii emoiilor formulat n 1872 de Charles Darwin. Unele expresii ale emoiilor sunt vestigii ale vechilor comportamente programate genetic (de exemplu, deschiderea

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gurii i expunerea dinilor n cazul furiei). Astfel de emoii sunt considerate emoii primare. Numrul emoiilor primare este limitat: bucuria (happiness), frica (fear), furia (anger), tristeea (sadness), surpriza (surprise) i dezgustul (disgust). La aceste ase emoii, larg recunoscute de ctre cercettori ca fiind primare, s-au mai adugat: dispreul (contempt), de ctre Paul Ekman & Wallace V. Friesen (1996); anticiparea (anticipation) i acceptarea (acceptance), de ctre Robert Plutchik (1980); ruinea (shame) i vinovia (guilt), de ctre Robert N. Emde (1980) i Carroll E. Izard (1977/1992). Ali autori au redus numrul emoiilor primare (de exemplu, Strufe, 1979; Kemper, 1987) sau au nlocuit una sau mai multe emoii din lista iniial a celor ase emoii propus de ctre Paul Ekman i Wallace V. Friesen (1971). Seymour Epstein (1984), de exemplu, consider c emoiile primare sunt: plcerea (joy), iubirea (love), furia (anger) i tristeea (sadness). Exemplele ar putea fi multiplicate, dar i aa ele ilustreaz foarte convingtor neconcordana punctelor de vedere asupra a ceea ce se nelege prin termenul de emoii primare. Cititorul interesat poate consulta tabelele cuprinznd exemplele reprezentative de clasificri ale emoiilor primare din lucrarea The Sociology of Emotions de Jonathan H. Turner i Jean E. Stets (2005, 14-16). Aici i acum intereseaz faptul c autori reputai,

precum Carroll E. Izard, consider ruinea i vinovia emoii primare. Pentru a putea spune dac ruinea i vinovia sunt sau nu emoii primare, s aplicm grila propus de Paul Ekman (1992) conform creia emoiile primare: 1) sunt prezente i la primate; 2) au rspunsuri fiziologice distinctive; 3) au antecedente universale distinctive; 4) arat coeren n expresia rspunsurilor; 5) apar rapid (are quick in their onset) ; 6) sunt de scurt durat; 7) genereaz o evaluare automat (nu deliberat) a stimulilor; 8) sunt trite ca evenimente ale self-ului, dincolo de controlul deplin al lor (apud Turner & Stets, 2005, 13). Trebuie s acceptm c emoiile care ne intereseaz (ruinea i vinovia) nu fac parte din categoria emoiilor de baz: sunt emoii secundare. n literatura de specialitate (vezi Turner & Stets, 2005, 13-18) este prezentat i discutat, n primul rnd, clasificarea emoiilor secundare propus de Robert Plutchik (1962, 1980, 2002). Acesta consider c exist opt emoii primare: acceptarea (acceptance), surpriza (surprise), frica (fear), tristeea (sorrow), dezgustul (disgust), anticiparea (expectancy), furia (anger) i bucuria (joy). Din combinarea lor ar rezulta toate celelalte emoii (Figura 2).

Exemple de diade

Dezgust

Tristetea

Anticiparea

Primare furie + bucurie = mndrie bucurie + acceptare = iubire, prietenie acceptare + fric = curiozitate surpriz + fric = panic, team durere + dezgust = suferin, remucare dezgust + anticipare = cinism anticipare + fric = dorin de rzbunare Secundare furie + acceptare = domian bucurie + supriz = desftare acceptare + fric = supunere surpriz + tristee = dezamgire furie + dezgust = ruine, afectare durere + ateptare = pesimism dezgust + furie = dispre anticipare + bucurie = optimism Teriare furie + surpriz = ofens, ur bucurie + fric = vinovie acceptare + tristee = resemnare fric + anticipare = anxietate, groaz tristee + furie = invidie, suprare dezgust + bucurie = stare patologic anticipare + acceptare = fatalism

Frica

Furia

Surpriza Acceptarea

Bucuria

Figura 2. Modelul emoiilor propus de Robert Plutchik (dup Turner i Stets, 2005, 17)

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Conform modelului emoiilor imaginat de sociologul Robert Plutchik, emoiile similare sunt plasate pe circumferin pn la 90 de grade unele de celelalte, emoiile disimilare la 90-180 de grade, iar cele care nu sunt nici similare, nici disimilare se poziioneaz exact la 90 de grade. Din combinarea dou cte dou a emoiilor primare, n funcie de poziionarea lor pe circumferin apar diadele primare (cnd emoiile primare sunt adiacente), diadele secundare (cnd emoiile primare sunt n unghi de 90 de grade) i diadele teriare (cnd emoiile primare sunt la mai mult de 90 de grade). Roata emoiilor, nvrtindu-se de la dreapta la stnga, genereaz ca diad primar cinism (dezgust + ateptare), ca diad secundar dispre (dezgust + furie), ca diad teriar stare patologic (dezgust + plcere). Roata emoiilor arat c ruinea rezult din diada secundar (dezgust + fric) i vinovia din diada teriar (plcere + fric). Orict ar fi de seductor prin simetrie, modelul emoiilor imaginat de Robert Plutchik nu este, n fond, dect o transpunere ingenioas a modelului tricromatic al percepiei culorilor propus n 1802 de Thomas Young i definitivat de Hermann von Hemlmholtz (1857). Modelul Young-Helmholtz, bazat pe supoziia existenei a trei tipuri de celule receptoare (conuri) n retin, ia n considerare trei culori de baz (rou, verde i albastru). Din combinarea acestor culori ar rezulta ntreaga palet cromatic. Fa de teoria lui Robert Plutchik s-au ridicat numeroase obiecii din partea psihosociologilor construcioniti. Din punctul meu de vedere aceast teorie are un caracter reducionist, ncercnd s explice socialul (emoiile) prin factori biologici (modelul tricromatic). i ali sociologi reputai de exemplu, Theodore Kemper (1987), Jonathan Turner (1999) au propus taxonomii ale emoiilor secundare. Problema rmne deschis cercetrilor. Clasificarea emoiilor n primare i secundare, larg acceptat n prezent, nu a fost scutit de critici. Mai mult, unii specialiti reputai, precum Paul Ekman i J.R. Davidson (1994) citai de Julia T. Wood (2004, 185) consider inutil aceast clasificare. Ruinea i vinovia: dou etichete sau dou emoii distincte? Ruinea i vinovia sunt emoii definitorii pentru om: numai homo sapiens

sapiens are contiin de sine i numai la nivel uman sinele evalueaz sinele (the self evaluating the self). Aceste emoii au rol important att n ceea ce privete comportamentul personal, ct i n funcionarea relaiilor interpersonale. Legenda biblic spune c, mncnd din roadele pomului cunotinei binelui i rului, Adam i Eva i-au dat seama c sunt goi (li s-au deschis ochii) i s-au ruinat. Izgonirea din Eden s-a datorat pcatului (vinoviei) de a fi nclcat porunca lui Dumnezeu. Aadar, vinovia i ruinea ar nsoi dintru nceput viaa omului pe pmnt. Ruinea i vinovia au intrat n cmpul de cercetare psihosociologic chiar din momentul naterii preocuprilor tiinifice de analiz a comportamentului indivizilor n context social. Charles Darwin considerat de ctre unii istorici ai tiinei ca fondator al 2 psihosociologiei (Farr, 1996) descrie n Expresia emoiilor la om i animale (1872/1967, pp. 150-151, 191-192) att vinovia, ct i ruinea ca urmare a nclcrii legilor morale i regulilor convenionale. Chiar n prima carte n care sintagma psihologie social apare nscris pe copert este vorba de An Introduction to Social Psychology de William McDougal (1908, 145) ntre alte emoii (admiraia, gratitudinea, dispreul, invidia, reproul, gelozia, resentimentul) este analizat i ruinea. Numeroi cercettori (Davitz, 1969; Damon, 1988; Eisenberg, 1980, 2000; Harris, 1989; Schulman i Mekler, 1985 .a.) nu fac distincie ntre cele dou emoii, incluzndu-le nedifereniat n categoria emoiilor morale. Aa se explic de ce n lucrrile de referin, de exemplu n The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social Psychology, editat de Anthony S.R. Manstead i Mils Hewstone (1995, 1996), termenilor ruine i vinovie nu li se acord intrri distincte, fiind tratai mpreun (Parrott, 1995,1996, 284). Ali specialiti, la fel de numeroi (Benedict, 1946; Darwin, 1872; Ghem i Scherer, 1988; Lester, 1998; Lewis, 1971; Lewis, 1990, 1998; Tagney et al., 1994, 1996, .a.), abordeaz cele dou emoii ca entiti de sine stttoare. Aa cum atrag atenia June Price Tagney i Roanda L. Dearing (2002, 11), cercetrile recente au identificat diferene importante ntre aceste dou sentimente strns legate ntre ele, diferene care au implicaii profunde pentru adaptarea psihologic i
Not. William McDougal folosete termenul de sentiments, nu pe cel de emotions.

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pentru comportamentul social. S ne reamintim n acest context i roata emoiilor imaginat de Robert Plutchik: ruinea rezult dintr-o diad secundar, spre deosebire de emoia de vinovie care apare dintr-o diad terar. Distincia public/privat: ruine vs. vinovie. Profesoara de antropologie de la Universitatea Columbia (New York), Ruth Benedict (1887-1948), considera c anumite situaii conduc la emoia de ruine, n timp ce alte situaii genereaz emoia de vinovie. Conform observaiilor lui Ruth Benedict, ruinea este legat de expunerea public, n timp ce vinovia este un sentiment mai privat, determinat de examinarea intim a propriilor comportamente n discordan cu propriile norme i valori. Lucrarea The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture a lui Ruth Benedict (1946) a fost tradus dup doi ani de la apariie n limba japonez i a strnit protestul oamenilor de tiin niponi (Doi, 1973; Mikisaburo, 1971; Sakuta, 1967), care au interpretat eticheta cultur a ruinii (shame culture) ca fiind peiorativ, de natur s arate superioritatea culturii occidentale. i n Vest, unii specialiti de exemplu, Kai Dramer (1981) au denunat juxtapunerea culturii ruinii i culturii vinoviei ca fiind, n cazul cel mai bun, irelevant pentru japonezii contemporani i, n cazul cel mai ru, ca ovinism etnocentric (Creighton, 1990, 279), clamnd c distincia dintre cultur a ruinii i cultur a vinoviei este intercultural inacceptabil (Dramer, 1981, 8). Millie R. Creighton (1990, 281) apreciaz c obieciile aduse teoriei lui Ruth Benedict sunt irelevante, dat fiind faptul c antropologul american nu a susinut, ceea ce unii critici i reproeaz de exemplu, Takeo Doi (1973, 53), anume c n cultura japonez ar exista monopolul ruinii, sentiment necunoscut n societile vestice. Ruth Benedict a subliniat chiar c n culturile vinoviei, cum este cea american, indivizii sufer adiional sentimentul de ruine (Benedict, 1946, 222, apud Creighton, ibidem). A susinut, ceea ce poate fi acceptat, c n anumite culturi, cum este cultura nipon, ruinea are un rol mai important n sancionarea comportamentelor dect n alte culturi (n spe, n cultura american). Dincolo de disputele mai mult sau mai puin conjuncturale, legate de nfrngerea

Japoniei n cel de-al doilea rzboi mondial, rmne de necontestat faptul c, alturi de Sigmund Freud (1895), Georg Simmel (1904), Charles H. Cooley (1909), Norbert Elias (1936) i Abraham Kardiner (1939), Ruth Benedict este unul dintre pionierii cercetrilor ruinii i vinoviei ca emoii sociale. Mai aproape de zilele noastre cele dou sentimente au fost analizate de filosofi, sociologi, antropologi sau psihosociologi de prim mrime precum Helen Lynd (1958), Erving Goffman (1967), Helen Block Lewis (1971), Richard Sennett i Jonathan Cobb (1973), T.L. Ghem i K.R. Scherer (1988), Thomas J. Scheff (1988, 2000), Mille R. Creighton (1990), David Lester (1998), June Price Tangney i Ronda L. Dearing (2002) .a. S-ar putea spune, n viziunea lui Ruth Benedict, c ruinea apare ca urmare a dezaprobrii de ctre alii, n spaiul public, iar vinovia ca urmare a dezaprobrii de ctre noi nine, n spaiul privat. n acest sens se pronun i David Lester (1998, 535) care este de prere c Ruinea implic imposibilitatea de a-i privi n fa pe alii din cauza aciunilor proprii. Vinovia implic internalizarea regulilor morale ale societii. Conform autorului citat anterior, persoanele triesc sentimentul ruinii cnd faptele lor care transgreseaz normele sociale sunt cunoscute de ceilali, spre deosebire de vinovie sentiment pe care l trieti chiar dac nimeni nu cunoate faptele pe care le-ai svrit. Vinovia o remediezi prin confesiune i peniten; ruinea nu. Adesea, vinovia ncurajeaz empatia i motiveaz comportamenul prosocial (Tangney, 1991). Cercetrile realizate de R.C. Johnson & col. (1987) au condus la concluzia c vinovia i ruinea pot fi msurate separat: sa descoperit c ruinea, nu ns i vinovia, este asociat cu un scor mare la scala pentru msurarea nevrozismului (neuroticism-ului). ntr-un studiu din 1994, June Price Tagney, D.E. Marschall, K. Rosenberg, D.H. Barlow i P.E. Wagner au cerut unui numr de cteva sute de copii i de aduli s descrie ntmplrile recente n care au simit sentimentele de ruine, vinovie sau mndrie. Rezultatele infirm ipoteza public/privat n geneza difereniat a celor dou sentimente (Tabelul 1).

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Tabelul 1. Experienele solitare ale ruinii, vinoviei i mndriei, n procente (dup Tangney & Dearing, 2002, 15)
Copii 17,2 14,9 33,8 Aduli 16,5 22,5 25,5

Ruine Vinovie Mndrie

Se observ c att ruinea ct i vinovia pot aprea n condiii solitare, deopotriv la copii i la aduli. ntr-un alt studiu, utiliznd acelai model de investigare (relatarea experienei trite), June Price Tagney & al. (1996) nu au gsit dovezi n sprijinul distinciei public/privat n ceea ce privete contextul social al apariiei ruinii, pe de o parte, i vinoviei, pe de alt parte. n acest studiu au fost inclui numai aduli. S-a constatat chiar c naraiunile referitoare la apariia emoiei de ruine n absena altor persoane care s observe respectivele comportamente prevaleaz fa de naraiunile despre vinovie, emoie trit solitar (18,2% fa de 10,4%). Filosoful stoic grec Cleanthes (331-232 .e.n.) se pare c avea dreptate cnd spunea Turpe est turpe, sive videatur, sive non videatur (Ceea ce este ruinos este ruinos fie c se vede, fie c nu se vede trad. rom. E. Munteanu i L.-G. Munteanu, 1996, 311). Dac ruinea i vinovia nu difer n termenii gradului de expunere public i-au pus ntrebarea June Price Tagney & col. si (1994) , nu cumva difer n termenii tipului de transgresiune sau de nerespectare a normelor sociale? n relatrile despre situaiile care au provocat ruinea i, respectiv, vinovia, a aprut tendina de a asocia ruinea mai degrab cu unele comportamente dect cu vinovia (de exemplu, a purta o anumit vestimentaie) i alte comportamente mai degrab cu vinovia dect cu ruinea (de exemplu, eecul colar sau profesional). Totui, unul i acelai tip de comportament era asociat de ctre unele persoane investigate (copii i aduli) ruinii i de ctre alte persoane vinoviei. Aadar, conform cercetrilor conduse de June Price Tagney, ruinea i vinovia nu difer semnificativ nici n funcie de context (public/privat), nici n funcie de tipul de comportament performant. Atunci, prin ce se disting cele dou sentimente? Focalizarea pe self/focalizarea pe actele comportamentale: ruine vs. vinovie. Helen Block Lewis (1971) a emis teza c ruinea i vinovia difer n ceea ce

privete focalizarea pe self versus focalizarea pe comportament. Reconceptualizarea celor dou emoii propus de profesoara de psihologie clinic de la Universitatea Yale (SUA) marcheaz un progres semnificativ n studiul concret al ruinii i vinoviei. ntradevr, experienele fenomenologice sunt foarte diferite cnd spunem Sunt un la, comparativ cu Am tcut ca un la: n primul caz ne centrm pe self, n cel de-al doilea caz pe comportament. Helen Block Lewis (1971, 30) este de prere c Experiena ruinii este direcionat asupra self-ului, care se afl n centrul evalurii. n cazul vinoviei, self-ul nu reprezint obiectul principal al evalurii negative, ci lucrul pe care l-ai fcut sau nu. n vinovie, self-ul este evaluat negativ n conexiune cu ce ai fcut, dar self-ul nu este el nsui n centrul experienei trite (dup Tagney & Dearing, 2002, 18). n aceast perspectiv, ruinea apare ca urmare a divizrii self-ului, care devine concomitent agent i obiect al observrii i dezaprobrii. Cei care triesc sentimentul de ruine se simt ru, se tem c vor fi demascai, doresc s evadeze, s se ascund i, la limit, s dispar (mi vine s intru n pmnt de ruine). Trieti emoia de ruine nu neaprat doar n prezena altora care te observ. A spune, totui, c ceilali sunt virtual prezeni, n sensul c ar putea s cunoasc adevrata ta fa. Helen Block Lewis observ c, spre deosebire de ruine, emoia de vinovie este mai puin jenant i nu att de devastatoare pentru c focalizarea este asupra unui comportament particular care aa cum se tie rezult din combinarea factorilor de personalitate i a celor de context. Sentimentul de vinovie implic o tensiune psihic, remucri i regrete pentru faptele rele fcute. Teoria lui Helen Block Lewis a primit suportul unui numr semnificativ de cercetri empirice calitative: studii de caz (LindsayHartz, 1984; Lindsay-Hartz & al., 1995), cercetri bazate pe analiza coninutului naraiunilor despre ruine i vinovie (Ferguson & al., 1990; Tangney, 1992; Tagney & al., 1994), pe observaia participativ (Wallbott & Scherer, 1995; Wicker & al., 1983) etc.

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Sintetiznd rezultatele acestor studii, June Price Tagney & Ronda L. Dearing (2002, 25) prezint ntr-un tabel sinoptic similaritile i diferenele dintre emoiile de ruine i de vinovie (Tabelul 2), conchiznd c avem de-

a face cu dou experiene afective distincte, ce difer substanial n dimensiunile cognitive, emoionale i motivaionale.

Tabelul 2. Principalele similariti i diferene ntre ruine i vinovie (dup Tagney & Dearing, 2002, 25)

Caracteristici similare Ambele fac parte din clasa sentimentelor morale. Ambele sunt contiin de sine, emoii self-refereniale. Ambele sunt sentimente negative Ambele implic atribuiri de un fel sau altul. Ambele sunt experiene tipice n contexte interpersonale. ntmplrile negative care genereaz att ruinea, ct i vinovia sunt foarte asemntoare (implicnd frecvent greeli morale sau transgresarea normelor) Dimensiunile principale n care ruinea i vinovia difer Ruinea Focalizarea evalurii pe self n ntregul su: Eu am facut acest lucru oribil Gradul de distres n general, mai puternic dect n cazul vinoviei Experiena a te simi mic, fr valoare, fenomenologic fr putere Operaiile self-ului Impactul asupra self-ului Centrarea fa de alii Procese de contracarare Caracteristicile motivrii self-ul este divizat: observ i este observat self-ul sufer o devalorizare global centrare pe evaluarea de ctre alii a self-ului anularea mintal a anumitor aspecte ale self-ului dorina de a se ascunde, de a evada, de a se razbuna.

Vinovia Comportament specific: Eu am facut acest lucru oribil n general, mai redus dect n cazul ruinii tensiune, remucri, regrete

self-ul rmne unitar self-ul nu sufer o devalorizare global centrare pe evaluarea de ctre alii a efectelor comportamentului anularea mintal a anumitor aspecte ale comportamentului dorina de a se confesa, de a se scuza sau de a remedia consecinele

Consider c teoria divizrii self-ului, propus de Helen Block Lewis, ar trebui corelat cu teoria atribuirii iniiat la jumtatea secolului trecut de ctre psihosociologul american Fritz Heider (vezi Moldoveanu, 2006, 205-215). n aceast perspectiv, ruinea s-ar datora erorii de autoatribuire. Se cunoate c Atribuirea n termeni de cauze impersonale sau personale, i n acest ultim caz, n termeni de intenie, reprezint fenomene cotidiene care determin mare parte din nelegerea i reacia noastr la mediul social (Heider, 1958, 16). Fritz Heider a remarcat tendina de a interpreta comportamentul altora mai ales prin

prisma factorilor interni, dispoziionali. Tendina oamenilor de a supraestima rolul factorilor dispoziionali n controlul comportamentului i de a subevalua impactul factorilor situaionali a primit numele de eroare de atribuire fundamental (Hewstone, 1995/1996, 72). Unii oameni sunt mai nclinai spre a i autoatribui cauze interne comportamentelor lor, alii spre atribuirea de cauze externe, legate de contextul social concret. n cazul transgresrii normelor de conduit, primii triesc un sentiment de ruine, ceilali un sentiment de vinovie. Aceast ipotez ar merita s fie testat.

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n primvara anului 1990, Marie Gautheron a cerut unui numr de 90 de elevi dintr-o coal din Montreuil (Frana), din CM1 (cours moyen 1) i CM2 (cours moyen 2) ceea ce corespunde n sistemul de nvmnt din Romnia clasei a IV-a i a V-a) s arate ce nseamn pentru ei onoarea i ruinea. La ntrebarea din chestionar viznd ruinea, rspunsurile au fost mai diversificate dect rspunsurile la ntrebarea La ce te gndeti cnd auzi cuvntul onoare?. Matrie Gautheron (1991,2003, 120) trage concluzia c la vrsta de 9-10 ani ruinea este mai familiar dect onoarea. Iat ce au rspuns copii: A-i fi ruine nseamn a pierde, a plnge, a te afla n faa ntregii lumi. Ruinea este mai nti cnd sunt jignit, cnd prin mine mi sunt atacate rasa i familia, cnd umilina m intuiete n diferena mea slab, srac, strin, mic, prost mbrcat, de condiie joas sau mpuit, btut, contestat sau jignit. Pe baza unor astfel de rspunsuri, cercettoarea francez generalizeaz: Ruinea convoac toat gama emoiilor care o nsoesc ruinea de btaie, de a-i fi fric, ruinea de a-i fi ruine sau de a fi fcut ceva ru, urma amar a ceea ce am fi dorit s nu fi fcut sau s nu fi fost, ca i neputina de a terge toate acestea (ibidem). Fr a-i fi propus s testeze vreo ipotez, cercetarea condus de Matrie Gautheron aduce, totui, dovezi n sprijinul concepiei lui Helen Block Lewis despre centrarea pe self n geneza ruinii. David Lester (1998) a gsit o corelaie statistic semnificativ ntre scorul la scala ruinii i scorul la scala pentru msurarea tendinei suicidare a brbailor, dar nu i a femeilor. Scorurile la scala vinoviei nu coreleaz cu scorurile la scala tendinei suicidare nici la brbai i nici la femei. Rolul emoiilor n viaa social Comportamentul social al oamenilor nu poate fi explicat numai prin raionalitate. Douglas S. Massey (2002, 20) aduce n discuie cteva argumente greu de respins: 1) n evoluia omului, emoionalitatea precede raionalitatea. Strmoii omului triau n comuniti structurate pe baza emoiilor cu mult timp naintea dezvoltrii facultilor intelectuale. 2) Abilitatea evalurii costurilor i beneficiilor aciunilor ipotetice i utilizarea acestor evaluri pentru planificarea aciunilor viitoare a aprut foarte trziu n evoluia omului. Noi avem echipamentul neurologic

3)

4)

5)

6)

ce asigur operaiile mentale de numai trei la sut din timpul scurs de la apariia omului pe Pmnt. Din punct de vedere anatomic, omul exist de 150.000 de ani; gndirea simbolic s-a dezvoltat timp de 100.000 de ani. Timp de 45.000 de ani au trebuit ca s apar sistematizarea limbajului n scris, crendu-se posibilitatea stocrii externe a informaiei i apariia formelor iniiale de cultur raional. Chiar dup inventarea scrisului, au trebuit s treac 5.000 de ani pentru ca el s fie accesibil majoritii oamenilor, oferindu-se posibilitatea apariiei societii de mas bazat pe raionalitate. Evoluia ne-a lsat motenire o structur cognitiv cu dou tipuri de procesri una emoional i una raionl puternic interconectate. Totui, cogniia emoional precede cognia raionl n timp real i feedbackul celor dou tipri de procesri este dominat de creierul emoional.

Aceste ase argumente l conduc pe reputatul profesor de sociologie de la University of Pennsylvania la concluzia c deciziile, comportamentele umane i structura social nu pot fi modelate numai ca funcii ale raionalitii. n acelai sens, Douglas S. Massey spune textual: Emoionalitatea rmne o for puternic i independent n aciunile umane, influennd percepiile, colornd memoria, legnd oamenii laolalt prin atracie i reglnd comportamentul lor prin vin, ruine i mndrie (ibidem). Elementul de noutate n abordarea psihosciologic a emoiilor const n tratarea lor ca variabile independente. Jack M. Barbalet (1998,2001) a contribuit cel mai semnificativ la demonstrarea faptului c emoiile i au originea n relaiile sociale i n acelai timp sunt cauze, produc relaii sociale i micri sociale. Munca emoional expansiunea ei n societile moderne. Oamenii muncesc preponderent fie cu braele (munca manual), fie cu intelectul (munca intelectual), fie cu emoiile (munca emoional). Spre deosebire de munca manual i cea intelectual care sunt obiectivate n produse de natur fizic sau spiritual (obiecte, opere tiinifice etc.), munca emoional este identificabil prin efectele sale asupra altora. De exemplu,

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zmbetul portarului de la un mare hotel sau al chelnerului de la un restaurant de lux, care se nclin umili, este de natur s produc clienilor o emoie de satisfacie i mndrie. Termenul de munc emoional (emotion work) a fost introdus n psihosociologie de ctre Arlie Russell Hochschild n 1979 i a fcut carier dup ce profesoara de sociologie de la University of California a publicat lucrarea The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (1983). n introducerea la studiul Emotion work, feeling rules, and social structure publicat iniial n Journal of Sociology i republicat apoi n prestigioase culegeri de studii de pshologie social sociologic (de exemplu, volumul editat de Ann Branaman, Self and Society, 2001), Arlie Russell Hochschild (1979, 2001, 138) atrgea atenia c Psihologia social a suferit datorit asumpiei tacite c emoiile, pentru c par neordonate i necontrolate, nu sunt guvernate de reguli sociale. Pe de alt parte, regulile sociale preau s se aplice numai comportamentelor i gndirii, rar i emoiilor sau simmintelor. Arlie Russell Hochschild (1979) consider c munca emoional const n managementul emoiilor, iar acesta presupune un efort, contient sau nu, de a schimba simmintele sau emoiile n acord cu regulile emoionale stabilite social, cu o intensitate mai mare sau mai mic, pe o perioad mai scurt sau mai ndelungat, instantaneu sau lent. Ali specialiti definesc munca emoional ca un act de conformare la regulile de exprimare a emoiilor (Ekman, 1973), ca o cerin afectiv (Bulan & al., 1997). Cerina afectiv n acord cu regulile emoionale impune exprimarea unor emoii, chiar dac expresiile afiate nu corespund emoiilor autentice ale indivizilor (Ashforth & Tomiuk, 2000, 184). Numeroase ocupaii, n special cele care includ comunicarea face-to-face (vnztor/vnztoare, stewardes/steward, secretar/secretar, chelner, portar, sor medical etc.), au n fia postului obligaia de a se prezenta corect emoional pentru a-i binedispune pe clieni sau pe efi. Persoanele care practic astfel de meserii din sfera serviciilor i vnd emoiile pentru a aduce patronilor profit, ele alctuiesc proletariatul emoional (Macdonald & Sirianni, 1996, apud Fineman, 2000, 4). A tri emoii la comand este stresant i, n ultim instan, alienant. Discrepana dintre emoiile exprimate voluntar

(prin mimic, gesturi, atingeri etc.) i simmintele profunde poate genera confuzie identitar: Cine sunt eu cu adevrat? se ntreab legitim proletarii emoionali. Munca emoional nu se restrnge doar la ocupaiile asociate cu statusuri sociale inferioare. Medicii, profesorii, psihoterapeuii, asistenii sociali, oamenii politici, ofierii de poliie, preoii presteaz munc emoional. n societile moderne s-a creat o pia a muncii emoionale extrem de dinamic. Se estimeaz c jumtate din joburi impun munc emoional i trei sferturi dintre joburile femeilor solicit managementul emoiilor. Tipice pentru femei sunt situaiile stewardeselor i ale poliistelor: primele trebuie s i controleze emoiile, s exprime n orice mprejurare emoii pozitive, chiar n cazul unor pericole iminente, iar poliistele, n exerciiul funciunii, s nu exprime nicio emoie. Convenionalizarea emoiilor, arat Arlie Russell Hochschild (1979, 2001, 151), face ca acestea s dobndeasc n bun msur caracteristicile bunurilor de larg consum sau proprietile mrfurilor. Transformarea n marf a emoiilor (commoditization of feeling) nu este la fel de proeminent n toate clasele sociale (Autoarea citat nelege prin clas social nu numai statusul ocupaional, veniturile, educaia, dar i sarcina de a crea sau de a ntreine anumite semnificaii prin simmine, de exemplu, ncrederea clienilor ntr-o firm sau instituie). Din punct de vedere psihosociologic sar putea pune o serie de ntrebri: Ce se ntmpl cu self-ul n situaia managementului emoiilor?, Care sunt expectanele sociale fa de proletarii emoionali de sex femenin?, Este moral comercializarea emoiilor? etc. Rolul social al ruinii i vinoviei n literatura de specialitate, aa cum observau Deborah F. Grenwald & David W. Harder (1998, 225), ruinea este prezentat cel mai adesea ca fiind o emoie negativ, patologic, ce implic o insuficien sau o neadecvare comportamental, care acompaniaz i, probabil, produce inadaptarea psihologic a indivizilor. Se pierde din vedere faptul c, n afara formei extreme, patologice, ruinea faciliteaz comportamentul individual i colectiv adaptativ: promoveaz decena (fitness) prin reglarea comportamentelor n domeniile identitii de grup, legturilor sociale i succesului n competiiile dure (mating) (ibidem).

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Tabelul 3. Tipologia social a ruinii propus de Th. Kmeper, 1978 (dup Barbalet, 2001, 123). Factorul de influen (Agency) Selful (Self) Nendeplinirea obligaiilor impuse din exterior (External default) Nendeplinirea obligaiilor impuse din interior (Internal default) Alii (Other)

1. Ruine situaional (Situational shame) 3. Ruine narcisist (Narcissistic shame)

2. Ruine agresiv (Aggressive shame) 4. Ruine deferent (Deferential shame)

Deborah F. Grenwald & David W. Harder (1998, 229) consider c exist cel puin patru tipuri de ruine, corespunztoare unor arii comportamentale distincte i fundamentale pentru viaa social: conformarea, comportamentul prosocial, relaiile sexuale i statusul social/competiia pentru dobndirea unui status social ct mai nalt. Primele dou tipuri de ruine influeneaz incluziunea indivizilor n grupurile sociale, iar ultimele dou tipuri de ruine regleaz succesul indivizilor n viaa social. Cei doi psihosociologi citai iau n considerare i variabilitatea individual n ceea ce privete capacitatea nnscut i dobndit cultural de a resimi ruinea (capacity to feel shame). Supoziia c exist mai multe tipuri de ruine dup domeniul vieii sociale (comportamentele sociale) n care apare i se manifest n diferite grade de intensitate aceast emoie mi se pare nu numai inovatoare, dar i intelectual provocatoare. n continuare m voi referi doar la rolul ruinii n conformarea social, domeniul vieii sociale n care aceast emoie este implicat cel mai mult dup cum susine Jack M. Barbalet (2001, 125) ncercnd s art rolul ruinii n construirea opiniei publice. Constituie un adevr relevat de numeroase cercetri psihosociologice ncepnd cu experimentele lui Solomon Asch (1955) c oamenii au tendina de a se conforma normelor de grup i c n funcie de gradul de conformare sunt sau nu acceptai ca membrii ai grupului (M. Sherif & C.W. Sherif, 1964) i primesc recompense proporional cu nivelul lor de integrare grupal i social: sunt protejai i promovai, dobndesc un status superior. Teama de a fi exclui din grup i face

pe indivizi s evite violarea normelor sociale, anticipnd emoia de ruine. Pe baza acestor premise teoretice, sociologul Theodore Kemper (1978, 59-62, apud Barbalet, 2001, 122) a identificat patru tipuri de ruine lund n considerare criteriile: a) factorii de influen (self-ul sau alii); b) autoimpunerea sau impunerea de ctre alii a standardelor (obligaiilor) care exced statusul lor social. Din corelarea acestor criterii rezult tipurile de ruine: 1) situaional; 2) agresiv; 3) narcisist; 4) respectuoas (Tabelul 3).

Cnd indivizii i asum ei nii obligaii ce depesc statusul lor i nu le ndeplinesc resimt o emoie de ruine trit diferit n funcie de natura factorilor de influen (agenii excesului de status). Exist, dup Theodore Kemper, o ruine intrinsec (introjected shame) i o ruine extrinsec (extrojected shame). Aceasta din urm poate conduce la furie, agresivitate, ostilitate. Ruinea situaionl (1) pare a fi tipul de ruine cel mai frecvent ntlnit. Este situaia n care o persoan se ndeprteaz de idealul su. n astfel de cazuri, persoana resimte o emoie de jen sau umilin. Ea poate recurge fie la o strategie de renunare la statusul social care excede capacitile sale de ndeplinire a obligaiilor autoasumate, fie o strategie de dublare a eforturilor pentru a rectiga statusul iniial. Ambele strategii arat funcia ruinii de meninere a conformrii sociale (Barbalet, 2001, 123). Cu totul altfel stau lucrurile cnd obligaiile sunt impuse din exterior i cnd alii sunt responsabili de exces al statusului su. Atunci apare ruinea agresiv (2), care se exprim prin furie, prin blamarea sau

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calomnierea celor care au expectane exagerate fa de sine. Cnd obligaiile excedentare legate de status sunt impuse din interior (autoasumate) i factorul de influen este propriul self, apare emoia narcisist (3), specific nu oamenilor buni care se ntmpl s fac fapte rele ca n cazul ruinii situaionale ci oamenilor insuficient de buni, care i supraestimeaz posibilitile. n fine, cnd agentul (factorul de influen) este reprezentat de alte persoane i standardele statusului sunt mult prea ridicate sau au fost autoimpuse, emerge ruinea deferent (4). Tabelul 4. Tipologia psihosociologic a ruinii Factorul de influen din exterior

n tipologia ruinii propus de Theodore Kemper nu se ia n consideraie faptul c alii, cei prin ochii crora te priveti, pot fi semnificativi sau nesemnificativi pentru persoanele care au transgresat normele sociale sau au dovedit abiliti limitate n realizarea unor sarcini. Dac lum n considerare i acest aspect, ajungem la ceea ce eu am numit o Tipologie psihosociologic a ruinii (Tabelul 4).

Alii semnificativi Nendeplinirea obligaiilor impuse din exterior Nendeplinirea obligaiilor impuse din interior

Alii nesemnificativi

1. Ruine situaional

2. Ruine agresiv

3. Ruine deferent

4. Ruine narcisist

Am pstrat eticheta tipurilor de ruine creat de sociologul american citat, dar am imaginat situaiile n care se gsesc astzi cei ce poart povara ruinii sau vinoviei de a fi fcut compromisuri n perioada comunist. Aproape toi cei care au activat in domeniul tiinelor socioumane i au supravieuit profesional au fcut compromisuri ideologice, poate i de alt natur... Dintre cele patru cmpuri ale tabelului 4, cred c situaia cea mai frecvent este cea a ruinii agresive: a simi cum eti vzut de alii nesemnificativi, n condiiile n care obligaiile n exces ale statusului au fost impuse din exterior. Concret, au dreptul moral tinerii de azi s-i fac s se ruineze pe cei care au supravieuit profesional n regimul ceauist? Ce emoie poi resimi cnd fiii de securiti i de vechi activiti de partid cu funcii nalte te invinovesc pentru c nu ai luptat mpotriva comunismului, aa cum lupt ei acum, dup un deceniu i jumtate de la prbuirea regimului totalitar? Ruinea deferent (3) se ntlnete mai rar. i-ai fixat standarde prea nalte. De exemplu, s nu faci compromisuri. Nu le-ai atins. Alii semnificativi (cei care au reuit o

asemenea performan) te privesc. Nu poi dect s te ruinezi cu deferen. O asfel de emoie dup prerea mea este de natur s contribuie la nsntoirea vieii sociale n Romnia. Ruinea n emergena opiniei publice: teoria Spirala tcerii modificat. Consider c ruinea asociat domeniului conformrii poate explica mai bine procesul construirii opiniei publice dect teama, conform teoriei spirala tcerii propus de Elisabeth Noelle-Neuman (1980, 2004). Teoria Spirala tcerii conine patru asumpii principale: a) Indivizii cu comportamente deviante sunt izolai de ctre societate; b) Indivizii triesc n permanen cu teama de a fi izolai; c) Teama de izolare i determin pe oameni s evalueze coninutul opiniilor lor; d) Aceast team de izolare conduce la neexprimarea deschis a opiniilor, la pstrarea secret a lor. Personal consider c Spirala tcerii are ca element central ruinea, nu teama.

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Teoria Spirala tcerii modificat pe care o propun s-ar putea rezuma astfel: a) Indivizii au o sensibilitate la ruine variat; b) Ei caut n permanen s cunoasc opinia celorlali; c) Cnd opinia lor este n mod real sau numai imaginat n dezacord cu opinia celorlali, indivizii cu sensibilitate la ruine ridicat tind s se retrag, s se ascund, s tac le este ruine. d) Indivizii cu sensibilitate la ruine sczut, care au pattern-ul cognitiv al ignoranei pluraliste un set de propoziii false despre lumea social, dar care sunt social acceptate ca adevrate (OGorman, 1986, 333) i afirm cu trie propriile credine i opinii. e) Astfel n spaiul public se exprim din ce n ce mai puternic opinia lor, care va deveni opinie public. Ce s-a ntmplat n Romnia dup evenimentele din decemrie 89 pare s susin teoria spirla tcerii modificat: ideologi ai comunismului, colii la Moscova, au nceput imediat s dea lecii de democraie i fotii membrii de rnd ai PCR muli dintre ei oameni cinstii tac ruinai; foti efi ai Securitii ocup paginile ziarelor i apar fr urm de ruine n emisiunile TV, iar ofierii de securitate i miliie care i-au fcut n mod legal datoria ati ci au fost resimt, probabil, emoia de vinovaie; vlstarele familiilor de nomenclaturiti i securiti condamn cu obstinaie comunismul i orice orientare de stnga, iar fiii victimelor terorii comuniste, care de cele mai multe ori au status social modest, care nu au putere de control asupra resurselor i distribuiei bunurilor i serviciilor, se ascund de ruine; informatori ai securitii cer asanarea moral a societii romneti, iar cei care au fost nspimntai de omniprezena turntorilor se simt vinovai c au supravieuit, acceptnd regimul comunist. Din punctul meu de vedere, ei tac i pentru c au o sensibilitate la ruine ridicat i vinovie. Nu-i pun ntrebarea cine sunt cei care i judec. Ruinea, structura social i micrile sociale n acelai sens al reconceptualizrilor, ruinea legat de statusul social i de competiia pentru o poziie nalt n ierarhia statusurilor ne ajut s nelegem mai profund mecanismele vieii sociale. De ce n societatea romneasc de azi, nalt competitiv, nu se aude vocea celor care triesc n srcie, de ce micrile reformiste, care promovez

schimbri moderate n cadrul aceluiai sistem politic (de exemplu, feminismul, ecologismul sau nudismul) sunt att de palide? Un posibil rspuns ar fi legat de ruinea trit de cei care au un status social inferior (Sennett & Cobb, 1972). Dup evenimentele din decembrie 89 unor categorii de populaie li s-a inculcat ideea c lipsa lor de putere economic, nepromovarea n ierarhia social se datoreaz exclusiv caracteristicilor personale (deficit intelectual, inabilitti manageriale, lipsa spiritului competitiv, incapacitate antreprenorial, mentalitate nvechit etc.). Resentimentele celor cu status social inferior se adun i pot lua forma unor micri sociale greu de controlat. Sigur, n afara componentei emoionale, intervin i ali factori (vezi teoria mobilizrii resurselor propus de John D. McCarthy & Mayer Zald, 1977), dar ignorarea relaiei dintre emoii, structur social i micrile sociale artificializeaz analiza vieii sociale. Ruinea n procesele de socializare Cercetrile recente au evideniat funciile pozitive ale emoiilor disforice (caracterizate prin slbirea interesului pentru via, insatisfacie i dezamgire), n rndul crora se nscriu i ruinea, i vinovia. n modaliti specifice, cele dou emoii contribuie la exercitarea controlului social asupra comportamentelor individuale i de grup. Cercetrile sociologice (Bernstein, 1971; Kohn, 1969, citai de Hochschild, 1979, 2001, 152) au pus n eviden o diferen ntre modul n care prinii din clasa de mijloc i socializeaz copiii, comparativ cu cei din clasa muncitoare; prinii din clasa de mijloc tind s exercite controlul asupra copiilor fcnd apel la simminte, exercitnd controlul emoiilor, n timp ce prinii din clasa muncitoare tind s-i controleze copiii n ceea ce privete comportamentul i consecinele comportamentelor indezirabile social, exercit controlul comportamentelor. Concret, cei dinti sancioneaz copiii cnd acetia triesc emoii n discordan cu regulile emoiilor sau cu inteniile de a realiza comportamente care se abat de la normele sociale (ei spun Nu-i frumos s gndeti urt! sau Nu-i cuviincios s rzi de alii, s te bucuri de necazul altora, s te strmbi, s scoi limba n semn de dispre!), spre deosbire de prinii din clasa muncitoare care i pedepsesc copiii pentru c au fcut lucruri nepermise (au njurat, au furat lucruri din cas sau de la alii

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etc.). Arlie Russell Hochschild (1979, 2001, 152) trage concluzia c Aceast diferen de clas n ceea ce privete socializarea nseamn un grad diferit de antrenare pentru transformarea n marf a emoiilor (commoditization of feeling), fapt ce se repercuteaz discriminativ pe piaa muncii emoiilor, tiind c prin socializare clasele sociale tind s se reproduc. La nivel individual, ruinea conduce la evaluarea (descrierea, prezentarea, nfiarea) unor comportamente ca fiind ineficace (Lewis, 1971), iar aceast evaluare protejeaz persoanele mpotriva respingerii lor de ctre alii. Willem Martens (2005, 405) este de prere c ruinea contribuie la dezvoltarea unui nivel de contiin mai nalt, n sensul c indivizii nva s previn emoia ruinii, limitnd la minimum comportamentele blamabile. Educarea copiilor, tinerilor i adulilor n sensul sensibilizrii la ruine, al prevederii emoiilor negative n cazul comportamentelor viitoare ce transgreseaz normele i valorile sociale mi se pare a fi imperios necesar azi. Avnd n vedere c anticiparea ruinii are un rol important n evitarea comportamentelor deviante (Macdonald, 1998, 41), s cultivm n procesele de socializare dimensiunea funcional a celor dou emoii, pornind de la dictonul Errare humanum est (atribuit lui Lucius Aeneus Seneca). S educm copiii de la vrsta de 2-3 ani s prevad emoiile de ruine i vinovie ce vor fi induse de comportamentele lor care se abat de la normele morale sau care nu corespund abilitilor lor. Pe adolesceni i pe tineri s-i ajutm s neleag diferena dintre scen i culise ca s folosesc terminologia lui Ervin Goffman , iar pe aduli s-i ajutm s contientizeze ruinea i vinovia urmailor. ncheiere Ca ceteni, s facem tot ce depinde de noi pentru armonizarea intereselor grupurilor, categoriilor i claselor sociale i pentru diminuarea inegalitilor sociale, astfel ca Romnia s se apropie, nu s se deprteze, de idealul social: Numrul celor care au prea mult s fie foarte mic, iar al celor care au prea puin s fie i mai mic. Ca educatori, n procesul de socializare a copiilor i tinerilor s nu facem discriminri pe baza apartenenei de clas a prinilor. n articolul nti al Declaraiei universale a drepturilor omului, adoptat i proclamat de Adunarea General a O.N.U. la

10 decembrie 1948 se spune: Toate fiinele umane se nasc libere i egale n drepturi i n demnitate. Ca psihosociologi, s nu uitm n cercetrile noastre c, nainte de a fi sapiens, homo a fost sentiens, c omul contemporan este distinctiv de celelalte vieuitoare nu numai prin raiune, ci i prin afectivitate. Bibliografie
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LA SLECTION PSYCHOLOGIQUE DES MILITAIRES DESTINS AUX ACTIONS SPCIALES Horia D. Pitariu Universitatea Babe-Bolyai,Cluj-Napoca Dorina Coldea SNSPA, Bucureti
Abstract
1

Nowadays we witness a general reshape in the military psychology, meaning that the psychologists intervention techniques must be more predictive, more qualitative than the previous ones and also more oriented towards the needs of a professional army. This research intends to design a psychological selection strategy for military personnel involved in the special ops. There was a various methodology including a cognitive job analysis of these professional soldiers using Leplats theoretical approach (2004) and tools as Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (Fleishman & Reilly, 2006). A cognitive task analysis was also used as a method that studies more profoundly the relation between professional tasks and cognitive processes. In order to measure military professional proficiency we used subjective appraisal techniques, such as behavior anchored rating scales and objective techniques (the ratings on Target Shooting, Physical Training and Special Training). The validity and reliability study of criterion was carried out by using various procedures, such as Multitraits - Multimethods Matrix. In our validating studies of the proposed test battery, including distributive and sustained attention tests, a general cognitive abilities test, a non-verbal intelligence test, a technical knowledge test, a task-oriented test, California Psychological Inventory and 16-PF, we came to the conclusion that cognitive factors significantly influence the job performance of these professional soldiers trained for special ops. The personality variables didnt show large compose criterion related validity coefficients. They wont be eliminated from the final selection strategy, as they showed significant multiple criterion-related validity. These conclusions confirm the importance of the non-cognitive domain, complementary to the cognitive one, for the prediction of the military performances, in general, and the Special Forces performances, in particular. Dans le contexte o larme, en ce dbut de sicle, est confronte des situations indites, on assiste une reconfiguration gnrale de la psychologie militaire, les techniques dintervention des psychologues se devant dtre plus prdictives, qualitativement suprieures aux techniques dautrefois et davantage orientes vers ce quest aujourdhui une arme de professionnels. En dautres termes, le profil psychologique du militaire moderne est radicalement diffrent de ce quil tait il y a seulement quelques dcennies. Dans la slection psychologique des militaires, laccent tombe de plus en plus prsent sur linvestigation du domaine non-cognitif. Certes, celui-ci ne vient que complter les aspects cognitifs, trs importants dans les activits militaires contemporaines. Lobjet de cette tude a t focalis sur le problme de la slection du personnel destin aux forces spciales. Tout en reconnaissant lexistence de telles proccupations par le pass, il nous semble quactuellement le problme

Adresa de contact: Dr. Horia D. PITARIU, Universit Babes-Bolyai, Chaire de Psychologie, Cluj-Napoca, Roumanie, horia_pitariu@yahoo.com Dr. Dorina I. COLDEA, Lcole des Hautes tudes Politiques et Administratives, Bucharest, Roumanie, dicoldea@yahoo.com

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consiste optimiser le systme de slection existent, le segment des militaires auquel sadresse notre tude tant considr comme un segment exceptionnel.
Key-words: Special Forces job analysis, Special Forces selection and job performance

evaluation

Introduction Dans le contexte actuel des actions militaires visant combattre le terrorisme et la criminalit organise, les interventions militaires dclenches par les menaces et les dangers lgard de la scurit des tats mettent en avant le fait que les mthodes, les techniques et les moyens dintervention classiques sont tombs en dsutude. La stratgie actuelle des "pertes zro" a conduit la cration de troupes dlite, multispcialises et capables de remporter des succs, avec des pertes minimes, devant des adversaires numriquement suprieurs. En Roumanie, pays membre dun systme de maintien de la paix, les efforts se concentrent en tout premier lieu sur la qualit de cette catgorie de combattants. Lobjet de cette recherche porte prcisment sur la structuration dun systme de slection psychologique des militaires qui agissent dans des missions spciales. Bien que cette thmatique ne soit pas rcente, les tudes visant valider des procdures de slection du personnel militaire ne sont pas trs abondantes, la Psyc Info ne mentionnant, pour lintervalle 1995-2006, que 45 articles publis, ce qui peut sembler peu par rapport limportance de la slection psychologique des militaires. Il est connu que les militaires des forces spciales sont forms grce des procdures dinstruction continue bien mises au point. Les exigences professionnelles de plus en plus leves quant aux performances quon attend deux ont beaucoup modifi les particularits de leur profession : laccent tombe de plus en plus sur le travail en quipe. La prsente recherche se propose de projeter une stratgie de slection lusage de cette catgorie professionnelle, tout en articulant le mode clinique de collecte et de combinaison des donnes avec le mode statistique. Cette stratgie se trouve par ailleurs en troite liaison avec la projection et la validation par le critre de performance professionnelle dune batterie de tests psychologiques. Les objectifs oprationnels de structuration du systme de slection des

militaires dans les forces spciales ont t les suivants : lanalyse du travail ; la projection dun modle de slection ; ltude des critres defficacit professionnelle (la projection dune fiche dvaluation aux ancres comportementales) ; la slection et la mise sur pied de tests psychologiques; la validation concurrentielle des instruments de slection ; la stratgie de slection des militaires des forces spciales. La Mthode Les Participants Sagissant dune validation concurrentielle, nous avons fait appel des militaires de profession des troupes spciales. Le nombre total des sujets a t de 109, leur rpartition par grades militaires se prsentant comme suit : 25% sergents chefs ; 48% adjudants ; 23% - adjudants chefs ; 4% majors. Leur ge : de 22 44 ans (M = 30 ans ; ET = 4.43). Niveau dducation minimale : lyce avec baccalaurat. Exprience de travail : 3 23 ans (M = 7 ans ; ET = 3.97). Lanalyse du travail Regarde, dans une perspective fonctionnelle, comme une pr-condition de nombreuses activits relevant du management des ressources humaines, lanalyse du travail dcrit le contenu du travail, circonscrit la nature des tches qui dfinissent la profession ou le poste de travail analys, ainsi que les exigences psychologiques imposes par leur nature. Dans la prsente recherche, nous avons pris en considration lanalyse du contenu du travail, partir du modle KSAO (connaissances, habilets, aptitudes, dautres caractristiques), aussi bien que lidentification du profil des aptitudes de ces militaires et les traits de la personnalit susceptibles de favoriser le travail en quipe. Nous avons fait appel aux techniques suivantes : LObservation directe ; LAnalyse vido des applications ; Des entretiens avec des experts ; lutilisation du Questionnaire Analyse du travail de Fleishman (F-JAS);

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lAnalyse hirarchique des tches le programme EUTERPE. Les critres defficacit professionnelle En vue de cueillir les donnes de performance, nous avons projet un systme dvaluation subjective des militaires paralllement la collecte de donnes objectives : - Lchelle dvaluation aux ancres comportementales (critre subjectif) ; - Les critres objectifs (notes accordes lors dvaluations priodiques : entranement physique, formation de spcialit, utilisation de larmement en dotation). Variables de prdiction Les variables de prdiction ont t rendues oprationnelles partir du contenu des composants subsums au critre de performance professionnelle, cette prcision prs que laccent a t mis sur lanalyse psychologique du travail. On a utilis des tests psychologiques classiques, mais on a eu recours aussi la projection dun test nouveau, similaire un test de situation. Nous avons pris en compte 7 tests daptitudes, auxquels nous avons ajout 2 inventaires de personnalit : test dattention distributive et test dattention concentre ; test daptitudes cognitives gnrales ; test dintelligence non-verbale ; test desprit dobservation ; test dinformations techniques ; test orient vers la tche (test de situation) ; Inventaire de Personnalit Californie (CPI) et Questionnaire 16 PF. Procdure de travail Aprs la mise sur pied dun instrument de mesure de la performance professionnelle (la fiche dvaluation aux ancres comportementales) et du test orient vers la tche, nous avons procd la validation des tests psychologiques introduits dans la recherche et la construction de modles de prdiction linaire pour chaque critre individuellement. Lappareil statistique utilis cet effet a englob lanalyse corrlationnelle, lanalyse factorielle, lanalyse des items, lanalyse de variance et lanalyse de

rgression, mthodes statistiques rencontres dans le cadre du programme SPSS 10. La recherche a pris fin avec la projection dune stratgie de slection des militaires des troupes spciales. Le systme de validation concurrente utilis a t sous tendu par lide de lexploitation dun critre compos, aussi bien que dun critre multiple, particulirement efficace par rapport aux variables de personnalit. Rsultats Lanalyse du travail La prsente tude a dbut avec lanalyse du travail du combattant engag dans les troupes spciales. En ce sens, nous avons fait appel 25 experts interviews et observs directement, leurs postes de travail, ainsi qu 20 experts qui on a appliqu le questionnaire F-JAS (Fleishman & Reilly, 2006). Sur les 52 aptitudes, les valuateurs ont considr que les aptitudes psychomotrices, perceptives et physiques sont les plus importantes pour la ralisation efficace et oprationnelle des tches du travail, les valeurs apprcies se situant entre 4 et 7, avec des moyennes au-dessus de 5 (la moyenne thorique de lchelle tant 4) ce qui soutient lhypothse selon laquelle lactivit de ces combattants requiert une constitution et une rsistance physique suprieures, lesquelles, dans les conditions dentranement aussi bien quen situations relles, doivent garantir un tat optimum de combat. En ce qui concerne les 21 aptitudes cognitives, la plage des valeurs accordes par les experts-valuateurs sest situe entre 2 et 5, avec des moyennes allant de 3.3 pour le raisonnement mathmatique 5.6 pour lorientation spatiale. Les aptitudes notes avec des moyennes suprieures 5, tout comme dans le cas des aptitudes spciales dj mentionnes, ont t les aptitudes spatio-perceptives et de mmoire [Orientation spatiale (M = 5.60 ; ET = 74), Attention slective (M = 5.53 ; ET = 99), Capacit de visualisation (M = 5.40 ; ET = 99), Distribution de lattention (M = 5.27 ; ET = 1.16), Rapidit de la perception (M = 5.27 ; ET = 1.03), Capacit de mmorisation (M = 5.13 ; ET = 0.52) et Flexibilit de la structuration (M = 5.00 ; ET = 0.76)], plutt que les aptitudes numriques, de calcul [Travail sur les chiffres (M = 3.87 ; ET = 0.92), Flexibilit cognitive (M = 3.73 ; ET = 0.96) et Raisonnement

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mathmatique (M = 3.33 ; ET = 0.90), pour lesquelles on a attribu des valeurs infrieures la moyenne de lchelle. En dehors des aptitudes, dans lanalyse du travail on a poursuivi et identifi aussi dautres exigences psychologiques pertinentes pour lexcution des tches spcifiques, notamment en ce qui concerne le travail en quipe : la capacit de communication, lesprit dquipe, le contrle des motions ngatives, la tolrance au stress, le courage, la persvrance, le dsir dauto perfectionnement, la responsabilit, lesprit combatif, la flexibilit et la capacit dadaptation rapide toute sorte de situations. Pour lidentification de ces variables psychologiques qui composent le profil psychologique du combattant dans les troupes spciales, on a eu galement recours lanalyse hirarchique des tches, les informations obtenues tant intgres un soft spcifique, EUTERPE. Dvelopp par la Vrije Universiteit dAmsterdam, partir de la technique danalyse de la tche oriente vers lquipe, ce programme a t conu en vue de la modlisation des connaissances relatives aux tches de travail, a dfini les concepts pertinents et leurs relations dans la perspective des tches (van Welie, van der Veer, Ellines, 2000). Ltude des critres defficacit professionnelle Afin de rendre oprationnel le critre de performance professionnelle, nous avons procd la projection dune fiche dvaluation selon le principe de lchelle dvaluation aux ancres comportementales (SEAC) et dune autre fiche, selon le principe de lchelle dvaluation type mix (SESM). Quant lvaluation de la fidlit des deux fiches dapprciation professionnelle, nous avons utilis la mthode de laccord inter-valuateurs, et pour estimer la validit, la mthode multitraits/multimthodes (la validit convergente et de discriminant), ainsi que la corrlation avec les notes accordes au tir, lentranement physique et la formation de spcialit (la validit concurrente relative aux critres objectifs mentionns ci-dessus). Pour la fiche dvaluation SEAC, nous avons obtenu des coefficients significatifs du point de vue statistique : 0,76 (accord chefs directs chefs intermdiaires), 0,72 (accord chefs directs camarades) et 0,87 (accord chefs intermdiaires - camarades). Ce sont

des valeurs qui montrent que cet instrument dvaluation des performances professionnelles prsente un degr satisfaisant de fidlit. En ce qui concerne la validit convergente, tous les coefficients obtenus sont statistiquement significatifs, ils se situent au seuil de p = 0.01 (valeurs entre 0.85 et 0.94), ce qui dnote une bonne validit convergente. Cependant, cet aspect ne saurait tre confirm dans le cas de la validit discriminante, vu la nature complexe des dimensions travers lesquelles devient oprationnelle lefficacit professionnelle. Par voie de consquence, on a appliqu lanalyse factorielle dans le cas des 10 dimensions de la fiche dvaluation aux ancres comportementales, mthode qui a conduit lextraction de 3 facteurs, dnomms comme suit : comptence psychologique, comptence technique et discipline militaire ; ils couvrent 74.13% de la variance totale. Pour la rotation des facteurs, on a eu recours la mthode oblique DIRECT OBLIMIN. Ce sont des aspects qui confirment lhypothse de la complexit du phnomne tudi. Pour ce qui est de la validit par rapport au critre de la fiche SEAC, nous avons obtenu des valeurs statistiquement significatives de 0.62 (p <0.01) relativement au critre dutilisation de larmement de la dotation et de 0.40 (p<0.01) relativement au critre de la formation de spcialit. En guise de conclusion, nous pouvons affirmer que la fiche dvaluation aux ancres comportementales satisfait aux critres scientifiques ncessaires, de sorte quelle peut tre utilise pour la validation de la batterie de tests de slection, qui fait lobjet de cette recherche. Dans une gale mesure, on peut appliquer la Fiche SESM. La Validation des instruments de prdiction La projection du test orient vers la tche (TOS) Initialement, les facteurs mesurs par le TOS ont t : lorientation spatiale, la capacit de visualisation, lexpression verbale, la comprhension verbale, la capacit dordonner les informations, le raisonnement inductif/dductif et la capacit didentification des problmes. Les items ont t labors sous la forme de scnarios complexes, pertinents dans la perspective de la problmatique du travail spcifique. En

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somme, pour les 8 facteurs nous avons conu 100 items. Pour chaque item, nous avons propos quatre rponses alternatives, une seule tant correcte. Le maximum de points a t obtenu en additionnant les rponses correctes pour chaque facteur ou chelle et, dans lensemble, pour le test vu comme un tout entier. Lexprimentation pilote a t ralise sur un nombre de 166 sujets (M=27.34 ans, ET=5.44). Dans la premire tape danalyse des rsultats, on a fait appel lanalyse des items par le calcul de lindice de difficult, de lindice de discrimination et des corrlations item-test pour chaque item. La mthode de slection des items pour la forme finale du test a t la mthode de la consistance interne ; consquemment, on a limin les items qui ont prsent des corrlations non significatives par rapport au score total des chelles ; les rsultats ainsi obtenus ont confr ce dernier une validit satisfaisante, de sorte quon puisse utiliser le test en vue de la slection. Aprs cette premire limination, on a procd deux autres liminations successives, visant lindice de difficult et de discrimination, aussi la forme finale du test a-t-elle t rduite 6 chelles (50 items). Lanalyse de la consistance interne de chaque sous-test/chelle met en vidence une fidlit relativement faible, allant de 0.60 0.66. Dans la perspective de la thorie classique des tests, ces valeurs peuvent sexpliquer par le nombre rduit ditems englobs dans les chelles du test (5, respectivement 9) et par la difficult limite, en gnral. Une autre explication pourrait tre fournie par la composition de lchantillon de sujets, qui ne rpond pas la condition dhtrognit, tant donn quil sagit dun groupe dj slectionn. La fidlit peu leve des chelles impose lapplication de tests supplmentaires, ce qui a t ralis travers le Test daptitudes gnrales et le Test dintelligence non-verbale. Pour tudier la validit de construction du Test orient vers la tche, nous avons utilis lanalyse factorielle dexploration des 6 chelles restes jusqu la er fin, le rsultat final tant de 2 facteurs (1 e facteur le Raisonnement gnral et 2 facteur lEsprit dobservation) qui couvrent 56.24% de la variance totale. Au bout de cette analyse, les rsultats ont montr que les aptitudes mesures par ce test

entretiennent une relation de dtermination avec laptitude mentale gnrale, tant fortement satures par le facteur g. La structure factorielle des tests daptitudes introduits dans la recherche Afin dtudier les relations fonctionnelles existant entre les tests daptitudes utiliss et de clarifier la structure des aptitudes quils mettent en vidence, nous avons procd une approche guide par lanalyse factorielle des principaux composants, ce qui nous a permis de dgager 3 facteurs qui, tous ensemble, couvrent 54.84 de la variance. Pour la rotation des facteurs, on a fait appel la mthode oblique Direct Oblimin. Au sein du premier facteur (32.65%) se trouvent satures les variables suivantes : Lchelle du raisonnement inductif, Lchelle de la Mise en Ordre des informations, Lchelle du Raisonnement dductif, Lchelle de la Capacit didentification des problmes, ce qui nous autorise appeler ce facteur facteur du raisonnement gnral. Les variables satures par le facteur II (12.50%) sont : le Test dattention concentre, le Test dattention distributive et le Test de lEsprit dobservation (vitesse perceptive et reprsentation visuelle). On peut nommer ce facteur le facteur esprit dobservation. Le facteur III (9.67), nous le dsignons comme le facteur pens technique/intelligence pratique, car les variables satures sont les suivantes : le Test dinformations techniques, le sous-test Orientation spatiale (Test orient vers la tche), le Test dintelligence non-verbale, le Test daptitudes cognitives gnrales, le Test dattention concentre. Ltude de la validit de la batterie de tests Modles prdictifs Pour valider la batterie de tests destins la slection des militaires des forces spciales, nous avons utilis la stratgie de la validation concurrente. La valeur prdictive de ces instruments de prdiction a t tablie la suite du calcul du coefficient de corrlation entre les valeurs obtenues par les tests et le critre defficacit professionnelle mesur par la fiche SEAC, ainsi que les valuations priodiques (moyenne des notes obtenues au tir, lentranement physique et la formation de spcialit) (Tableau 1).

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En troite connexion avec les deux types de critres, nous avons labor 2 modles de prdiction, o seules sont entres les variables qui ont prsent des contributions statistiquement significatives lestimation du critre efficacit professionnelle. er Pour le 1 Modle de prdiction, obtenu par rapport au critre subjectif, on est arriv un coefficient de corrlation multiple R 2 = 0.64 [R = 0.42 ; F(4.10) = 18.79, p<0.001]. Les variables prdictives qui y sont entres sont le Test daptitudes cognitives gnrales, le Test dintelligence non-verbale, le Test desprit dobservation et le Test orient vers la tche. Tableau 1. Coefficients de validit
Variables de Prdiction Bars

Pour le second Modle de prdiction, obtenu par rapport au critre objectif, la mthode de rgression hirarchique a confirm la valeur prdictive de 5 variables (le Test daptitudes cognitives gnrales, le Test dinformations techniques, le Test desprit dobservation, le Facteur O Confiance en soi et lchelle dOrientation spatiale le Test orient vers la tche), releves aussi par la mthode de rgression simultane, chacune apportant une contribution unique lvolution du critre.

Critre objectif .17 .21* .34** .21* .32** .40** .21* .58

Test dattention distributive Test dattention concentre Test daptitudes cognitives gnrales Test dintelligence non-verbale Test desprit dobservation Test dinformations techniques Test orient vers la tche (TOT) R multiple (modles de prdiction) * p<.05 ** p<.01

.24* .22* .60** .38** .30* .30* .43** .64

Entranement physique .09 .22* .12 .12 .29** .24** .15

Formation de spcialit .19* .21* .31** .07 .18* .35** .16

Utilisation de larmement .09 .05 .37** .21* .24* .36** .17

Nous avons obtenu un coefficient de 2 corrlation multiple R = 0.58 (R = 0.34, F = 10.69, p<0.001). Les donnes offertes par ce modle ont mis en vidence la prsence dune variable de suppression, la variable Orientation spatiale, qui a augment le pourcentage de variance expliqu par les variables de prdiction de 5.9%, aspect qui a permis de la garder au sein du modle de prdiction. En ce qui concerne lutilit de la batterie de tests, nous avons pu conclure que grce aux deux modles de prdiction, le pourcentage de ceux qui vont satisfaire aux exigences du poste pourrait augmenter de 18% 29%. Par consquent, les modles de prdiction sont utilisables dautant plus que le groupe de sujets est dj slectionn. Nous considrons que si le groupe navait pas t slectionn, le pourcentage aurait pu tre suprieur aux chiffres mentionns. La capacit de prdiction des deux algorithmes est suffisamment grande pour assurer une slection psychologique efficace, dans les conditions de llaboration d`talonnages spcifiques la population de

rfrence et dun profil-type qui indique les seuils critiques dadmissibilit. En conclusion, les donnes obtenues taient lide que la performance professionnelle des combattants des forces spciales se trouve influence, dune manire significative, par les facteurs cognitifs, les variables de personnalit ntant pas sensiblement mises en vidence dans ces modles de rgression, sinon travers la prsence dun seul facteur, la Confiance en soi (O), mesur par 16 PF. Le rle des variables de personnalit dans la slection des militaires des forces spciales Mme si les variables de personnalit mesures par les deux instruments (CPJ et 16 PF) ne prsentent de validit selon les critres globaux utiliss dans les deux modles de prdiction, ce qui explique le fait quelles ne puissent tre intgres que partiellement aux quations de rgression, on ne saurait nier limportance de certaines dentre elles dans la prdiction du concept multidimensionnel de la performance. Dans ce sens, on a dcid de les
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garder dans la structure du modle gnral de slection des combattants dans les troupes spciales, tout en laborant des profils modaux pour cette population. Dans la perspective de laction de slection, on procde la comparaison des profils individuels avec les profils modaux (CPI et 16 PF). Si le zigzag du profil individuel prsente une congruence approximative avec le profil professionnel, on en conclut que la personne examine possde les traits de personnalit spcifiques la profession en question. La Stratgie de slection La slection du personnel reprsente la premire tape dans la gestion efficace des ressources humaines, dont la russite garantit, en dernire instance, le succs de lorganisation. Au cours de ce processus, on vise obtenir le plus dinformations possibles sur les candidats, informations partir desquelles on espre raliser une prdiction, aussi exacte et valide que possible, sur leurs performances ultrieures. Dans la phase de recrutement des candidats, on cueillit des informations caractre gnral, relatives lge, au sexe, ltat civil, au niveau dinstruction, la nonappartenance politique, labsence du casier juridique, lvolution professionnelle, mais aussi aux performances du candidat, ses proccupations et au niveau de ses aspirations. Aprs lanalyse du dossier personnel, on entame ltape suivante, obligatoire, savoir lexamen mdical. En fonction de la constitution physique et de son tat de sant, valus par une commission mdicale, on apprcie lopportunit de ladmission du candidat ltape liminatoire suivante : lexamen de formation physique. Au cours de cette tape, le candidat doit faire face des preuves physiques qui, en dehors de lendurance, rvlent aussi sa vitesse de raction et de coordination psychomotrice. Le Test psychologique constitue la dernire tape liminatoire qui prcde le programme dinitiation, au cours duquel les candidats doivent parcourir les preuves psychologiques qui ont fait lobjet de la prsente tude. Finalement, le jury de slection runit les informations obtenues dans chaque tape par les candidats qui ont t admis au test psychologique et prend la dcision finale : reu/non-reu, dcision qui est communique

au candidat par le prsident du jury, avec les explications affrentes. Conclusions Lexamen psychologique des forces militaires spciales constitue une ncessit dans le contexte de la prvention et de laction contre les menaces graves lgard de la scurit nationale et internationale, pouvant entraner des consquences dordre matriel et humain (physique ou psychologique). On doit mentionner, dans cette perspective, que la slection professionnelle ne rsout pas en totalit le problme de la compatibilit du personnel. Ce nest quun chanon prliminaire dans le systme de lembauche, la slection devant continuer au cours du programme dinitiation et de formation professionnelle, qui met en vidence galement dautres particularits, telles les aptitudes psychomotrices, physiques et perceptives, ou les habilits de travail spcifiques, lesquelles nont pas fait lobjet de la prsente tude. Aussi notre recherche souvre-t-elle la possibilit dune continuation future, qui prenne en considration dautres problmes intressants pour lactivit de ces militaires et qui contribuent optimiser non seulement les activits de travail spcifique, mais aussi la satisfaction professionnelle, le climat du travail, la culture organisationnelle. Rfrences bibliographiques
Campbell, J.P., & Knapp, D.J. (Eds) (2001). Exploring the limits in personnel selection and classification. New Jersey: Lawrence Eribaum Associates, Inc. Fleishman, Ed., & Reillly, M. (2006). F-JAS (Fleishman Job Analysis Survey). Ghid de administrare. Bucureti: PsihoCover. Gal, R., & Mangelsdorff, A.D. (Eds.) (1991). Handbook of Military Psychology. New York: John Wiley & Sons Gough, H.G., & Bradley, P. (1999). Use the California Psychological Inventory with st Military Personnel. Paper given at the 41 Annual Meeting of International Military Testing Association, Monterey, California, November 8-10. Guion, R.M. (1998). Assessment, measurement and prediction for personnel decisions. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.

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Psihologie militar Leplat J. (2004). Analiza psihologic a activitii n situaii de munc. In H. Pitariu (ed.) Ergonomie cognitiv : teorii, modele, aplicaii.Bucureti : MATRIX ROM Van Welie, M., van der Veer, C., G., Eliens A. (2000). Euterpe Tool support for analyzing cooperative environments. http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/568079.html

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Generalizabilitatea indicilor de validitate n contextul adaptrii testelor Balazsi Robert Universitatea Babe-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca
1

Stabilirea unor criterii de utilizare a testelor psihologice de ctre Comisia de Metodologie a Colegiului Psihologilor din Romnia marcheaz o etap nou n procesul de evaluare psihologic. Aceste criterii impun utilizatorului achiziia i folosirea unor probe a cror valoare empiric a fost dovedit. Pe de alt parte, experii care elaboreaz sau adapteaz astfel de instrumente, sunt obligai s ntreprind demersuri n vederea culegerii unor dovezi empirice care s ateste calitile psihometrice ale testului. Cteodat chiar psihologii practicieni sunt cei care dezvolt (sau ar trebui s dezvolte) o serie de cercetri de validare i standardizare, a probelor de evaluare, pe populaiile specifice contextului n care i desfoar activitatea. ntrebrile eseniale adresate de ctre utilizator, dar i de ctre comisia de specialitate, ofertanilor de teste se refer la: 1) problema validitii testului, adic la faptul c testul trebuie s msoare ceea ce i propune s msoare, astfel s garanteze consistena concluziilor bazate pe rezultatele oferite de acesta; 2) problema fidelitii testului, adic rezultatele obinute s fie stabile, att pe parcursul testrii (consisten intern), ct i n timp (fidelitate test-retest); i, 3) problema existenei unor etaloane standard care s reprezinte repere (n populaia de referin) care s permit o interpretare comparativ a rezultatelor individuale. Lucrarea de fa aduce n discuie problema validitii testelor de selecie de personal n contextul adaptrii acestora la diferite populaii. n ce msur este sau nu necesar un demers de validare a unor probe a cror validitate a fost deja demonstrat n alte contexte? De exemplu, n ce msur bateriile de teste utilizate n selecia i evaluarea periodic a personalului din transporturi, pot fi aplicate la fel de bine i altor profesii (ex. electricieni, ageni comerciali, militari). Reformulnd n termeni tehnici, lucrarea de fa pune problema generalitii vs. specificitii indicilor de validitate predictiv (Pearlman, Schmidt, & Hunter, 1980).

n anii 6070 majoritatea psihologilor din domeniul seleciei de personal considerau c indicele de validitate a testelor de selecie are un caracter strict local. Exist dou argumente majore care susin aceast concluzie, i anume: 1) valoarea relativ redus a indicilor de corelaie calculai ntre teste i performane n ocupaiile pentru care iniial aceste teste preau a fi relevante (Braun, 1988) i 2) variabilitatea crescut a valorilor indicilor de validitate, chiar i n contextul n care testul de selecie i specificul ocupaiei erau similare (Pearlman, Schmidt & Hunter, 1980). Concluzia fireasc a acestor observaii a fost c testele de selecie sunt specifice contextului utilizrii. Nu exist posibilitatea de a prezice care dintre teste va funciona ca i predictor ntr-o selecie ulterioar. n practica seleciei de personal, aceast concluzie echivala cu necesitatea de a valida testele psihologice pentru orice context pentru care nu au fost nc validate. Aportul deosebit a lui Schmidt & Hunter (1977) const n faptul c au observat c aceast concluzie nu este singura ce poate explica valoarea redus a corelaiilor ntre criteriu i predictori, respectiv variabilitatea indicilor de validitate. n esen, orice indice de validitate este exprimat printr-un coeficient de corelaie, calculat pe valorile variabilelor predictor i criteriu. Lipsa unei corelaii ntre dou variabile poate fi interpretat n dou feluri: fie cele dou variabile n realitate nu sunt corelate, fie rezultatul calculat este un artefact, datorat unor factori care intervin n procesul de msurare a performanelor (ex. fidelitatea testului) i atenueaz valoarea calculat a coeficientului de validitate. De asemenea, fidelitatea testului, alturi de volumul redus al eantionului i restricia domeniului de variabilitate a scorurilor (o caracteristic implicit a demersului de validare a probelor de selecie) contribuie i la creterea variabilitii coeficienilor de corelaie. Raionamentul specificitii indicelui de validitate nu ia n considerare posibilul efect al prezenei artefactelor asupra coeficientului de validitate calculat. Lipsa corelaiei este

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interpretat doar ca un indicator al lipsei oricrei asocieri reale a dou variabile. Raionamentul demersului de verificare a generalitii indicelui de validitate se bazeaz pe estimarea varianei datorate variabilelor artefactuale i raportarea acestuia la variana total. n principiu, demersul de verificare a generalitii indicelui de validitate se bazeaz pe sinteza psihometriei i a metaanalizei. Conform psihometriei clasice scorul msurat se compune din nivelul aptitudinii (scor real) i eroarea de msurare. Variana scorului msurat reprezint suma dintre variana scorului real i variana erorii de msurare. Var(x) = Var() + Var() Calculul nivelului aptitudinii se face prin stabilirea unui interval de ncredere utiliznd estimatori ai erorii de msurare. Aceast formul i raionamentul aferent a fost preluat de Schimdt & Hunter (1977) i adaptat la situaia de generalizare a indicelui de validitate, astfel realizndu-se o sintez a elementelor psihometrice i de metaanaliz (Braun, 1988). Var(r) = Var() + Var() Variana indicilor de validitate este egal cu variana real a indicelui de validitate i variana artefactual. Aceast ultim component include cele trei surse de eroare: fidelitatea testelor de evaluare a variabilei predictor i criteriu, eroarea standard a indicilor de validitate i eroarea datorat diferenelor de restricie domeniului de variabilitate a a scorurilor a variabilei criteriu sau predictor. Un coeficient de corelaie, calculat pe un eantion, reprezint gradul real de asociere a dou variabile, doar n contextul unor msurtori perfecte (valoarea indicelui de fidelitate este 1). Din moment ce msurtorile sunt afectate de erori de msurare, n calculul indicilor de validitate trebuie s inem cont de aceste erori. Metoda uzual este de a calcula indicele de validitate utiliznd corecia pentru atenuare (vezi Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). rxy,cor = rxy /(rxx*ryy) Rezultatul (rxy,cor) astfel obinut reprezint valoarea pe care o ia corelaia (rxy) innd cont de faptul c msurarea nu este una perfect (rxx=ryy1).

Mrimea eantionului afecteaz mrimea erorii standard. Cu ct eantionul este mai mic, cu att vor fluctua mai mult valorile coeficienilor de corelaie calculai pe eantioanele selectate aleator (Schmidt, Hunter, Pearlman & Hirsh, 1985). Dac urmrim tabelul valorilor critice ale lui r vom observa c pentru un alfa setat la 0.05, pentru un eantion de N =22, , r critic are valoarea de 0.42, n timp ce pentru N = 92, aceast valoare este de 0.2. Cu ct eantionul este mai mic, cu att mai mare este fluctuaia expectat a valorilor calculate (Braun, 1988). Restricia domeniului de variabilitate a scorurilor are ca rezultat reducerea variabilitii valorilor msurate. Aceast reducere artificial a variabilitii atrage dup sine distorsionarea estimrii valorii coeficientului de corelaie calculat. Acest fenomen apare de obicei n contextul demersului de validare relativ la criteriu, corelaia ntre predictori i criteriu fiind calculat doar pentru subiecii care au fost selectai (ex. validitatea relativ la criteriu a testelor de admitere de tip GRE, predictor fiind scorul la test i criteriul performanele nregistrate pe parcursul anilor de studiu a subiecilor declarai admii). Din punctul de vedere al generalizrii indicelui de validitate este mai important faptul c restricia domeniului de variabilitate are valori diferite n studii diferite. Cauza acesteia este c punctul de cut-off variaz de la studiu la studiu, n funcie de scopul seleciei. Logica demersului de verificare a generalitii indicelui de validitate este urmtorul: din moment ce eroarea de eantionare i erorile de msurare (fidelitate redus i restricia domeniului de variabilitate) afecteaz calculul indicelui de validitate, este firesc s observm o anumit variabilitate a acestuia. Estimarea varianei artefactuale permite inferene asupra generalitii sau specificitii indicelui de validitate (Braun, 1988). Demersul include urmtorii pai: se calculeaz valoarea medie a indicilor de validitate innd cont de factorii de corecie pentru fidelitatea redus i restricia domeniului de variabilitate a scorurilor. De asemenea se estimeaz variana observat a indicilor de validitate. se estimeaz valoarea varianei artefactuale. se calculeaz valoarea Var()=Var(r)Var(). Dac variana real a coeficienilor de validitate este zero (sau valoare apropiat de zero, raportat la o valoare

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critic a unei distribuii care respect o distribuie ), atunci se poate afirma c variana observat se poate explica n ntregime prin variana artefactual. Adic coeficientul de validitate se poate generaliza, ponderea factorilor locali fiind neglijabil. O valoare diferit de zero este interpretat ca un argument al existenei unei fluctuaii n scorurile reale ale indicilor de validitate. Aceast fluctuaie ns nu se poate explica prin artefacte ale eantionrii sau msurrii. Ca urmare, este atribuit factorilor specifici contextului. n acest caz, cercetarea va ncerca s identifice variabilele moderatoare care explic aceast fluctuaie a valorilor reale ale indicelui de validitate. O alt modalitate de a exprima prezena varianei indicilor de validitate este calculul raportului V()/V(r)*100. Valoarea minim pentru care se verific ipoteza generalizrii indicelui de validitate este 75%. Sub aceast valoarea se consider c ponderea factorilor contextuali este semnificativ (Schmidt, Gast-Rosenberg, & Hunter, 1980). Metoda descris reprezint demersul clasic elaborat de Schmidt & Hunter (1977). Componenta esenial a acestui model, estimarea varianei artefactuale (implicit a celei reale), a fost mult criticat pe parcursul ultimelor decenii. Majoritatea modelelor alternative au fost elaborate prin modificarea acestei componente critice a demersului iniial (Raju & Burke, 1983; James, Demaree, & Mulaik, 1986). Varianta bayesian a demersului de verificare a generalitii indicelui de validitate critic ipoteza Var()=0 a demersului iniial. Din punct de vedere practic este greu de acceptat ca elementele contextuale ale seleciei s nu aib nici un efect asupra indicelui de validitate. Aceast ipotez este nlocuit cu ipoteza apriori (care permite o estimare a indicelui de validitate n populaie) i o funcie a verosimilitii (indicele de validitate calculat n studiul actual, care este un indicator independent al valorii indicelui de validitate n populaie), pe baza crora se estimeaz probabilitatea ipotezelor posteriori (o nou valoare estimat a indicelui de validitate la nivelul populaiei) (Brannick, 2001). ntrebarea final este ce ne spune demersul de generalizare a validitii despre generalitatea, respectiv specificitatea, indicelui de validitate. n acest context ntrebarea utilizatorilor i a celor care ofer astfel de teste

este: mai e sau nu necesar s validm testele psihologice utilizate pentru selecie de personal pentru toate contextele n care sunt folosite? La aceast ntrebare nu exist ns, deocamdat, un rspuns ferm. La nivel metodologic, modelele actuale ale verificrii generalitii sunt din ce n ce mai complexe, astfel sporind precizia estimrilor. La nivel instituional, din 1999 problema generalitii validitii a fost inclus n Principiile elaborate de SIOP (Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology). Acest document apreciaz c rezultatele demersului de verificare a generalitii reprezint argumente suficiente pentru selecia instrumentelor de evaluare psihologic. De asemenea, se consider c existena unei convergene ntre rezultatele oferite de aceste studii i studiile de validare local, sporesc credibilitatea celor din urm (Braun, 1988). Bibliografie
Brannick, M., T. (2001) Implications of Empirical Bayes Meta-Analysis for Test Validation. Journal of Applied Psychology 2001. Vol. 86, No. 3,468-480. Braun, H., W., H., (1988) Test Validity. Editura Lavrence Erlbaum Associates, London. James, L. R., Demaree, R. G., & Mulaik, S. A. (1986). A note on validity generalization procedures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 440-450. Nunnally, J., & Bernstein, I. (1994) Psychometric test theory. Editura McGraw Hill, New York. Pearlman, K., Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1980). Validity generalization results for tests used to predict job proficiency and training success in clerical occupations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 373-406. Raju, N. S., & Burke M. J. (1983). Two new procedures for studying validity generalization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68,382-395. Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1977). Development of a general solution to the problem of validity generalization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 529-540. Schmidt, F. L., Gast-Rosenberg, I. F, & Hunter, J. E. (1980). Validity generalization results for computer programmers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 463-661. Schmidt, F. L., Hunter, J. E., Pearlman, K., & Hirsh, H. R. (1985) Forty questions about validity generalization and meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 38, 697-798.

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STANDARDE GENERALE DE CALITATE PRIVIND ACTIVITATEA PSIHOLOGILOR CARE ACTIVEAZ N DOMENIUL PSIHOLOGIEI MUNCII, SERVICIILOR I TRANSPORTURILOR Standardele de calitate de fa prezint metodologia pe care Comisia de Munc, Servicii i Transporturi (CMST) le-a formulat n vederea optimizrii activitii psihologilor practicieni din domeniul psihologiei muncii, industriale i organizaionale. Ele desemneaz nivelul la care trebuie s se ridice orice prestaie cu caracter psihologic pentru a putea fi considerat tiinific. Comisia este contient de faptul c aceste standarde se vor atinge n timp. Din acest motiv ele vizeaz, ntr-o prim faz, achiziionarea unor cunotine adecvate, prin studiu individual i cursuri de formare profesional, urmnd ca orice avansare a unui psiholog de la un stadiu de competen la altul s se fac prin demonstrarea capacitii acestuia de ai construi propria metodologie de lucru. Totodat, verificrile pe care CMST le face cabinetelor de psihologie vor avea n vedere respectarea de ctre acestea a standardelor de calitate aflate n vigoare. Aceste standarde au ca obiective principale creterea nivelului de competen a psihologilor practicieni din domeniul amintit, a responsabilizrii aciunilor pe care acetia le ntreprind i nlturarea practicilor diletante, netiinifice, din coninutul activitii lor. STANDARDE DE CALITATE PRIVIND PROIECTAREA UNUI SISTEM DE EVALUARE PSIHOLOGIC N SCOP DE SELECIE I DE EVALUARE A PERFOMANELOR PROFESIONALE RECRUTAREA I SELECIA PSIHOLOGIC 1. Faza de recrutare: Planificarea procesului de selecie profesional Consultarea echipei manageriale Verificarea/revizuirea fiei postului sau realizarea analizei muncii pentru postul n cauz (dac este necesar) Extragerea criteriilor de selecie din fia postului Confirmarea nivelului salarial i cel al recompenselor alocate pentru postul respectiv de munc Stabilirea metodelor de atragere a candidailor Stabilirea modalitilor de informare pentru candidai Alctuirea i difuzarea anunului de angajare Primirea aplicaiilor pn la termenul stabilit Definitivarea procedurilor de recrutare i selecie Planificarea candidailor pentru interviul de selecie Derularea interviurilor Planificarea candidailor pentru faza de selecie psihologic 2. Faza de validare a procedurii de selecie psihologic: Stabilirea metodelor de selecie (variabila predictori ipotetici) Stabilirea criteriilor de performan (variabila criteriu) Validarea procedurii de selecie (este important metoda de selecie proiectat) Construirea tabelelor de expectan 3. Procedura de selecie psihologic a candidailor Aplicarea instrumentelor de selecie Evaluarea rezultatelor Selectarea candidailor Consultarea managementului n vederea deciziei finale Oferta de angajare Angajarea Stabilirea metodelor de inducie i socializare Pregtirea materialelor pe care candidatul le primete la angajare: o contractul de munc-compatibilizarea cu contractul psihologic o fia postului

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o o o o

proiectarea planului de carier regulamentul intern (RI) regulamentul de ordine i funcionare (ROF) protecia muncii

Not: Numeroase locuri de munc prevd examinarea psihologic periodic a angajailor sau expertiza psihologic dup un incident sau accident de munc. Pentru aceasta psihologul trebuie s justifice utilizarea metodologiei de evaluare psihologic prin parcurgerea iniial a unei strategii de validare. Inexistena acesteia poate constitui o nclcare grav a normelor deontologice profesionale i este un caz de natur juridic. EVALUAREA PERFORMANELOR PROFESIONALE Planificarea procesului de evaluare Verificarea sau revizuirea fiei de post (analiza muncii pentru postul n cauz dac este cazul) Consultarea echipei manageriale cu privire la strategia i direciile de dezvoltare viitoare, cu impact asupra resurselor umane Stabilirea necesitii completrii, modificrii sau reconstruirii sistemului de evaluare existent sau stabilirea criteriilor de eficien profesional dac nu exist un sistem de evaluare implementat. o Construirea sistemului de evaluare pe criteriile stabilite o Validarea sistemului de evaluare o Implementarea sistemului de evaluare Stabilirea comisiei de evaluatori i a cadrului evalurii Instruirea evaluatorilor nmnarea materialelor i a instrumentelor de evaluare Derularea evalurilor Analiza rezultatelor evalurii Extragerea rapoartelor de evaluare Oferirea feedbackului individual Evaluarea sistemului de evaluare

STANDARDE DE CALITATE RECOMANDATE PSIHOLOGILOR CARE SUNT IMPLICAI N PROCESUL DE INSTRUIRE N ORGANIZAII Orice program de instruire trebuie construit pentru a rspunde unei necesiti. Aceast necesitate trebuie identificat lund n considerare urmtoarele aspecte: o Obiectivele organizaionale care trebuie transpuse la nivel de obiective individuale o Starea actual a organizaiei i starea actual la nivel individual o Identificarea celei mai bune strategii de a ajunge de la starea actual la atingerea obiectivelor organizaiei n cadrul analizei de necesiti putem identifica dou tipuri necesiti: cele reactive, care urmresc s rezolve o situaie actual i, cele proactive, care urmresc s prentmpine necesitile de dezvoltare viitoare. n funcie de necesitile identificate trebuie stabilite obiectivele programului de instruire. n marea majoritatea a cazurilor instruirea nu este soluia unic i singular pentru a ajunge la starea dorit la nivel de organizaie, ci ea trebuie nsoit de alte aciuni. Obiectivele programului de instruire trebuie s reflecte exact ceea ce se va obine prin implementarea lui i modalitatea n care rezultatele produse vor ajuta la ndeplinirea obiectivelor organizaionale.

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Dup stabilirea obiectivelor de instruire trebuie construit programul de instruire n aa fel nct el s poat oferi rezultatele ateptate, lund n considerare contextul, participanii, climatul de transfer, precum i o folosire ct mai rezonabil a resurselor (de timp, financiare, umane etc.) Programul de instruire trebuie s conin activiti instrucionale i informaii relevante pentru necesitatea creia i-a propus s-i rspund. Informaiile i activitile instrucionale trebuie evaluate ntotdeauna prin prisma relevanei pentru situaia la care ncearc s se rspund. Programul de instruire trebuie s fie compus din acele activiti instrucionale care asigur modificrile necesare (la nivel de cunotine, comportamente i atitudini) n contextul n care acestea trebuie s se produc (n funcie de particularitile coninutului, comportamentului i atitudinilor ce trebuie modificate, precum i n funcie de particularitile participanilor, organizaiei, mediului etc) Orice program de instruire trebuie evaluat. Evaluarea este realizat pentru a avea o msurare ct mai obiectiv posibil a rezultatelor produse. Aceast evaluare are ca scop principal identificarea gradului n care obiectivele organizaionale (cele la care s-a rspuns prin instruire) au fost atinse, pentru a vedea dac a meritat investiia fcut. Evaluarea nu se oprete la sfritul cursului i nici prin evaluarea cunotinelor dobndite sau a reaciei la programul de instruire, ci ea trebuie s evalueze rezultatele obinute. n general, evaluarea trebuie fcut la ct mai multe din urmtoarele nivele (lund n considerare resursele disponibile i constrngerile existente): o o o o o o o o o Reacia la Training: Le-a plcut? Satisfacia fa de organizarea trainingului: Cum li s-a prut organizarea n sine? Cunotine: Au nvat ceva? Competene: Pot face ceva nou sau mai bine? Atitudini: i-au schimbat atitudinea n legtur cu subiectul? Comportamente: i-au schimbat felul de a face lucrurile? Rezultate: Ce impact au avut rezultatele trainingului asupra organizaiei? Return of investment: Schimbrile au adus mai muli bani/economisit mai muli bani fa de ct a fost investit n training? Capitalul psihologic: S-a schimbat imaginea organizaiei?

n momentul n care evalum un program de formare, trebuie ca rezultatele s ne indice dac s-a produs schimbarea pe care am dorit s o producem i dac schimbarea respectiv se datoreaz interveniei de instruire. Evaluarea nu trebuie luat doar ca o constatare a unui fapt, ci ca o informare privind mbuntirile ce trebuie aduse programului de instruire, precum i a felului n care acesta a fost livrat. Formatorul trebuie s abordeze orice intervenie ca o intervenie ntr-un sistem. Programele de formare nu sunt aciuni izolate, iar obinerea rezultatelor depinde de o multitudine de factori. Orice program de formare trebuie construit, implementat i evaluat ca o aciune asupra i ntr-un sistem dinamic, aciune care influeneaz i este influenat de toate componentele sistemului n care exist. Formatorul trebuie s implice organizaia n fiecare etap a instruirii i s aduc la cunotin responsabilitatea mprtit a prilor implicate. n relaia cu membrii organizaiei formatorul trebuie s ia n considerare constrngerile contextului n care acioneaz, dar s nu ncalce normele fundamentale ale acestei meserii. Relaia cu membrii organizaiei trebuie s se bazeze pe principii de asertivitate, morale, etice i de responsbilitate.

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Orice formator trebuie s fie responsabil de dezvoltarea lui i de aciunile pe care le ntreprinde pentru beneficiari, n consecin dezvoltarea profesional continu (prin cursuri i prin rspunsul proactiv la evalurile aciunilor ntreprinse) nu este opional. nainte de a implementa orice program de formare, formatorul trebuie s dein competenele de baz pentru aceast meserie (cunotine despre identificarea necesitilor de instruire, asigurarea nvrii, proiectarea activitilor instrucionale, evaluarea programelor de instruire).

STANDARDE DE CALITATE PRIVIND ACTIVITATEA DE ANALIZ A MUNCII 1. Dac postul de munc nu este nc format se realizeaz o documentare asupra activitilor i specificului postului de munc ce urmeaz a fi implementat se analizeaz strategia companiei pentru a se clarifica necesitatea implementrii unui nou post i expectanele managementului fa de rolul noului post de munc se apeleaz la un grup de specialiti (experi) n acel domeniu pentru a trasa o fi ipotetic a postului de munc fia de pot rezultat va fi reanalizat dup o perioad de timp n care postul este ocupat i se poate realiza o analiz a muncii mai detaliat Dac postul de munc exist deja n organizaie 2.1. Colectarea datelor se analizeaz documentele organizaiei (regulament intern, regulament de ordine i funcionare, organigram, fie de post existente, contracte de munc, documente de protecia muncii) observaie o se poate realiza observaie deschis, descriptiv standardizat sau asistat o se stabilesc cu precizie: momentele n care se va realiza observaia, durata, intervalul de timp ntre observaii, grila de observaie o se noteaz observaiile o se realizeaz interpretarea rezultatelor interviul o cu ocupantul postului de munc o cu eful direct o cu colegi de pe posturi aflate n relaii funcionale cu cel analizat chestionare aplicarea unor alte posibile metode (tehnica verbalizrii, analiza incidentelor critice, metoda DOT, metode computerizate de analiza muncii etc.) 2.2. Realizarea fiei de post fia postului trebuie s cuprind urmtoarele tipuri de informaii: Date de identificare a postului de munc Integrarea postului de munc n structura organizaional Responsabiliti, sarcini, activiti, aciuni Competenele postului de munc Contextul muncii Carcateristicile psihologice ale postului de munc Pregtirea necesar postului Salarizarea i condiiile de promovare

2.

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STANDARDE DE CALITATE PENTRU INVESTIGAREA PROCESULUI DE SCHIMBARE ORGANIZAIONAL 1. Informaii preliminare: organizaia recunoate existena unei probleme interne sau a unei trebuine de schimbare n vederea atingerii un obiectiv strategic este contactat un consultant extern (n anumite cazuri) se stabilete tipul de schimbare- intervenie vizat de managementul organizaiei o schimbare clar definit, pentru a atinge un obiectiv strategic o schimbare mai general la nivel de companie, pentru a mbunti situaia general din organizaie se discut riscurile implicate i consecinele unei intervenii pentru a oferi managementului o imagine clar despre ceea ce trebuie fcut i despre rolul lor n cadrul interveniei. o managementul este informat despre principalele probleme care apar n timpul unei schimbri organizaionale ( a rezistenei la schimbare) o managementul este informat cu privire la principalele aspecte ce fluidizeaz procesul de schimbare (comunicarea trebuinei de schimbare, implicarea personalului etc.) o se realizeaz un acord de principiu cu privire la modul n care se va implementa procesul de schimbare i rolul pe care l va avea managementul n cadrul acestui proces. 2. 3. Contractarea Analiza premergtoare procesului de schimbare organizaional 3.1. Colectarea datelor tehnici calitative i cantitative 3.2. Realizarea unei diagnoze organizaionale cu o atenie deosebit asupra urmtoarelor aspecte: analiza unor schimbri anterioare i a consecinelor lor att la nivel de organizaie ct i la nivel de personal factori de putere i influen n organizaie (stakeholder analysis) cultur organizaional climat organizaional orientat sau nu spre schimbare forele ce susin schimbarea i aspectele care nu o susin (field analysis) atitudinea fa de schimbare se analizeaz msura n care organizaia este pregtit pentru schimbare (la nivel de personal, tehnologic, strategic etc.) 3.3. Se interpreteaz i se integreaz rezultatele 4. Feedback i planificare se prezint managementului rezultatele obinute n urma diagnozei se identific cei ce vor fi implicai direct n schimbare (transition monitoring team, top i middle management, efi de departamente sau echipe etc.) se comunic i se explic schimbarea la nivelul ntregii companii se deleag responsabilitile se stabilesc se clarific obiectivele strategice ale schimbrii se pregtesc / se dezvolt strategiile de intervenie se identific modalitile de depire a eventualelor obstacole, de scderea rezistenei la schimbare etc.

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5.

Implementarea propriu - zis a schimbrii se integreaz schimbarea la nivelul culturii organizaionale de aa manier nct s fie favorizat schimbarea se monitorizeaz implemetarea interveniei se analizeaz evoluia procesului de schimbare i a eventualelor obstacole care pot aprea pe parcurs se realizeaz modificrile la nivel de structur, sau alte tipuri de modificri la nivelul funcionrii organizaiei se monitorizeaz i minimalizeaz posibilele conflicte care pot aprea pe parcurs

6.

Evaluare se analizeaz msura n care obiectivele au fost atinse metode: o la nivel de percepie: focus-grupuri, interviuri individuale, chestionare, analiza satisfaciei fa de locul de munc i organizaie n general, o indicatori obiectivi: cifr de afaceri, profit, productivitatea, satisfacie la nivel de clieni, indici de fluctuaie, absenteism etc.

7.

Follow -up se monitorizeaz noile strategii se planific strategii i activiti viitoare n vederea mbuntirii continue a organizaiei

PROCESUL DE DIAGNOZ ORGANIZAIONAL 1. Analiz preliminar clarificarea problemei Analiza datelor existente (productivitate, cota de pia, vnzri, cifra de afaceri, conflicte interne, relaia cu furnizorii, imagine, calitate - opiniile clienilor, indicatori de performan, etc.) Studiul ncercrilor anterioare de rezolvare a problemei Studiul statisticilor relevante de personal (structura demografic a personalului, repartizarea personalului pe departamente i posturi; absenteism, concedii medicale, fluctuaia de personal, rata seleciei etc.) Identificarea segmentelor organizaionale care necesit atenie Identificarea aspectelor care trebuie luate n considerare Schiarea unui model de diagnostic Contractare (n cazul consultanilor externi) Designul studiului Stabilirea metodelor i a procedurilor de msurare Eantionarea Planificarea procesului de diagnoz Culegerea datelor Analiza documentelor o Structura organizaional (organigrama) o Coninutul muncii (fiele de post) o Condiiile de munc o Termenii contractului de munc o ROI i ROF o Nivelul calificrii i a experienei profesionale a personalului Interviuri (individuale sau de grup) o Tendina de a prsi locul de munc o Implicarea profesional o Acuze de sntate/boal o Dezvoltarea personal/profesional Observaia

2. 3.

4.

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Chestionare standardizate o Valori de munc o Cultur organizaional o Climat organizaional o Comunicarea pe vertical i pe orizontal o Stil de conducere o Relaii n organizaie o Satisfacia profesional o Stres ocupaional o Atitudinea fa de schimbare 5. Analiza datelor Sumarizarea protocoalelor de interviu Sumarizarea protocoalelor de observaie Calcularea scorurilor brute i a scorurilor standard pentru chestionare Interpretarea calitativ a datelor obinute prin analiza documentelor, interviuri i observaie Interpretarea rezultatelor obinute la chestionare prin raportri la norme; crearea de profile Prelucrarea statistic a datelor cantitative: comparaii pe departamente sau pe diferite categorii demografice; corelaii; analiz de regresie. Feedback i discuii Sumarizarea i raportarea informaiilor obinute, aa nct membrii organizaiei s i formeze o imagine acurat asupra realitii organizaionale. Discutarea rezultatelor mpreun beneficiarii diagnozei pentru clarificarea anumitor aspecte i pentru completarea concluziilor Identificarea forelor pro i contra schimbare i nelegerea funcionrii i performanelor organizaiei n procesul de interaciune dintre organizaie i mediu. Propunerea i dezvoltarea de soluii funcionale Stabilirea aspectelor importante n urma discuiei feedback-ului Identificarea punctelor de intervenie Luare de decizii Se decide care dintre interveniile propuse vor fi implementate Stabilirea resurselor care vor fi alocate procesului de intervenie Stabilirea prioritilor Stabilirea termenelor limit Implementare Elaborarea i execuia interveniilor Follow-up Evaluarea msurii n care s-au implementat toate interveniile propuse Evaluarea rezultatelor obinute Propunerea unor noi direcii de diagnoz sau intervenie

6.

7.

8.

9.

STANDARDE DE CALITATE PENTRU EVALUAREA STRESULUI OCUPAIONAL, DE PROIECTARE I IMPLEMENTARE A INTERVENIILOR DE MANAGEMENT AL STRESULUI OCUPAIONAL 1. La nivel organizaional: 1.1. Se asigur implicarea managementului organizaiei i a angajailor n procesul de diagnoz a stresului ocupaional stabilete comunicarea cu managementul, reprezentanii angajailor i / sau angajaii prezint managementului organizaiei i reprezentanilor angajailor domeniile-cheie ce pot fi gestionate pentru reducerea stresului ocupaional:

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solicitri ncrcarea muncii, gruprile de sarcini de munc i solicitri generate de mediul de munc control nivelul de control asupra desfurrii muncii perceput de angajat suport include ncurajarea, sponsorizarea i resursele furnizate de organizaie, manageri de linie i colegi relaii promovarea unui context de munc pozitiv, evitarea conflictelor i gestionarea comportamentelor indezirabile rol msura n care angajaii i neleg rolul n cadrul organizaiei i organizaia se asigur c nu apar conflicte de rol Se realizeaz diagnoza stresului ocupaional n organizaie, parcurgnd urmtorii paii: realizeaz analiza sistematic a factorilor de risc pentru dezvoltarea stresului ocupaional la nivel de organizaie identific angajaii/ categoriile de angajai cu risc de dezvoltare a stresului ocupaional analizeaz datele disponibile n organizaie ce constituie posibili indicatori ai stresului ocupaional adapteaz i/ sau dezvolt instrumente de evaluare a stresului ocupaional (chestionare, ghiduri de interviu) selecteaz instrumentele care vor fi utilizate n diagnoza stresului ocupaional realizeaz interviuri pe grupuri mici de angajai pentru a explora condiiile de munc relaionate cu stresul ocupaional aplic chestionarele de stres ocupaional realizeaz prelucrarea cantitativ i calitativ a datelor obinute n urma aplicrii instrumentelor de diagnoz a stresului ocupaional interpreteaz rezultatele obinute realizeaz un raport de diagnoz a stresului ocupaional n organizaie Se comunic managementului i angajailor rezultatele diagnozei stresului ocupaional prezint managementului organizaie raportul de diagnoz a stresului ocupaional ofer feedback angajailor asupra rezultatelor individuale obinute consult managerii, reprezentanii angajailor i / sau angajaii pentru a obine o confirmare suplimentar a rezultatelor diagnozei stresului ocupaional propune i implementeaz intervenii de management al stresului ocupaional, la urmtoarele nivele: prevenire a stresului ocupaional (prevenie primar) reducere a stresului ocupaional (prevenie secundar) reducere a consecinelor stresului ocupaional (intervenie teriar) n baza rezultatelor diagnozei stresului ocupaional dezvolt un plan de aciune viznd managementul stresului ocupaional colaboreaz cu managerii, reprezentanii angajailor i specialiti din domeniul sntii ocupaionale n vederea implementrii interveniei de management al stresului n organizaie parcurge urmtoarele etape n implementarea planului de aciune viznd managementul stresului ocupaional: selecteaz tehnicile de management al stresului ocupaional n baza rezultatelor diagnozei stresului ocupaional selecteaz instrumentele de evaluare a eficienei interveniei de management al stresului ocupaional adapteaz i / sau dezvolt tehnici de management al stresului ocupaional adapteaz i / sau dezvolt tehnici de evaluare a eficienei interveniei de management al stresului ocupaional implementeaz intervenia de management al stresului ocupaional evalueaz eficiena interveniei de management al stresului 2. La nivel local / naional : 2.1.Propune/se implic n activiti de contientizare a impactului stresului ocupaional asupra sntii ocupaionale

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COLEGIUL PSIHOLOGILOR DIN ROMNIA Comisia de Psihologia Muncii, Servicii i Transporturi COMPETENE PROFESIONALE AFERENTE TRECERII DINTR-O TREAPT DE SPECIALIZARE N ALTA Competenele profesionale pe care un psiholog practician trebuie s le dein pentru trecerea ntr-o treapt de specializare superioar atest nivelul de competen minim necesar, gradul i nivelul minim de implicare profesional. Trecerea dintr-o treapt de specializare n alta se face printr-un interviu structurat care presupune navigarea n bagajul de cunotine teoretice i practice achiziionat de psihologul n cauz n perioada stagiului existent al treptei de specializare n cauz. Comisia va adresa ntrebri pertinente de verificare a cunotinelor teoretice i practice i va efectua evaluarea acestora pe baza unei fie de evaluare standard. Pe baza analizei evalurilor se va stabili un calificativ mediu din care s rezulte promovarea sau prelungirea stagiului de pregtire profesional. Obiectul evalurii l face: Activitatea profesional desfurat (recrutare de personal, selecie profesional, organizarea de traininguri, evaluarea profesional, evaluri cu caracter organizaional etc.) Cunotinele teoretice aferente treptei de specializare Rezolvarea unor probleme practice Metodele de prelucrare i interpretare a datelor Elemente administrative de gestiune a evalurilor psihologice Demersurile investigative Rezultatele evalurii se concretizeaz n: Prelungirea duratei de rmnere n specializarea dobndit prelungirile se refer la trei perioade: 4 luni, 8 luni i 12 luni. n acest timp, candidatul va trebui s-i rezolve lacunele pe care le are. Promovarea ntr-un stadiu superior de specializare Specializrile supuse evalurii de ctre CPMST sunt urmtoarele: Psiholog practician n supervizare Psiholog practician autonom Psiholog specialist autonom Competene privind specializarea de psiholog practician n supervizare Gestionarea computerizat a bazelor de date Noiuni de eviden contabil a firmei Derularea unui proces de analiz a muncii Procesul i demersul procedural de recrutare de personal (proiectarea anunului de recrutare, analiza de CV, structurarea unui interviu de recrutare) Cunoaterea testelor psihologice i alte mijloace de psihodiagnoz (interviu, exploatarea datelor biografice, interviul de selecie) Derularea unei proceduri de validare a testelor psihologice Alctuirea unui plan de carier Utilizarea unui sistem de evaluare a personalului Cunoaterea algoritmului de derulare a unei proceduri de evaluare a personalului Proiectarea unui curs de pregtire profesional Proiectarea unui curs de training pe o tem diferit Principiile evalurii cursurilor de training Cunotine despre cultura organizaional i schimbarea organizaional Administrarea de instrumente privind cultura i schimbarea organizaional Cunoaterea unor instrumente pentru identificarea culturii i schimbrii organizaionale Noiuni generale asupra stresului ocupaional Mijloace de detectare a stresului organizaional Cunoaterea i a altor tehnici de intervenie

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Competene privind specializarea de psiholog practician autonom Conducerea procesual a unui sistem de recrutare de personal Abilitatea n luarea deciziilor de recrutare profesional Proiectarea practic a unui sistem de selecie profesional Principiile validrii testelor psihologice i a combinrii acestora ntr-o baterie de teste psihologice Operarea cu teste psihologice de dificultate medie i mare Determinarea criteriilor de performan profesional i operarea cu acestea n procesul de validare a unei baterii de teste Stabilirea profilurilor psihologice pe meserii i operarea cu acestea (comparaia de profiluri) Deciziile de selecie Proiectarea i utilizarea tabelelor de expectaie Calculele de utilitate n selecia personalului Proiectarea unui sistem de evaluare a personalului Capacitatea de a crea i utiliza diferite sisteme de evaluare a personalului Proiectarea i gestionarea a unui sistem de instruire profesional Realizarea unei intervenii pe probleme de cultur organizaional i schimbare organizaional Proiectarea unui studiu de evaluare a stresului organizaional

Competene pentru specializarea de psiholog specializat Conducerea unei aciuni complexe de implementare a unui sistem de recrutare i selecie a personalului Efectuarea de studii de cercetare privind leadership-ul unei companii Realizarea unui studiu de ergonomie cognitiv Cercetarea cauzelor fluctuaiei de personal i efectuarea de prognoze privind personalul unei companii Realizarea unui studiu al accidentelor de munc Proiectarea de studii de diagnoz i dezvoltare organizaional Proiectarea unui studiu de diagnoz a stresului ocupaional Cunoaterea practicii de organizare a unei activiti de resurse umane dintr-o organizaie Aducerea unor dovezi de preocupare pe linia cercetrii tiinifice (participri active la manifestri tiinifice, cursuri de perfecionare profesional, publicaii etc.)

Competene pentru specializarea de psiholog supervizor Psihologul supervizor poate fi numai unul care deine calitatea de psiholog practician specialist. Psihologul supervizor trebuie s fie familiarizat cu toate competenele pe care trebuie s le transmit unui psiholog aflat sub supervizare.

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Figuri de psihologi

IOAN RADU
Personalitate reprezentativ a colii clujene de psihologie

Ioan Radu marcheaz prin activitatea sa cinci decenii de carier universitar, remarcabil prin realizri didactice i o consistent oper tiinific. Nscut la 15 august 1925, n satul Petea de Cmpie, judeul Mure, ntr-o familie de rani, urmeaz studii liceale la Ortie. Apoi absolv Facultatea de Filosofie - specialitatea psihologie la Universitatea din Cluj, n anul 1948. n anii studeniei a beneficiat de luminile unor dascli ca Lucian Blaga, D.D. Roca, tefnescu-Goang, personaliti de frunte ale culturii romneti, de la care a preluat rigoarea cartezian i calitile stilistice, spiritul de finee n gndire, adugnd la acestea aplicaia ctre cercetarea psihologic experimental. Imediat dup absolvire este numit asistent la Catedra de Psihologie a Universitii Clujene, unde a parcurs progresiv treptele ierarhiei didactice: lector(1956), confereniar (1966), profesor (1975) i profesor consultant (1995). La nceputul anilor 1960 obine titlul de doctor n psihologie cu o tez despre formarea noiunilor tiinifice la elevi. Domeniile sale de predilecie n activitatea didactic i tiinific au fost: Psihologia educaional, Didactica, Metodologia cercetrii psihologice i analiza datelor, Psihologia social - domenii de interes major n care a publicat de-a lungul anilor lucrri de valoare dintre care dou: Psihologia colar (1074) i Introducere n psihologie contemporan (1990) au obinut premii ale Academiei Romne. Este membru activ al Academiei de tiine din New York (1994). A fost eful Catedrei de Psihologie ntre anii 1975-1977, relund aceast funcie dup 1990, cnd a renfiinat la Cluj i Secia de psihologie - dup ce n 1977-1990 disciplina fusese complet marginalizat de ctre dictatura comunist. A fost redactor ef al Revistei de psihologie - editat de ctre Academia Romn -

i n acelai timp al versiunii n limbi strine Revue Roumaine des Sciences Sociale - Serie de psychologie (1981-1991). De asemenea, a fost redactor principal (1990-1995) al revistei Studia Universitatis Babe-Bolyai Series psychologia - paedagogia. Lucrrile semnate de-a lungul anilor de I. Radu se plaseaz prin coninutul lor i prin metoda de abordare n vecintatea tiinelor exacte. Aceast afinitate se gsete n primul volum publicat Problemele psihologice ale predrii matematicii i fizicii (1958), n care este studiat procesul de formare a noiunilor i de rezolvare a problemelor de ctre elevi. De altfel, volumul a fost prefaat de un studiu privind analiza greelilor tipice n asimilarea algebrei elementare (Revista de pedagogie, 1953), care a inaugurat la noi studiul nsuirii cunotinelor de matematic. Aceeai afinitate o putem identifica i n preocuparea lui I. Radu de a defini precis noiunile de lucru. Spre exemplu, sinonimia curent n simul comun i n teoria instruirii ntre a preda i a spune este amendat de I. Radu (2000) ntr-o suit de cerine exprese. A preda nseamn: a prezenta fapte, modele, exponate, decupaje din realitate; a propune elevilor o activitate asupra acestora, adic a-i conduce s le analizeze, s le compare etc.; a extrage apoi esenialul din fapte, exemple, care s se condenseze n definiii, legi, principii, reguli; a organiza i ndruma actul de nvare individual; a face operante cunotinele n exerciii, activiti aplicative etc. Investigaiile ntreprinse n rezolvarea de probleme se ntemeiaz pe i utilizeaz protocolul gndirii cu voce tare ca metod acreditat ulterior n psihologia cognitiv acordnd n acelai timp, preferin problemelor

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de geometrie i fizic, ce se preteaz i la un studiu simultan al figurilor i al relaiilor algebrice ataate lor. Referitor la formarea i utilizarea noiunilor de fizic se relev o dificultate caracteristic (I. Radu, 1971). Introducerea acestor noiuni face apel n mod sistematic la un proces de schematizare: fenomenele sunt prezentate n form pur , pe baz de scheme de principiu sau modele simplificate, iar situaiile reproduse cu ajutorul dispozitivelor experimentale sunt uneori situaii-limit, ideale. Spre exemplu , cnd se studiaz legile micrii, un corp este redus la limit la un punct material, dup cum, atunci cnd studiem prghia, ea este stilizat ntr-o bar rigid, .a.m.d. Cu alte cuvinte, fenomenele fizice, reproduse n condiii colare, constituie mai curnd modele ale faptelor concrete, anumite determinaii particulare fiind moderate sau chiar eliminate. Pe de alt parte, ceea ce nu poate fi realizat n mod nemijlocit, experimental, este continuat, prelungit uneori ntr-o experien mintal care efectueaz trecerea la limit. n consecin, dei sunt prefigurate n percepie, noiunile de fizic impun un proces complex de abstractizare treptat, att n formarea, ct i n aplicarea lor. Dar dac principiile i noiunile sunt introduse adesea pe baz de modele, aplicaiile se cer a fi fcute pe obiecte i pe procese. n problemele cu coninut practic, aplicativ, elevul nu se ntlnete cu fenomenul pur, stilizat pn la schema de principiu. Ceea ce schematizarea iniial a ndeprtat din datele percepiei, reapare n diversitatea faptului complex ntlnit n activiti cu caracter aplicativ. n probleme de psihologie educaional, autorul propune o teorie unitar a nvrii, care s depeasc mozaicul de cercetri i curente ale vremii. Canavaua acestei teorii o constituie abordarea cognitiv a formrii noiunilor i abilitilor: se construiete pe noiunea de prototip, schem i structur cognitiv, chiar pe paradigma expert-nceptor. n prelungirea teoriei nvrii, I. Radu propune un concept al programrii pedagogice mult mai analitic dect cel promovat n didactica tradiional. Conceptul poate fi concretizat printr-un set de cerine (I. Radu, 1972): a) a segmenta materia n uniti discrete de informaie, a structura paii ntr-o secven care s reprezinte cea mai just filiaie logic a elementelor; b) a specifica activitile concrete ale elevilor n legtur cu aceste elemente,

astfel nct s capete o expresie exterioar controlabil; c) a dirija procesul de formare a noiunilor prin jocul exemplelor i contraexemplelor, prin alternana ntre date concrete i verbale; d) a preciza strategiile nvrii (prescripie algoritmic, nvare pe modele, problematizare, etc.) miznd pe o difereniere real a fluxului instruirii; e) a controla explicaiile mintale prin aplicaii i exerciii sau probleme-test; f) a preveni greelile tipice prin inserarea unor subprograme de nvare; g) a prevedea secvene de recapitulare, fixare, sintez; h) a instrui un model eficace de autocontrol i autoreglare pe parcursul instruciunii. Se subliniaz c programarea pedagogic nu se reduce la versiunea skinnerian de minitexte cu lacune , care rmne doar o form particular de prezentare a materialului i nu ine de esena operaiei. Observaiile Prof. Radu se bazeaz pe experienele proprii de instruire programat organizate n deceniul VII al secolului abia ncheiat, n colaborare cu metodicieni de specialitate la discipline ca matematica , fizica, gramatica, botanica i chimia, toate publicate n volumele colective sau n reviste de profil. n psihologia social, prof. I. Radu prefigureaz un capitol inedit n domeniu, etnopsihologia, privit ntr-un orizont larg: de la aproximaie la tiin. Suportul de date interculturale, studiile comparatiste, anchete folclorice etc, toate i au locul n chip firesc n conturarea demersului tiinific. Se tinde spre depirea abordrii pozitiviste care se reduce la studiul stereotipurilor, autorul plednd pentru o schimbare judicioas n studiul emic din interiorul comunitii i studiul etic din afara lui. Aceast complementaritate a surselor i metodelor are ansa de a sesiza o anumit identitate cultural n contururi mut mai bogate i precise. Studiul exclusiv din interior are limitele sale; la limit el risc s eueze n simple repetiii. Nu ntmpltor, eseurile pe marginea folclorului romnesc, care se limitau la a glosa la nesfrit asupra unor teme ca dorul, simbolismul frunzei verzi sau motivul mioritic, ngroa involuntar un fenomen de saturaie semantic ce mpinge spre clieu. Devine necesar completarea prin studiul etic (dinafar) , adic prin crochiuri comparatiste. Contactul cu alteritatea ofer revelaia identitii, dar i percepia deosebirii. Pentru etnopsihologie, percepia i nelegerea diversitii umane

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Figuri de psihologi

presupune ieirea din interiorul unei monade culturale, att n spaiu ct i n timp, adic achiziia unor cadre de comparaie care s dezvluie elemente de asemnare i note de contrast n definirea unei identiti culturale. Cercetri interesante a ntreprins prof. I. Radu (1987) n problema difuziunii i receptrii noutilor tiinifice. De la laureatul Premiului Nobel pn la beneficiarul terminal intervin numeroase relee care dilueaz informaia original, uneori pn la clieu. Destinatarul final este nclinat s reformuleze orice achiziie nou n termenii propriei experiene. Apare tendina de a proiecta unele dintre noile achiziii ca simple modificri de limbaj, ceea ce duce la aplatizarea noutii. Problema este s discernem ntre noutate i simpla invenie verbal . Nu rareori apar situaii n care vehicularea de termeni noi nlocuiete sporul real de cunoatere, mai exact, invenia lingvistic, creeaz iluzia unui progres n plan cognitiv. Apar mimetisme verbale, trebuina de a mprumuta ramuri mai prestigioase ale tiinei, astzi preferenial din tiinele cognitive. Un merit incontestabil al lucrrilor prof. I. Radu este acela de a fi promotorul unei metodologii avansate a cercetrii psihologice. Dac pan n anii 60 ai secolului trecut metoda de investigaie se reducea la studiul empiric dublat de statistici descriptive, prin Introducere n psihologia experimental (1968), autorul adaug i elemente de statistic inferenial n analiza datelor, alturi de grila de observaie, designul experimental i tehnicile de meta-analiz. Lucrarea sa Metodologie psihologic i analiza datelor (1993) a devenit suport de formare nu numai pentru studeni ci i pentru cercettori de orice vrst. De menionat c n cuprinsul acestor volume se mbin spiritul geometric cu spiritul de finee cum se exprima Pascal - altfel spus, se asociaz metodele cantitative cu cele de analiz calitativ. De aici necesitatea unui atent discernmnt ntre simple inovaii lingvistice i nouti reale. Opera tiinific a profesorului Radu a fcut obiectul prezentrilor n dou lucrri cu caracter enciclopedic aprute la noi n ar: 1) Radu Ioan Psiholog, Profesor universitar n Enciclopedia marilor personaliti contemporane, volumul V, 2003, Bucureti, Editura Geneza (pag. 281-286); 2) Profesor doctor Ioan Radu Psihologia ntre spiritul de finee i spiritul de geometrie n Personaliti clujene contemporane, volumul I, 2005, Ed. Colceriu Gr., Editura Limes, Cluj-Napoca (pag. 325-335).

Spicuim din lista de volume de autor o seam de lucrri de referin: Introducere n psihologia experimental i statistic, Bucureti, Editura Didactic i pedagogic, 1967 Psihologia colar, Bucureti, Editura tiinific, 1974 Experien didactic i creativitate, ClujNapoca, Editura Dacia, 1987 Introducere n psihologia contemporan, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Sincron, 1991 Metodologie psihologic i analiza datelor, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Sincron, 1993 Psihologie social, Cluj-Napoca, edit. EXE, 1994 Didactica modern, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Dacia, 1995 Adugm la acestea lucrri n care prof. Ion Radu este co-autor i coordonator n volume colective: Creativitate, Modele, Programare (coord. Al Roca), Bucureti, Editura tiinific, 1967 Coninutul i procedeele programrii pedagogice, n Educaie i contemporaneitate, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Dacia, 1972 (edit. D. Salade) Examenul psihologic la intrarea n clasa I, n Orientare colar i preorientare profesional, ndrumtor pentru cadre didactice, 1976, (edit. D. Salade) Studii de psihologie colar, Bucureti, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 1979 Psihologia educaiei i dezvoltrii, n Sinteze de psihologie contemporan, vol. 3, Bucureti, Editura Academiei, 1983 Dezbateri de didactic modern, ClujNapoca, Editura Presa Universitar Clujan, 1997 (n colaborare cu M. Ionescu, D. Salade) Strategii metacognitive n procesul nvrii la elevi, n Studii de didactic aplicat, (coord. I. Radu, M. Ionescu, D. Salade) ClujNapoca, Editura Presa Universitar Clujan, 2000 3. Studii n reviste de specialitate 2.

1.

Despre unele greeli tipice n asimilarea algebrei elementare, Rev. de pedagogie, 1953 n legtur cu formarea priceperilor i deprinderilor matematice la elevi, n Studii de psihologie pedagogic, 1958 Formarea priceperilor i deprinderilor practice n cadrul leciei, n Unele probleme ale leciei, 1961

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Formarea deprinderilor de autocontrol n procesul instruirii practice a elevilor, n Revista de Pedagogie, 1962 Instruirea programat i problemele aplicrii ei n coal, n Revista de Pedagogie, 1964 Lacqusition de certaines connaisances mathematique par lapprentisage programme, Revue Roumaine de Sciences Sociales, Serie de Psychologie, 1967 Relaii ntre raionament i deprindere n activitatea intelectual a elevilor (la matematic), n Studia Universitatis BabesBolyai, seria Psychologia-Paedagogia, 1967 Experiene de instruire programat n botanic, n Studia Universitatis BabesBolyai, seria Psychologia-Paedagogia, 1968, (n colab.) La resolution des problemes de geometrie comme processus psychologique, Revue Roumaine de Sciences Sociales, Serie de Psychologie, 1970 Principii metodologice n elaborarea si utilizarea probelor psihologice, n Revista de Psihologie, 1976 Stereotypes in Psychological Research, Revue Roumaine de Sciences Sociales, Serie de Psychologie, 1982 Depirea unor cliee metodologice n cercetarea psihologic, n Revista de Psihologie, 1986 Assimilating new findings in the field o educational research: some sociopsychological aspects, n Revue Roumaine de Sciences Sociales, Serie de Psychologie, 1987 Psihologia intercultural, Revista de Psihologie, 1987 Etnopsychology: relationship between theory and method, n Studia Universitatis BabesBolyai, seria Psychologia-Paedagogia Strategii metacognitive in procesul nvarii la elevii inteligeni si la cei mediocri: in Cogniie, Creier, Comportament, 3, 1997 Am menionat doar cteva din contribuiile remarcabile ale profesorului I. Radu n domeniul psihologiei.

Despre opera lui I. Radu au exprimat o aleas preuire psihologii din ar i autorii din strintate, astfel un numr special din Cogniie, Creier, Comportament (sept. 2000) dedic un grupaj de aprecieri intitulat Omagiu profesorului I. Radu, la mplinirea vrstei de 75 de ani a acestuia. Redactorul ef i directorul fondator prof. Mircea Miclea formuleaz o seam de meniuni elogioase la adresa prof. I. Radu care ne-a nvat s slujim un ideal prin munc i generozitate fa de ceilali... Profesorul nu a ezitat s pun numele mai tinerilor aflai la nceput de carier, pe crile pe care le-a scris.... am nvat c textul pe care l scriem trebuie s fie limpede i clar, s mbine spiritul de finee cu spiritul de geometrie, cum i place s l parafrazeze pe Pascal. Este inserat n continuare un interviu i lista lucrrilor publicate. De asemenea, prof. Adrian Neculau, redactor ef al revistei Psihologie social nr.8/2001 public un interviu cu I. Radu n care sunt cuprinse frumoase cuvinte de preuire. Menionm de asemenea citarea volumelor i studiilor de autor n lucrri din mediul didactic i teoria nvrii. G. de Lansheere, n volumul su La recherche du education le monde (1986), exprim o apreciere pozitiv la adresa experimentelor de instruire programat organizate de I. Radu i colaboratorii si. n lucrarea Psihologie colar (coord. A Cosmovici, L. Iacob), aprut la Iai (Polirom, 1999), se cuprind nenumrate referiri la lucrrile de psihologie educaional a lui I. Radu.

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Opri, M., Opri, D. & Boco, M. (2006). Cercetarea pedagogic n domeniul educaiei religioase. Editura Sf. Mina, Iai (335 p). Cercetarea pedagogic n domeniul educaiei religioase a devenit posibil n condiiile n care religia a fost reintrodus ca disciplin de nvmnt. Un profesor de religie sau un pedagog interesat de aplicaiile pedagogiei n domeniul educaiei religioase trebuie s ncerce permanent s neleag, s analizeze, s explice, s optimizeze diferitele aspecte ale proceselor educaionale implicate n predarea religiei. Cercetarea pedagogic n acest domeniu are att o importan teoretic ct i practic (optimizarea, inovarea, reformarea practicilor educative). Cartea Cercetarea pedagogic n domeniul educaiei religioase de Monica Opri, Dorin Opri i Muata Boco i propune s arate cum pot fi studiate ntr-un mod tiinific i riguros diferitele fapte pedagogice corespunztoare proceselor educaionale specifice studiului religiei. Lucrarea de fa este structurat n opt capitole, crora li se adaug bibliografia i cinci anexe. n capitolul I, autorii arat care este obiectul cercetrii pedagogice n general, care sunt tipurile de cercetare pedagogic i apoi care sunt elementele specifice cercetrii pedagogice n domeniul educaiei religioase. Totodat realizeaz o analiz a situaiei actuale i a perspectivelor privind cercetarea n acest domeniu. Capitolul II ofer informaii privind etapele unei cercetri pedagogice (delimitarea temei / problemei de cercetat, elaborarea design-ului cercetrii, organizarea i desfurarea cercetrii pedagogice, analiza i prelucrarea datelor obinute, elaborarea concluziilor finale ale cercetrii i valorificarea acestora n practica educativ). Autorii ofer exemple pentru fiecare etap a unei cercetrii pedagogice i evideniaz greelile care pot s apar. n cadrul capitolului III sunt prezentate cele dou paradigme de cercetare - calitativ i cantitativ accentul punndu-se ns pe metodologia cercetrii pedagogice. Autorii realizeaz o trecere n revist a metodelor de colectare a datelor cercetrii (metoda autoobservaiei, observaiei sistematice, experimentul, metoda anchetei, chestionarul, interviul, metoda analizei portofoliilor / a produselor activitii, metoda cercetrii

documentelor curriculare i a altor documente colare, metoda testelor i a altor probe de evaluare scris, metoda studiului de caz, metode sociometrice), respectiv a unor elemente minime de statistic inferenial i descriptiv, necesare unei cercetri pedagogice, oferind exemple pentru a facilita nelegerea celor prezentate. Interdisciplinaritatea abordrilor teoretice i aplicative din domeniul educaiei religioase este tema prezentat n cel de-al IVlea capitol. Autorii consider c unul dintre cele mai importante aspecte ale nvmntului modern i n special a reformei curriculare este organizarea interdiciplinar a coninuturilor. Ofer exemple privind modul n care diferite teme pot fi tratate pluridisciplinar (ex. principiile termodinamicii abordate de ctre fizic, chimie, religie i biologie Opri, M., Opri, D. & Boco, M., 2006, p. 257) i exemplific, pentru anumite noiuni, conexiunile interdisciplinare, conform programelor colare aflate n uz pentru diferite clase (Opri, M., Opri, D. & Boco, M., 2006, p. 262). Autorii arat c organizarea interdiciplinar a coninuturilor are att avantaje ce pot fi evideniate din perspectiva coninuturilor i metodelor abordate, a profesorilor care le realizeaz i a elevilor crora li se adreseaz, ct i anumite limite datorate modului de elaborare al actualelor documente colare, dotrii materiale a colilor, pregtirii profesorilor i orientrii elevilor n alegerea unei profesii, dar pledeaz pentru necesitatea dezvoltrii interdisciplinare a cercetrilor pedagogice n domeniul educaiei religioase. Capitolul V este dedicat prezentrii dificultilor ce pot fi ntlnite n cercetarea n domeniul educaiei religioase, precum i a posibilelor remedii, iar capitolul VI se concentreaz pe implicaiile etice n cercetarea pedagogic n acest domeniu, punnd accent pe responsabilitile pe care le are cercettorul fa de subiecii care particip la cercetare. n cadrul celui de-al VII-lea capitol se prezint modele i instrumente de lucru pentru cercetrii din domeniul educaiei religioase. Aici autorii propun o tematic pentru lucrrile metodico-tiinifice ce trebuie elaborate de ctre profesorii de religie n vederea obinerii gradului didactic I i arat care sunt paii de urmat n realizarea unui proiect de cercetare pedagogic, oferind mai multe modele (ex.lucrarea cu titlul Problematizarea i utilizarea ei n nsuirea coninuturilor din domeniul Moral cretin, la clasele a V-a i a VI-a).

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Cartea de fa ofer recomandri concrete privind elaborarea, redactarea i susinerea lucrrilor tiinifice n domeniul educaiei religioase. n concluzie, putem afirma c lucrarea de fa, prin informaiile prezentate este deosebit de util profesorilor i cercettorilor interesai de domeniul educaiei religioase. tefania Isail

Opri, M., Opri, D. & Boco, M. (2006). Cercetarea n domeniul educaiei religioase i al educaiei morale. Modele i aplicaii. Editura Sf. Mina, Iai (302 p.) nc din secolul trecut, ca urmare a dezvoltrii cercetrilor experimentale n psihologie, ncepe s se manifeste o puternic reacie fa de pedagogia filosofic constituit deductiv, pornind de la anumite principii sau concepte filosofice. Se contureaz astfel ideea unei pedagogii experimentale. Educaia religioas i moral a fost i continu s fie n anumite zone realizat pe baza principiilor pedagogiei filosofice, dei n ultimul timp apar tot mai multe lucrri, mai ales n strintate, de cercetare pedagogic n domeniul dezvoltrii i educaiei religioase i morale. Cartea Cercetarea n domeniul educaiei religioase i al educaiei morale. Modele i aplicaii. de Monica Opri, Dorin Opri i Muata Boco, aprut la editura Sf. Mina din Iai i propune s fie un instrument de lucru pentru cadrele didactice de diferite specialiti, pentru masteranzii i studenii interesai de realizarea unor cercetri pedagogice n domeniul educaiei religioase i morale. Lucrarea de fa este structurat n cinci capitole, crora li se adaug bibliografia i ase anexe. n capitolul I autorii definesc educaia religioas ca aciunea specific uman pe care educatorul o desfoar pentru dezvoltarea religiozitii elevului, pe baza unor principii i cu ajutorul unor metode i mijloace specifice. (Opri, Opri & Buco, 2002), iar educaia moral ca latur a educaiei care urmrete formarea i dezvoltarea caracterului ca latur relaional valoric a personalitii, respectiv a contiinei i conduitei morale. (Opri, Opri & Buco, 2002). Pe lng clarificrile terminologice necesare, autorii prezint care este raportul dintre educaia religioas i educaia moral, cu accent pe religiozitatea i morala cretin. Sunt prezentate totodat

cteva aspecte referitoare la educaia religioas i educaia moral n coala romneasc i fundamentele teoretice ale cercetrii n acest domeniu. n cel de-al doilea capitol sunt prezentate modele de lucru i aplicaii ale cercetrii pedagogice. Sunt trecute n revist paii de parcurs pentru realizarea unei astfel de cercetri: delimitarea problemei de cercetat, formularea obiectivelor cercetrii, formularea ipotezelor de lucru, selectarea eantionului i a metodei de cercetare care va fi folosit (autoobservaie, observaie, experimentul pedagogic, metoda anchetei, metoda interviului, metoda analizei portofoliilor, metoda cercetrii documentelor curriculare i a altor documente colare, metoda testelor i a altor probe de evaluare scris, metoda studiului de caz, metode sociometrice), precum i metode de organizare, prezentare i prelucrare statistic a datelor i de verificare a ipotezelor, pentru fiecare pas oferindu-se exemple care s faciliteze nelegerea aspectelor prezentate. Sunt prezentate tot n acest capitol sugestii privind elaborarea proiectului de cercetare. Capitolul al III-lea este dedicat prezentrii unor modele de cercetare-aciune n domeniul educaiei religioase i al educaiei morale. Sunt prezentate pe larg, respectnd paii enumerai mai sus un model de cercetare privind utilizarea metodei instruirii difereniate la cultur civic, clasa a VIII-a i un model de cercetare privind utilizarea didactic a icoanei, n studiul religiei la clasa a VI-a. n capitolul IV este oferit celor interesai o tematic orientativ privind cercetarea pedagogic n domeniul educaiei religioase i al educaiei morale la religie sau la alte discipline de nvmnt, n vederea obinerii gradului didactic I. Lucrrile de cercetare elaborate n vederea obinerii acestui grad i propun s valorifice experiena didactic a profesorilor i au ca scop dezvoltarea unor competene metodice i de specialitate. Ultimul capitol cuprinde informaii referitoare la modalitile simple de prelucrare i analiz a datelor obinute. Sunt prezentate pe scurt tipurile de prelucrri statistice care se realizat n funcie de tipul de metod de cercetare folosit i de variabilele dependente. Prin informaiile oferite (ex. modele de lucru detaliate care pot fi preluate i aplicate n practica didactic), cartea poate fi valorificat de ctre persoanele interesate n conceperea i derularea unei cercetri pedagogice n domeniul educaiei religioase i morale.

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tefania Isail

Veronica Rlea (2006). Leadership teorii, modele i aplicaii. Iai, Editura Lumen. (104 pag.) Cartea de fa trateaz o problem care, dei studiat n profunzime deja de cteva decenii, rmne n continuare extrem de actual: problematica leadership-ului. n condiiile n care au aprut o serie de schimbri majore n modul n care funcioneaz o companie n ceea ce privete complexitatea organizaional, a modificrii situaiilor de munc, a tehnologiei i a pieei de munc n general, teoriile asupra leadershipului au trebuit i ele revizuite. Cartea este structurat n trei mari capitole pe parcursul crora este urmrit evoluia n timp a conceptului de leadership, a teoriilor i abordrilor sale i a relaiei dintre acesta i cteva aspecte relevante pentru practica organizaional. Primul capitol realizeaz o clasificare a teoriilor din domeniu n funcie de modul n care au fost ele influenate de abordri diferite n cercetarea din domeniul psihologiei. Astfel, o prim perioad este caracterizat de analiza performanei unui leader n funcie de o serie de trsturi de personalitate ale acestuia, pornindu-se de la premisa conform creia exist un set de atribute individuale pe care unele persoane le posed i care contribuie la succesul acestora n funcii de conducere. Datorit lipsei unor studii concludente care s demonstreze existena unui anumit set de trsturi stabile i cu valoare predictiv mare n ceea ce privete succesul ca leader, apare n literatura de specialitate o nou perspectiv. Aceasta completeaz teoriile iniiale care iau n considerare doar trsturile unei persoane i pune accent pe importana caracteristicilor situaionale n funcie de care stilul de conducere trebuie s fie adaptat pentru a fi eficient. O a treia perioad major n cercetrile din domeniu coincide cu influena tot mai puternic a curentului cognitivist n cercetarea psihologic i abordeaz leadership-ul din punct de vedere al percepiei pe care subordonaii o au despre un leader, pe de o parte, i al modului n care acesta percepe la rndul su i i evalueaz subordonaii, pe de alt parte. Ultima perioad este marcat de apariia teoriei leadership-ului transformaional i introduce n discuie diferenele culturale care influeneaz

comportamentul unui leader i expectanele vizavi de acesta. Tot n cadrul acestui capitol sunt discutate posibilele definiii ale leadership-ului i se subliniaz diferenele dintre un manager i un leader mai ales tendina organizaiilor de a dezvolta la nivel de management competene de leadership. n cel de al doilea capitol al crii se realizeaz o trecere n revist a principalelor teorii i abordri ale leadership-ului: perspectiva trsturilor, abordarea stilurilor de leadership, abordarea situaionist, teoria contingent, teoria path-goal, teoria schimbului leader subordonat, teoria leadership-ului transformaional i tranzacional, leadership-ul de echip, abordarea psihodinamic i teoria sistemic. Fiecare dintre aceste teorii sunt analizate din punct de vedere al modului n care au aprut, prin raportare la teorii i abordri anterioare i din punct de vedere al punctelor lor forte, respectiv al problemelor pe care le ridic. Astfel, acest al doilea capitol completeaz cu succes prima parte a crii i descrie amnunit evoluia conceptului de leadership. De asemenea, el este de aa manier structurat nct corespunde cu exactitate acelei clasificri iniial discutate, oferind cititorului o privire de ansamblu asupra cercetrilor n domeniu i permindu-i acestuia s neleag modul n care s-au modificat n timp teoriile leadership-ului pe baza studiilor efectuate i modul n care aceste abordri se completeaz reciproc. Ultima parte a crii se concentreaz asupra relaiei dintre leadership i personalitate, gender i etic n domeniul organizaional. Dei abordarea trsturilor se regsete chiar n studiile de nceput, ea este preluat i rediscutat de teorii mai recente, fiind n permanen pstrat ca una dintre componentele ce pot influena eficiena unui leader. Astfel, o serie de studii propun diferite modele prin care trsturile de personalitate ale unui leader sunt relaionate cu performana acestuia, care la rndul ei determin parial eficiena organizaional. Leadership-ul este, tot n acest ultim capitol, relaionat i cu gender-ul. Sunt discutate pe larg att diferenele de gen la nivel de stil de leadership i n abordarea unui post de conducere, ct i discriminrile ce apar pe baz de gen, a cauzelor lor i a evoluiei acestora n timp, n funcie de o serie de aspecte culturale, economice i demografice. n finalul acestui capitol se face referire la aspectele legate de etic relaionate cu leadership-ul din

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perspectiva a dou tipuri de teorii principale: cele preocupate de comportamentele de conducere ale unui leader i cele care vizeaz caracterul acestuia. Cartea de fa realizeaz cu succes o trecere n revist a principalelor teorii ale leadership-ului, meritul autoarei fiind abordarea critic pe care o utilizeaz n analiza fiecreia dintre acestea. De asemenea, capitolul final integreaz toate aceste informaii din perspectiva unor aspecte relevante pentru realitatea organizaional actual. Bazat pe studii importante n domeniu i de actualitate, i fiind foarte accesibil, cartea Veronici Rlea este util att celor care doresc s aprofundeze problematica leadership-ului ct i practicanilor din domeniul resurselor umane pe care i ajut s perceap dinamica acestui concept i modul n care pot fi dezvoltate competenele unei persoane aflate ntr-o funcie de conducere. Ctlina Ciuce

Capotescu Roxana (2006). Stresul ocupaional Teorii, modele, aplicaii. Iai: Editura Lumen, Colecia de succes (118p.) Volumul de fa, aprut n cadrul unui program destinat ncurajrii tinerilor cercettori din Romnia, este dedicat abordrilor teoretice n studiul stresului ocupaional i posibilitilor aplicative ale acestora n mediul organizaional. Apariia unor lucrri n aceast zon de interes este salutar mai ales lund n consideraie eforturile care se fac n prezent n ara noastr pentru a reglementa problematica stresului ocupaional printr-o legislaie aliniat la cea european. Lucrarea este structurat pe trei mari capitole, dintre care primele dou sunt dedicate teoriilor, respectiv modelelor teoretice n abordarea stresului ocupaional, iar cel de-al treilea, aspectelor aplicative ale investigrii stresului ocupaional. Primul capitol, care trateaz definiia i abordrile teoretice ale stresului, este relativ restrns i se rezum la introducerea i prezentarea ulterioar a principalelor trei abordri teoretice n studiul stresului: stresul ca stimul, ca rspuns i abordarea cognitiv a stresului. Aceste trei abordri sunt prezentate n esena lor, foarte concentrat, insistndu-se mai mult asupra prezentrii celei de-a treia abordri care orienteaz fluxul principal de cercetri n domeniu la nivel internaional. De

asemenea, sunt subliniate principalele neajunsuri ale fiecrei direcii teoretice. Cel de-al doilea capitol, care constituie i corpul lucrrii, este dedicat modelelor stresului ocupaional. Soluia aleas de autoare este aceea de a trece n revist un numr ridicat de modele teoretice unsprezece, dintre care unele sunt prezentate doar n liniile lor eseniale, cititorul interesat avnd nevoie de o aprofundare ulterioar a unuia sau altuia dintre acestea. n partea a doua a capitolului se ncearc integrarea tuturor nivelelor de analiz ntr-un cadru teoretic bazat pe modelul lui Muchinsky (2003). Elementele acestui model sunt prezentate pe larg fcnd apel la o baz destul de generoas de studii i cercetri n domeniu, iar accentul este pus pe tratarea solicitrilor de exprimare i gestionare a emoiilor n organizaii ca noutate n ceea ce privete ara noastr. Ceea ce se poate observa ns n construcia cestui capitol este lipsa unor conexiuni cu prima parte a lucrrii, dar i ntre prile acestui capitol, ceea ce face mai dificil de neles evoluia n timp a cercetrilor n acest domeniu. Capitolul 3 al lucrrii abordeaz posibilitile aplicative ale cercetrilor n domeniul stresului organizaional centrndu-se asupra problematicii managementului stresului organizaional. n prima parte sunt redate pe scurt cteva posibile strategii i recomandri n vederea reducerii nivelului de stres ocupaional preluate din literatura de specialitate. n cea de-a doua parte a capitolului sunt prezentate strategiile de prevenie primar, secundar i teriar precum i cerinele de evaluare a eficienei interveniilor de management al stresului. n finalul lucrrii autoarea ncearc relaionarea tuturor coninuturilor anterioare subliniind faptul ca modelele teoretice ale stresului au integrat achiziiile teoriei cognitive dar i dificultatea atingerii unui consens n acest domeniu de cercetare att de vulnerabil n faa schimbrilor sociale, economice i culturale. Considerm c tocmai aceste tentative de relaionare, n partea final, a abordrilor teoretice cu modelele prezentate i posibilitile de intervenie organizaional n vederea managementului stresului ar fi meritat o atenie deosebit. n lipsa acestei relaionri, coninuturile lucrrii ne apar uneori ca fiind fragmente de sintez teoretic juxtapuse. Meritul autoarei este ns acela de a fi susinut foarte bine aceste sinteze prin referine bibliografice numeroase i de actualitate i o bibliografie bogat i bine prelucrat. Tocmai

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din acest motiv considerm c lucrarea de fa se poate dovedi foarte util studenilor interesai n problematica stresului ocupaional, fiind un punct de pornire care le ofer direciile de urmat n aprofundarea diverselor aspecte. Un alt merit care trebuie subliniat este acela ca aceast apariie atrage nc o dat atenia asupra importanei care trebuie acordate stresului ocupaional i fenomenelor asociate acestuia. Mediul organizaional romnesc trebuie s fie sensibilizat la aceast problematica ce devine din ce n ce mai stringent. Dei lucrarea de fa se adreseaz aproape exclusiv mediului academic, poate trage un semnal de alarm prin sublinierea seriozitii cu care este investigat stresul ocupaional la nivel mondial, i poate, n curnd vom asista la apariii pe aceast tem care s se adreseze n mod nemijlocit factorilor de decizie din mediul de afaceri i organizaional din ara noastr. Ctlina Ciuce

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Conferina Naional de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional Ediia a VII a 10 - 13 Mai 2007, Cluj Napoca
Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional (APIO), n colaborare cu Facultatea de Psihologie i tiine ale Educaiei, Catedra de Psihologie, organizeaz n perioada 10 - 13 mai 2007, la Cluj Napoca, Ediia a VII a Conferinei Naionale de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional. Seciunile conferinei sunt urmtoarele: Managementul Resurselor Umane Cultur, Schimbare i Dezvoltare Organizaional Ergonomie Cognitiv Psihologie Militar Psihologia Reclamei i Consumatorului Emoii n Organizaii Conferina va include pe lng prezentarea lucrrilor i o mas rotund cu tema Implementarea abordrii scientist practitioner n practica organizaional i o seciune de workshopuri cu urmtoarele teme: METODOLOGIA ELABORRII I IMPLEMENTRII UNUI CENTRU DE EVALUARE: ELEMENTE PRACTICE METODE DE ANALIZ COMPUTERIZAT A DATELOR TENDINE ACTUALE DE CERCETARE N ROMNIA DIAGNOZA EMOIILOR N CONTEXT ORGANIZAIONAL. ABORDRI METODOLOGICE V ateptm cu drag!

COMITET TIINIFIC INVITAT Prof. Univ. Dr. Pitariu D. Horia, Universitatea Babe Bolyai, Cluj Napoca Prof. Univ. Dr. Nicolae Mitrofan, Universitatea din Bucureti, Bucureti Prof. Univ. Dr Mihai Aniei, Universitatea din Bucureti, Bucureti Prof. Univ. Dr. Bogathy Zoltan, Universitatea de Vest, Timioara Conf. Univ. Dr. Sofia Chiric, Universitatea Babe Bolyai, Cluj Napoca Conf. Univ. Dr. Ticu Constantin, Universitatea Al. I. Cuza, Iai Conf. Univ. Dr. Iliescu Drago, SNSPA, Bucureti Lect. Univ. Dr. Dobrean Anca, Universitatea Babe Bolyai, Cluj Napoca

COMITETUL DE ORGANIZARE

Prof. Univ. Dr. Pitariu D. Horia, Universitatea Babe Bolyai, Cluj Napoca Drd. Budean Andreea, Universitatea Babe Bolyai, Cluj Napoca Drd. Capotescu Roxana, Universitatea Babe Bolyai, Cluj Napoca Drd. Ciuce Ctlina, Universitatea Babe Bolyai, Cluj Napoca Drd. Onac Daniela, Universitatea Babe Bolyai, Cluj Napoca Drd. Rlea Veronica, Universitatea Babe Bolyai, Cluj Napoca Masterand Popa Mihaela, Universitatea din Bucuresti, Bucuresti

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METODE COMPUTERIZATE DE ANALIZ A DATELOR Prof. univ. dr. Ioan Radu, Prep. Univ. drd. Robert Balazsi, Asist. Cercet. drd. Gabriel Vona. Rezumat: O component esenial a cercetrii tinifice n psihologie este analiza i interpretarea datelor numerice obinute. n acest scop, softul SPSS ofer o varietate de funcii statistice: de la crearea bazelor de date, i pn la metodele standardizate de inferen statistic. Obiective: Workshopul de fa, i propune asimilarea unor cunotine legate de utilizarea softurilor experimentale i analiza statistic n cercetarea curent, precum i formarea deprinderilor necesare analizei statistice a datelor cercetrii utiliznd softul SPSS. Tematica propus: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Prezentarea softului SPSS: avantajele utilizrii SPSS-ului n cercetarea experimental. Definirea variabilelor independente i dependente n SPSS. Date lips i strategii de suplinire a datelor lips. Modaliti de reprezentare grafic n SPSS. Statistica inferenial asistat de SPSS. Analiza de varian asistat de SPSS. Calculul corelaiei (corelaii parametrice i non-parametrice). Analiza de regresie simpl.

Beneficiari: Acest workshop se adreseaz studenilor sau absolvenilor de psihologie, psihologilor practicieni sau specialitilor implicai n activiti de cercetare sau evaluare.

DIAGNOZA EMOIILOR N CONTEXT ORGANIZAIONAL. ABORDRI METODOLOGICE. Prof. Univ. Dr. Horia D. Pitariu, Drd. Roxana Capotescu, Drd. Daniela Onac, Drd. Vlad Tureanu Obiective: Familiarizarea psihologilor din domeniul industrial-organizational cu problematica investigarii emoiilor in organizaii si a implicaiilor acestora n diverse procese organizainale; Eficientizarea managementului resurselor umane prin includerea componentei de management al emoiilor in organizaii; Standardizarea demersurilor n domeniul emoiilor n organizaii prin stabilirea unui cadru metodologic comun, fundamentat pe baze tiinifice; Includerea evalurii emoiilor n organizaii ca parte integrant a demersurilor de diagnoz i psihodiagnoza organizaional precum i n procesele de proiectare i implementare tehnologic. Tematica: Coninuturile acestui workshop vor fi axate n jurul a trei problematici majore: A. Metode de validare a instrumentelor de evaluare a emoiilor n organizaii n cadrul acestei tematici va fi prezentat demersul metodologic de validare a unor probe psihologice pentru evaluarea emoiilor n organizaii. Se vor oferi exemple clare pornind de la cercetri de validare aflate in desfurare. Vor fi naintate participanilor studii de caz orientate pe evaluarea emoiilor n organizaii ce activeaz n domenii diferite.

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B. Aplicaii practice privind diagnoza emoiilor n organizaii n cadrul acestei teme activitatea va fi orientat n jurul unui instrument deja validat pe populaie romneasc, ASSET. Vor fi prezentate tehnica aplicrii instrumentului, posibilitile de analiz computerizat a profilelor obinute, precum i posibilitile multiple de aplicare n practic a rezultatelor. C. Investigarea emoiilor n procesul de design al produselor informatice. Evaluarea utilizabilitii n cadrul acestei tematici vom oferi un cadru de analiz a emoiilor implicate in domeniul proiectarii sistemelor informatice. Vom supune analizei unui studiu de caz asupra procesului de implementare a unui sistem computerizat interactiv intr-o banc. Beneficiari: Psihologi ce activeaz n domeniul industrial-organizaional, psihologi specializai n psihodiagnostic organizaional, cercettori interesai n domeniul emoiilor i managementului emoiilor n organizaii i specialiti n managementul resurselor umane.

METODOLOGIA ELABORRII I IMPLEMENTRII UNUI CENTRU DE EVALUARE: ELEMENTE PRACTICE

Psih. Ma. HANGA Camelia, Drd. CIUCE Ctlina, Drd. ONAC Daniela Rezumat Centrele de evaluare, ca metodologie aplicat n procesele de management al resurselor umane, a fost utilizat pe larg n ultimii patruzeci-cincizeci de ani iniial n Statele Unite i n general de ctre marile corporaii, cu extindere ulterioar la nivel internaional (Bray, Campbell, & Grant, 1974; Howard, 1974; Howard & Bray, 1988; Gatewood & Feild, 1994) n scopul seleciei de personal, promovrii, trainingului i furnizrii de feedback asupra necesitilor de dezvoltare a angajailor care ocup posturi la nivel executiv. Obiectivul Obiectivul acestui workshop este de a furniza participanilor cunotinele necesare proiectrii i implementrii unui centru de evaluare, n acord cu principiile de elaborare adoptate la nivel international. Tematica: Tematica propus vizeaz n primul rnd realizarea unei analize comparative a tipurilor de centre de evaluare din punct de vedere a metodologiei de elaborare, tipurilor de activiti realizate i modalitatea de utilizare a rezultatelor obinute. n partea a doua a workshopului participanii vor avea ocazia de a exersa elaborarea unui centru de evaluare n scopul seleciei de personal i de a a fi implicai activ n simularea implementrii lui pe marginea unor studii de caz. Beneficiari: Acest workshop se adreseaz psihologilor sau specialitilor care opereaz n domeniul resurselor umane.

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Conferina Naional Comunicare eficient pentru organizaii i instituii non-profit Bucureti, 9-10 iunie, 2006
Viaa organizaiilor este obiect de interes deosebit n noul context naional aflat ntr-o permanent schimbare. Evenimentele tiinifice se deruleaz cu o frecven neatepat, ceea ce, desigur, este un semn foarte bun. La Facultatea de Comunicare i Relaii Publice/ SNSPA, s-au desfurat lucrrile unei conferine avnd ca obiect de analiz organizaiile non-profit (ONP). Obiectivul explicit declarat de ctre organizatori a constat n sistematizarea modalitilor de mbuntire a capacitilor de management a responsabililor din aceste organizaii, care activeaz la nivel local sau naional, n domeniile social, cultural sau educativ. S-a pornit de la recunoaterea faptului c organizaiile non-profit au un rol social, educativ i cultural extrem de important. Datele concrete arat c tot mai multe persoane beneficiaz de activitatea acestor organizaii, iar acest fapt a devenit din ce n ce mai facil deoarece domeniile n care ele activeaz, categoriile de public pe care acestea le vizeaz se diversific n mod constant. Marile provocri ale acestor instituii se instituie ca direcii de solicitare implicnd, desigur, noi modaliti strategice. n primul rnd, n prezent activitatea lor se bazeaz preponderent pe dedicarea i experiena acumulat a membrilor componeni, ceea ce devine la un moment dat insuficient. n al doilea rnd, n Romnia nu exist nc o reea oficializat de nvmnt care s pregteasc profesionitii necesari muncii att de variate i de necesare pentru aceste organizaii. n al treilea rnd, dezvoltarea i dinamizarea activitilor sectorului non-profit i schimbrile aduse de marile companii fa de societate i comunitate au antrenat dup sine modificri n relaiile dintre organizaiile non-profit (n sens larg) i companii. n acest context se ntrevedea necesitatea de a lua unele msuri viznd gsirea unor modaliti de mbuntire a activitii organizaiilor de acest tip i factorii situai n mediul lor de activitate i interes. Manifestarea tiinific a urmrit s promoveze n rndul reprezentanilor organizaiilor non-profit din Romnia o component esenial a conducerii proiectelor specifice, i anume promovarea celor mai bune practici de relaii publice. Un accent deosebit s-a pus pe tehnicile eficiente de comunicare ntre ONP-uri i potenialii donatori, pe alternativele pentru atragerea de fonduri locale sau europene. Au fost prezentate o serie de lucrri interesante, referirile viznd: organizaiile sntii, centrele educaionale pentru copii, organizaiile studeneti, colile, fundaiile corporatiste, reelele culturale, fundaiile de tineret, etc. Dintre lucrrile prezentate multe s-au remarcat prin caracterul tiinific i aplicativ, ns noi vom recurge la prezentarea selectiv a celor reprezentative pentru scopurile propuse ale evenimentului. Camelia Crian a prezentat modul n care s-a derulat un important proiect intercultural ntr-o comunitate etnic minoritar. Intensificarea dialogului inter-etnic, a comunicrii interculturale ar constitui dou repere fundamentale pentru promovarea integririi sociale i nregistrarea unor schimbri atitudinale n comunitile marginale. Autoarea a dovedit pe date de cercetare importana elaborrii unor modele de intervenie social. Modelul de comunicare inter-etnic propus a cuprins urmtoarele elemente: exersarea la copiii din comunitile marginale a structurilor limbii, vocabularului; introducerea lor n activiti informale n afara contextului ce se dovedete lipsit de valoare social; cultivarea gustului pentru nou; introducerea mamelor n cercuri de discuii n care s fie susinut rolul lor formativ ntr-un nou sistem de semnificaii culturale, sociale; dialogul intercultural; exersarea practicilor culturale n alte limbi i contexte; valorizarea i valorificarea practicilor comunitare n scopuri pro-sociale. Mihaela Popa Chraif a ilustrat modalitile comunicaionale prin care sporete eficiena nvrii n organizaiile studeneti. Tehnicile nonverbale, de convingere, negocierea distributiv, distorsiunile comunicrii .a. prezentate de autoare au lrgit orizontul cunoaterii participanilor situai n aria de activitate a organizaiilor nonprofit. Loredana Cadariu i Ileana Rotaru au propus o abordare sistemic a organizaiei colare, urmrind o serie de finaliti practice. Reelele de statusuri i roluri, mecanismele administrative, viziunea sistemic n demersurile de diagnoz i intervenie organizaional n coli au constituit schema de analiz i fundamentare a programelor de dezvoltare n coli.

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Optimizarea comunicrii n organizaiile sntii a fost titlul lucrrii semnate de Eugen Avram, Dr. Irina Ogrezeanu i Simona Maria Glveanu. Lucrarea a dovedit pe baz de cercetare importana gestiunii tiinifice a sistemului comunicaional din organizaiile sntii. Autorii au recurs la un studiu corelaional pentru a arta modul n care accesul al informaie, promptitudinea comunicrii, feedback-ul performanial prezint legturi semnificative cu variabile psihoorganizaionale precum: percepia suportului, autonomia n munc, satisfacia muncii, angajamentul afectiv, ambiguitatea de rol, solicitarea fizic i emoional. Analizele difereniale au scos la iveal categoriile de personal spitalicesc susceptibile de a fi incluse n programe de integrare profesional i dezvoltare a abilitilor comunicaionale la locul de munc. Andrei Silviu Dospicescu a tratat una dintre cele mai provocatoare probleme ale organizaiilor: modelarea performanei angajailor. Una dintre concluziile valoroase ale studiului a fost aceea c programele de training i evaluare a mbuntirii performanelor trebuie s evite a lua n calcul n mod mecanic numrul de sarcini la care s-a ntregistat o cretere performanial, dar i nivelul creterii. Este posibil ca angajatul s fi avut potenial necesar pentru a-i mbunti prestaia pe una dintre sarcini, dar s nu fi avut potenial pentru mbuntirea n alte sarcini. Mdlina Vntu a recurs la o prezentarea activitii voluntarilor dintr-o organizaie non-profit.

Lucrarea sa, Voluntarii - altfel de oameni, altfel de motivaii, a aratt pe viu ce nseamn implicarea i entuziasmul pentru a participa la finalizarea unor scopuri cu finalitate social evident. Marketingul marilor cauze s-a intitulat lucrarea organizatorilor principali ai evenimentului, Alexandra Zbuchea i Florina Pnzaru. Discursul autoarelor a pornit de la o serie de realiti cu caracter general: De ce este nevoie de marketing pentru cauze sociale?; Marketingul societal - o realitate exponenial, De la cauze la companii sociale ajungnd pn la explicarea logicii marketingului organizaiilor non-profit care i propun mari cauze sociale, inclusiv a tehnicilor i instrumentelor de marketing specifice. Fr a mai insista asupra altor lucrri, susinem c prin caracterul pragmatic al prezentrilor, prin evidenierea unor perspective actuale, prin antrenarea tuturor participanilor n discuii, evenimentul organizat la Facultatea de Comunicare i Relaii publice/ SNSPA, a reuit s aduc un plus semnificativ de cunoatere participanilor, astfel nct acetia s poat s i organizeze activitatea de comunicare cu publicul extern, s poat s atrag fonduri ntr-un mod mai eficient spre binele organizaiei, dar, mai ales, al beneficiarilor! Eugen Avram

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