ECCS Publication - Recommendations For The Calculation of Wind Effects On Buildings and Structures - 1978

EUROPEAN CONVENTION FOR CONSTRUCTIONAL STEELWORK
E.C.C.S.
Technical Committee T12 Wi nd E f f e c t ~
R E COM MEN DA T ION S
September 1978
EUROPEAN CONVENTION FOR CONSTRUCTIONAL STEELWORK
E.C.C.S.
Technical Committee T12 Wi nd Effects
R E COM MEN 0 A T ION S
September 1978
ECCS Publication - Recommendations for the calculation of wind effects on buildings and structures
FREE Download Publications www.eccspublications.eu
ERR A T A
EUROPEAN CONVENTION fOR CONSTRUCTIONAL STEELWORK
__ __ L FOREWORD
Tli'chnical Committee TC 12: WIND
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE CALCULATION OF WIND EFFECTS
ON BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES - September 1978
The European Convention for Constructional Steelwork (ECCS) has under-
taken the preparation of these "Recommendations for the calculation of wind
effects on buildings and structures" for several reasons:
p. 83, figure Al.16: write e = distance from the bottom edge
to the point of application of the load
p. 32, 3rd case: replace C
peZ
by C
pe
p. 46, bottom line: suppress "for II = 10m"
p. 69, rear face ot one of the four top figures: replace
C
pe
= - 0,7 by C
pe
= - O,S
p. 77, top right figure, on the flat roof
in the four read - 5
along the edges: read - 2
p. 48: replace in figure 3.9 and in the text
V
m,t,lO
by Y
m,t"z
(replace 3 times)
p. 51 : replace V by
Ym,t,z m, t, 10
p. 53, fig. 3.13 : replace V
m,t,lO
by
Ym, t, II
p. 54, bottom: replace the table by the following one:
5. The need to achieve a consistency between the determination of design
wind loadings and the structural design rules based on the load factor
method with reference to the probabilistic concept of safety.
6. The well-founded, legitimate wish to put an end to the handicapping effects
of any undue over-estimate of wind'loadings on relatively light steel
structures and steel framed buildings in competition with other, heavier
types of buildings and structures.
For these reaS0ns the ECCS, though being a body essentially oriented on
questions related to steel construction, has decided to include in its
activities the study of this matter which in fact does not concern specifi-
cally structural steelwork, but the whole field of structural engineering.
This task has been assigned to a specially formed technical committee on
nd effects".
1. The need to harmonize the current national regulations on the European
level and eventually to provide a basis for a unified European code on
this matter.
2. The need to recommend simple design methods for most types of usual,
relatively rigid buildings and structures.
3. The need to ensure safe design methods for the more and more frequently
built slender, flexible buildings and structures, which are particularly
senti ti ve to fl uctuati ng nd effects_an thus requi re dynami c
analysis.
4. The wish to seize this opportunity to let the member countries take
advantage of the latest findings of theoretical and experimental research
and of field observation on this matter.
1,3 for angles p. 80, figure Al.12: for 0 = 90 read C
tn
instead of C
fn
= 1
Cross section St
--J
D
--
LJ
H
-.-J -L
0,15
R 10
6
0,2
e

(R
= O,7.10
5
Y.b) 4. 10
6
< R <10
7
0,2 to 0,27
e m e
R >,10
7
0,27
e
p. 84, figure Al.18: replace C
f
by C
f
15 -12- 1982
European Convention for Constructional Steelwork
ERR A T A
CONVENTION fOR STEELWORK
rp.chnical Committee TC 12: WIND
FOR THE CALCULATION OF WIND
ON BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES - September 1978
p. 32, 3rd case: replace C
pe
l by C
pe
p. 46, bottom line: suppress "for a = 10m"
p. 4 B: replace in figure 3.9 and in the text
V
10
by Y

(rsplacil 3 timlls)
m,t
p. 51 : replace V by
Ym, t, 1I m,t,lO
p, 53, fig. 3.13 : replace V
10
by
Ym, t, a
m,t
p. 54, bottom: replace the table by the following one:
Cross section St
D
--
LJ
H
-..-.J --.L
0,15
R 0,2
s

(R
e
= O,7.10
5
y. oj 4.10
6
< R <10
7
0,2 to 0,27
m e
R >,.10
7
0,27
II
p. 69, rear face of one of the four top figllres: replace
C
pe
: - 0,7 by Cps = - 0,5
p. 77, top right figure, on the flat roof
in the four COrners: read - 5
along the edges: read - 2
p. 80, figure Al.12: for a : 90 read C
fn
: 1,3 for angles
instead of C
fn
= 1
p. 83, figure Al.16: write e: distance from the bottom edge
to the point or application of the load
p. 84, figure Al.lB: replace tC
f
by C
f
1 5 - - 1982
( Euro[1can Convention for Constructional Steclwork
The European Convention for Constructional Steelwork (ECCS) has under-
taken the preparation of these "Recommendations for the calculation of wind
effects on buildings and structures" for several reasons:
1. The need to harmonize the current national regulations on the European
level and eventually to provide a basis for a unified European code on
this matter.
2. The need to recommend simple design methods for most types of usual,
relatively rigid buildings and structures.
3. The need to ensure safe design methods for the more and more frequently
built slender, flexible buildings and structures, which are particularly
sensitive to fluctuating wind effects and thus require dynamic
analysis.
4. The wish to seize this opportunity to let the member countries take
advantage of the latest findings of theoretical and experimental research
and of field observation on this matter.
5. The need to achieve a consistency between the determination of design
wind loadings and the structural design rules based on the load factor
,method with reference to the probabilistic concept of safety.
6. The well-founded, legitimate wish to put an end to the handicapping effects
of any undue over-estimate of wind 'loadings on relatively light steel
structures and steel framed huildings in competition other, heavier
types of buildings and structures.
For these reaSQns the ECCS, though being a body essentially oriented on
questions related to steel construction, has decided to include in its
activities the study of this matter which in fact does not concern specifi-
cally structural steelworl:, but the whole field of structural engineering.
his task has heen assignerl to a srecially formed technical committee on
''':i nd effects';.
- 6 -
The first action of this committee was to examine the situation in
Europe. It has revealed abnormal discrepancies between design wind loads
prescribed in the single countries, as well as the obsoleteness of certain
national codes with regard to the considerable advancement of knowledge
noted in recent years. it necessary to produce an up-to-
date international document which woulc at the same time help to suppress
the nonsense of radically changing the design vtind loads when a
national border and allow the constructional practice to benefit from the
progress in wind engineering science.
Thus for the preparation of this document basic contributions were
needed :
1. Aunified vlind map for IJestern Europe, based on the avai lable meteoro-
logical data._Ihis map, included in these Recommendations, has been
achieved by J. van Koten in consultation with the committee and
meteorologists from the countries concerned.
2. Afundamental theoretical study based on the findings of world-wide
international research. This study, which has been an essential contribu-
tion to the scientific and practical value of these has
been carried out on behalf of the ECCS at the Imperial College (London,
'I.K.) unrier the responsibility of nr. T.A. Wyatt with the participation
of nr. Raznahan.
The committee has then elaborated these in which methnds
for the calculation of the wind effects on complete buildings anc! structures,
on their constituent parts and on the users' are propcserl.
The wind action on a buildin1 or structure is a pressure, on the
exposed surface and in time. In order to simplify the calculations, this
variable pressl're is replaced by a static riesign pressure, the effects of
vlhich are deemed to be equivalent to m effects of the real
The calculation methods given herein are based on the probi!bilistic
definition of the desi,:!n and are consistent the safety cor.ce:Jt of
- 7 -
the limit states design methods. They allow to determine the stresses and
deformations to be considered for the design of structures on the basis ofa
characteristic wind action.
The most valuable cooperation of the ECCS Task Group on "Load factors"
chaired by C. Manuzio is thankfully acknowledged herewith.
The Recommendations are established in a very general way. by adopting
for the characteristic wind action the value corresponding to the mean wind
speed on 10 minutes with a return period of t years, i.e. which occurs on an
average every t years.
The value of the return period t and the values of load factors as well
as the load combinations have to be defined within the general treatment of
the structural safety.
The Recommendations do not represent but a schematization of the reality
in order to make it accessible for calculations. For buildings and structures
of special shapes or exposed under particular conditions it is to
call for the intervention of specialists and possibly wind tunnel studies.
For practical convenience in the use of these Recommendations, their
different parts have been printed on paper of different colours:
- white pages needed for rigid buildings and structures
- pink additional pages for flexible and structures
- blue .. general explanations and background of the proposed methods.
The Recommendations are also available in French version.
Technical General Secretary, ECCS
Chairman, ECCS Committee on "Hind Effects"
- 6 -
The first action of this cOlf'Tlittee \,;as to examine the situation in
turope. It has revealed abnormal discrepancies vlind loads
prescribed in the single countries, as as the obsoleteness of certain
national codes with regard to the considerable advancement of knowledge
noted in recent years. it necessary to produce an up-to-
date international nocument which woulr. at the same time helo to suppress
the nonsense of radically changing the design wind loads when crossin3 a
national border and allow the constructional practice to benefit froM the
in engineering science.
Thus for the preparation of this document t\'10 basic contributions were
needed :
1. A unified vlind map for IJestern Europe, based on the available meteoro-
logical data. This Map, now included in these r.ecommendations, has been
achieved by J. van Koten in consultation the committee and I'lith
meteorologists from the countries concerned.
2. A fundamental theoretical study based on the findings of vlorl
international research. This study, which has been an essential contribu-
tion to the scientific and practical value of these has
been carried out on behalf of the ECCS at the Imperial College (London,
'I.K.) under the responsibility of T.A. Wyatt with the participation
of Raznahan.
The committee has then elabonterl these in methC\Gs
for the calculation of the 'Jfind effects on comelete huilcings "nM structllreS,
on their constituent parts and on the users' are
T e \'find action on a buildin'l or structure is a ;Jressure. varia' Ie on the
exposed surface 3nd in time. In order to sim:Jlify the calculations his
variable press1lre is replaced P.y a static pressure. the effects of
\'/hich are deemed to be elluivalent to tl1e maxim;>! effects (If the reill "'in
ri
.
The calculation methods herein i\l"e hased on t!;e prob"bil istic
definition of the liesinr. Ilinn nnd "Ire can istent t c safety t (I.
- 7 -
the limit states design methods. They allow to determine the stresses and
deformations to be considered for the desiqn of structures on the basis ofa
characteristic wind action.
The most valuable cooperation of the ECCS Task 'Group on "Load factors"
chaired by C, is thankfully acknowledqed herewith.
The Recommendations are established in a very general way, by adopting
for the characteristic wind action the value corresponding to the mean wind
speed on 10 minutes with a return period of t years, i.e. which occurs on an
average every t years.
The value of the return period t and the values of load factors as we11
as the loan combinations have to be definerl the general treatment of
the structural safety.
The Recommendations do not represent but a schematization of the reality
in order to mar.e it accessible or calculations. For buildings ann structures
of special shapes Qr exposed under particular conditions it is advisable to
call for the intervention of specialists and possibly wind tunnel studies.
For practical convenience in the use of these Recommendations, their
different parts have been printed on of different colours:
- white pages needed for rigid and structures
- pink additional for flexible and structures
- blue .. general explanations 3nd background of the proposed methods.
The Recommendations also available in French version.
Technical General Secretary, ECCS
Chairman, ECCS Committee on "Hind
- 9 -
ECCS - Technical Committee on Wind effects
Committee members having contributed to the preparation of these
Re com men d a t ion s
D. SFINTESCO
J. del CORRO
J. DESPEYROUX
K. EATON
H. EGGER
J. FERRY BORGES
R. D'HAVE*
B. HIRTZ
W. HUISMAN
H. ISHIZAKI
J. van KaTEN
S. "lACKEY
C. MANUZ IO (/o1rs)
J.R. MAYNE
H. DETER
J. SCHLAICH
C. SOIZE
P. SPEHL
H.B.
LA. HYATT *
E. ZELLER
* Task Group Chairman
France (Chairman)
Spain
France (C.E.B.)
Great Britain
Austria
Portu9al
Belgium
Gennany
Netherlands
Japan
Netherlands
Hon') Kon!)
Italy
Great Britain
Gennany
Germany
France

Great P.rita in
Great Britain
France
- 9 -
ECCS - Technical Committee on Wind effects
Committee members having contributed to the preparation of these
Re com men d a t ion s
D. SFINTESCO
J. del CORRO
J. DESPEYROI.:X
K. EATON
H. EGGER
J. FERRY BORGES
R. D'ljAVE
B. HIRTZ
w. HUISMAN
fl. ISHIZAKI
J. van KOTEN
S.
C.
J.R.
H. OETER
J. SCHL.\ICH
C. SOIZE
P. SPEHL
H. [l.
T. A. tIYATU
_.' ZELLEQ
Task Group Chairman
France (Chairman)
Spain
France (C. E. fl.)
Great Rritain
Austria
Portu9al
Belgium
Germilny
Netherlands
Japan
Netherlancls
Hon') Kong
Italy
Grea t Brita in
Germilny
Germany
France
Belllium
Grea t P,ri ta in
(1rea t 8rita i n
France
- 11 -
CON TEN T S
Page
1. - DEFINITION OF THE WIND 13
1.1.- Wind speed and dynamic pressure 15
1.2.- Wind direction 24
2.- LOCAL WIND PRESSURE AT APOINT 29
2.1.- Calculation of the local wind pressure at a point 29
2.2.- Local pressure coefficient at a point 29
2.3.- Values of pressure coefficients 30
2.4.- Effects of wall vibration 33
3.- OVERALL WIND EFFECTS ON STRUCTURES 34
3.1.- Definition of rigid structures and flexible structures 34
3.2.- Calculation of wind effects on rigid structures 37
3.3.- Calculation of wind effects on flexible structures 41
4.- EFFECT OF OSCILLATIONS OF FLEXIBLE THE COMFORT
OF OCCUPANTS - 62
4.1.- Oscillations in bending in the wind direction 62
a.2.- Oscillations in bending in the across wind direction 62
4.3.- Torsional oscillations 63
4.4.- Limiting conditions for comfort 63
5.- EFFECTS OF REPEATED ACTION OF THE WIND 64
AP PEN 0 ICE S
Al PRESSURE AND FORCE COEFFICIENTS 65
Pressure coefficients 69
Force coefficients 79
A2 CALCULATION OF NATURAL FREQUENCIES OF OSCILLATION 89
Bending modes of slender or elongated structures 93
Flexural oscillations of thin flat plates W2
Torsional oscillations of slender structures 104
A3 GENERAL ACCOUNT AND JUSTIFICATION OF THE METHOD OF CALCULATION
OF WIND EFFECTS ON STRUCTURES W6
The wind 109
wind action on structures 122
Calculation of wind action 128
A4 BIBLIOGRAPHY 157
- 11 -
CON TEN T S
1. - DEFINITION OF THE WIND
1.1.- Wind speed and dynamic pressure
1.2.- Wind direction
2.- LOCAL WIND PRESSURE AT A POINT
2.1.- Calculation of the local wind pressure at a point
2.2.- Local pressure coefficient at a point
2.3.- Values of pressure coefficients
2.4.- Effects of wall vibration
Page
13
15
24
29
29
29
30
33
3. - OVERALL WIND EFFECTS ON STRUCTURES 34
3.1.- Definition of rigid structures and flexible structures 34
3.2.- Calculation of wind effects on rigid structures 37
3.3.- Calculation of wind effects on flexible structures 41
4. - EFFECT OF OSCILLATIONS OF FLEXIBLE STRUCTURES- eN THE COMFORT
OF OCCUPANTS 62
4.1.- Oscillations in bending in the wind direction 62
a.2.- Oscillations in bending in the across wind direction 62
4.3.- Torsional oscillations 63
4.4.- Limiting conditions for comfort 63
5.- EFFECTS OF REPEATED ACTION OF THE WIND 64
APPENDICES
Al PRESSURE AND FORCE COEFFICIENTS 65
Pressure coeffi cients 69
Force coefficients 79
A2 CAlCULATION OF NATURAL FREQUENCIES OF OSCILLAT10N 89
Bending modes of slender or elongated structures 93
Flexural oscillations of thin flat plates 102
Torsional oscillations of slender structures 104
A3 GENERAL ACCOUNT AND JUSTIFICATION OF THE METHOD OF CALCULATION
OF WIND EFFECTS ON STRUCTURES 106
The wind 109
Wind action on structures 122
Calculation of wind action 128
A4 BIBLIOGRAPHY 157
V>
OJ
en
R
OJ
.....
....
.J::;
3:
ECCS - RECOMMENDATIONS
DEFINITION OF THE WIND
- Wind speed and dynamic pressure
- Wind direction
LOCAL WIND PRESSURE AT APOINT
OVERALL WIND EFFECTS ON STRUCTURES
- Definition of rigid and flexible structures
- Wind effects on rigid structures
- Wind effects on flexible structures
EFFECTS OF OSCILLATIONS ON THE COMFORT OF OCCUPANTS
V>
OJ
~ EFFECTS OF REPEATED ACTION OF THE WIND
a.
~
<:
~
III
Q)
(j)
. ~
Q)
...,
ECCS - RECOMMEMDATIONS
DEFINITION OF THE WIND
- Wind speed and dynamic pressure
- Wind direction
LOCAL WIND PRESSURE AT APOINT
~ OVERALL WIND EFFECTS ON STRUCTURES
:3
- Definition of rigid and flexible structures
- Wind effects on rigid structures
- Wind effects on flexible structures
EFFECTS OF OSCILLATIONS ON THE COMFORT Of OCCUPANTS
III
Q)
~ EFFECTS OF REPEATED ACTION OF THE WIND
0-
x
t:
0..
- 15 -
1.- DEFINITION OF THE WIND
The design wind at a point is defined by
- its speed or its dynamic pressure
- its direction,
The speed v and the dynamic pressure q
of the wind are linked by the relation:
q = 1. P v
2
a
where
q is expressed in N/m
2
V is expressed in m/s
p is the density of the air expressed in kg/m
s
,
In standard conditions (pure. dry air at a
temperature of 15C and an atmospheric
pressure of 1 bar) : p = 1,225 kg/m
3
,
The opposite table permits the conversion of
wind speed V to dynamic pressure q and vice
versa.
-
V(m/s) q(N/m
2
)
10 61,3
12 88,3
14 120
16 157
18 199
20 245
22 297
24 353
26 415
28 481
30 5.52
32 628
34 709
36 795
38
886
40 982
42 1082
44 1188
46 1298
48 1413
50 1534
52 1659
54 1789
56 1924
- 15 -
1.- DEFINITION OF THE WIND
The design wind at a point is defined by
- its speed or its dynamic pressure
- its direction.
The speed v and the dynamic pressure q
of the wind are linked by the relation:
Q=i
IlV2
where
q is expressed in N/m
2
V is expressed in m/e
p is the density of the air expressed in kg/m
3
In standard conditions (pure, dry air at a

temperature of 15C and an atmospheric
pressure of 1 bar) : p = 1,225 kg/m
l
The opposite table permits the conversion of

wind speed V to dynamic pressure q and vice
versa.
-
V(m!s) qrtl/m
2
)
10 61) :3
12 88,3
14 120
16 157
18 199
20 245
22 297
24 353
26 415
28 481
30 5,52
32 628
34 709
36 795
38 886
40 982
42 1082
44 1188
46 1298
48 1413
50 1534
52 ]659
54 1789
56 ]924
above the ground,
defined hereafter).
- 16 -
1.1,1,-
Th
' d' , d d II '
e baslc eSlgn Wln spee V
m
,t,10 1S :
- the mean speed averaged over 1n minutes,
- of return-period t (that is the speed which is equalled or exceeded on
average once every t years),
- measured at the height z = 10
- in open flat terrain (class II
The corresponding dynamic pressure of the basic design wind is
Where direct measurements of annual maximum speeds are available
for a site, for a period of at least 20 years, the methods for obtaining
V;;t,10 are given in the Appendix 3,
If such measurements are not available, one should assume a value
VII = k vII
m,t,lO t m,50,lO
- 17 -
where :
is the factor for the variation of the design wind speed as a function
of the height z and of the terrain roughness
Sz is a topographical factor which is a function of the terrain relief,
is given in figure 1.3 ; the following 5 roughness classes are consi-
dered
I sea or lake shore with at least 5 km fetch over the water
II flat terrain with some isolated obstacles (trees, buildings ... )
III rural area with low buildings, trees, hedges
IV urban, industrial or forest area
V centre of large city
The roughness class of a site can be determined by comparison
with the aerial views given at the figures 1.6 to 1.14.
where
vII
m, 50, 10
is the basic design wind speed of return-period t = 50 years,
given in figure 1.1. according to the geographic location of the
site,
is the conversion factor of the basic design wind speed of return-
period t, different from 50 years, given in figure 1.2.
In the case of variable roughness of the site, one can choose as a
first approximation the roughness class of the least rough significant area
within a radius of 5 km around the site under consideration. Amore accurate
design method is given in Appendix 3.
1.1.2,-
At a height z above the ground, the corresponding mean speed and
dynamic pressure of the design wind are given by the following relationships
- 16 - - 17 -
above the ground,
defined hereafter).
1.1.1.-
The basic design wind speed is :
where :
is given in figure 1.3 ; the following 5 roughness classes are consi-
dered
is a topographical factor which is a function of the terrain relief, S
3
is the factor for the variation of the design wind speed as a function
of the height z and of the terrain roughness mi nutes,
speed which is equalled or exceeded on
- the mean speed averaged over ID
of return-period t (that is the
average once every t years),
measured at the height z = 10
- in open flat terrain (class II
The corresponding dynamic pressure of the basic design wind is
\,Jhere direct measurements of annual maximum speeds are available
for a site, for a period of at least 20 years, the methods for obtaining
,II . are given in the Appendix 3.
m
J
t,
II flat terrain with some isolated obstacles (trees, buildings ... )
III rural area with low bUildings, trees, hedges
If such measurements are not available, one should assume a value
The roughness class of a site can be determined by comparison
with the aerial views given at the figures 1.6 to 1.14.
\'Ihere
is the basic design wind speed of return-period t = 50 years,
given in figure 1.1. according to the geographic location of the
site,
In the case of variable roughness of the site, one can choose as a
first approximation the roughness class of the least rough significant area
within a radius of 5 km around the site under consideration. Amore accurate
design method is given in Appendix 3.
is the conversion factor of the basic desi9n wind speed of return-
period t, different from 50 years, given in figure 1.2.
1.1.2.-
At a height z above the ground, the corresponding mean speed and
dynamic pressure of the design wind are given by the following relationships
- 18 -
- 19 -
Figure 1.2. Conversion factor of the basic design
wind speed for a return period t
other than 50 years k
t
1,2 1,1 0.9
0,8
v
/
V
/
v
/
V
V
2
0,7
5
20
10
so
200
t
(years)
100
,
~
(
(
o 0-500m+M.S.L.
o SOOm-1S00m-MSL
~ !iOOm- 3000m +M.5.L
ittiIf >3000m + M.S.L
Mean WM speed In m ~ at '(1m
_ open lemlln.
Reknl -cd 50)'8QrS
Figure 1.1. Basic design wind speed of return-period t = 0 years
VII in m/s
m,50,10
- 18 -
- 19 -
Figure 1.2. Conversion factor of the basic design
wind speed for a return period t
other than 50 yenrs k
t
1.2 1.1 0.9 0,8
v
/1
V
/
V
/
V
V
5
2
0,7
10
20
50
100
200
t
(yea:rs)
o O-SOOmMoS.L.
o SOOm-tSOOmMoS.L
:Z!dJ> alOm- 3000m MS L
3IP >3000m. MS.L
Mean wro speed ., m/S at '(1m
above OIl"" terra"
Raf\.m -"" SO)'OOrs
(32
Figure 1.1. Basic design wind speed of return-period o !fears
I'll in m/s
m, ,sO, 10
- 20 - - 21 -
a) In flat or slightly uneven terrain
S = 1
a
Otherwise, the guidance below is only a rather rough first appro-
ximation for the influence of the topography; if a more accurate knowledge
of this influence is necessary, or if regulations are rendered difficult to
apply by the complexity of the topography, it is preferable to seek specialist
advice, and if necessary to make wind speed measurements at the site.
Sa can be determined as follow:
b) Hills and escarpments:
- figure 1.4 gives the value of Sa at the top B,
at A and C , Sa = 1
between A and B and between Band C, Sa is obtained by linear interpolation
between the values of Sa at these points,
a being the height above ground of the point under consideration (in m),
h being the height of the hill top or escarpment.
'
a
1,5
-+-1-+---+-1 -I1f-+1-i1-+1--<'1-+ ....,-4-1.....-l-'-il-lll-.-.+-1+1+1__1jI2
-. 'a
qs ',5 2 3
v
v

V
V
/
V
V
v
V
V
v
V
/ /
V
v
v
1/
V
/ /
v
/ /
/

v
1/ / /
/
V
V / 1:
V
/ /
-
j ..
-
v
/
2
,
0,1)
3
10
1)0
30
20
100
200
a
(m)
Terrain roughness classes
II flat terrain with some isolated obstacles (trees, bUildings)
z
C
Sz =1
A
Sz.,
z
Ii'
a = height above the ground (in m)
For structures on the sea shore, the ground level should be taken as that
of the sea at low tide,
Figure 1.3. : Variation factor of the design wind speed
and of the dynamic pressure
',25 1.5
Figure 1.4. Speed factor for a hill
- 20 - - 21 -
can be determined as follow:
S =1
z
a) In flat or slightly uneven terrain
Otherwise, the guidance below is only a rather rough first appro-
ximation for the influence of the topography; if a more accurate knowledge
of this influence is necessary, or if regulations are rendered difficult to
apply by the complexity of the topography, it is preferable to seek specialist
advice, and if necessary to make wind speed measurements at the site.
b) Hills and escarpments
- figure 1.4 gives the value of 5
z
at the top B,
- at A and C , 5
z
= 1
between A and B and between E and C, 5
z
is obtained by linear interpolation
between the values of 5
z
at these points,
z being the height above ground of the point under consideration :in m),
h being the height of the hill top or escarpment.
1.S
-11-+'......... ' -+,--<-. +1+1-
qs , ',S 2 3
V
/
v:::
Cj
v
/
/
/
:/
v
v
V
/
/
'"
v
/
v
'/
1/
V
/
v
/ /
"
/

v
1/ / /
jt
/
/V
V 1:
V
/ /
-
J-
V
/
1
o,S
2
3
s
10
20
so
30
100
200
3
(m)
II flat terrain with some isolated obstacles (trees, buildings)
z
C
Sz = ,
A ,.
5 "\ I---.:.L--i....
11
z = hei0ht above the ground (in m)
For structures on the sea shore, the ground level should be taken as that
of the sea at low tide.
Figure 1.3. Variation factor of the design wind speed W
z
and of the dynamic pressure
'.25 1,5
Figure 1.4. Speed factor for a hill
- 22 -
c) Structure located in a valley
1)
In deep valleys, if :
a factor Sz = 0,9 can be applied
2) 09_0.. P3!!3!JJ J:09_
If the sides of the valley are parallel, there is pratically n(l
influence on the wind speed. On the other hand, if the valley narrows,
the contraction produces an acceleration of the wind (Venturi effect)
to take account of this phenomenon, the correction factor can be
increased until Sz = 1,5 for the most unfavourable cases.
1.1.3.-
At a height z above the ground. the peak dynamic pressure is given
directly by the relationship:
Q = qII Cl 52
'g,t,z m,t,lO z Z
where :
11
q dynamic pressure of the basic design wind,
m,t,lO
factor accounting for the variation of the peak dynamic pressure
of the design wind as a function of the height above ground of
the point under consideration and of the roughnes class of the
surrounding terrain: this factor is given in fi9ure 1.5.,
speed factor dependi ng on the terra i n topography.
- 23 -
Z 200 r--,----,-----,----T:::;;>...---r----::"..--,."..---,,----,
(m)
100
30
20
,0
2 Ht--7f----j----+------1f----+------l----l
\:-5-LL---:-----:'::----L--------I.----L---..L-----l
S
I sea or lake shore with at least 5 km over the water
Figure 1.5. Factor for the variation of the peak
dynamic design wind pressure a
Z
- 22 -
c) Structure located in a valley
1)
In deep valleys, if :
a factor Sz = 0,9 can be applied
2)
If the sides of the valley are parallel, there is pratically no
influence on the wind speed. On the other hand, if the valley narrows,
the contraction produces an acceleration of the wind (Venturi effect)
to take account of this phenomenon, the correction factor can be
increased until Sz = 1,5 for the most unfavourable cases.
1.1.3.-
At a height z above the ground, the peak dynamic pressure is given
o = a
l
I a S2
I 'g,t,z ':'1l,t,10:: z
where :
I I
dynamic pressure of the basic design wind,
- 23 -
z 200
('11)
100
30
20
10
3
__--.J&
IV urhan, industrial or forest area
V centre of city
l
.1
factor accounting for the variation of the peak dynamic pressure
of the design wind as a function of the height above ground of
the point under consideration and of the class of the
surroundinq terrain: this factor is given in fiqure 1.5.,
speed factor dependi ng on the terra i n topography.
Figure 1.5. Factor for the variation of the peak
dynamic design wind pressure a
z
- 24 -
For structural calculations, one generally assumes that the maximum
wind has uniform directional probability, and an angle of attack which can
vary from + 10
0
to - 10
0
with respect to the horizontal plane.
If the wind effect to be calculated occurs only for a well defined
wind direction, a reduction coefficient for the wind speed, depending on its
direction, can be estimated by means of direct measurements of the wind speed
at the site under consideration.
To simplify the calculation it can also be assumed that the wind
direction is invariant with height.
- 25 -
Figure 1.6. Boundary between roughness class I
- sea shore - and roughness class IV - urban area
,Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.8.
Roughness class II - flat terrain with some isolated
obstacles.
obstacles; in the middle of the buildings: roughness
class IV - urban area.
- 24 -
For structural calculations, one generally assumes that the maximum
wind has uniform directional probability, and an angle of attack which can
vary from + 10 to - 10 with respect to the horizontal plane.
If the wind effect to be calculated occurs only for a well defined
wind direction, a reduction coefficient for the wind speed, depending on its
direction, can be estimated by means of direct measurements of the wind speed
at the site under consideration.
To simplify the calculation it can also be assumed that the wind
direction is invariant with height.
- 25 -
Figure 1.6. Boundary between roughness class I
- sea shore - and roughness class IV - urhan area
.Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.8.
obstacles.
obstacles; in the middle of the bUildings: roughness
class IV - urban area.
- 26 -
- 27 -
Figure 1.9. Roughness class III - rural area with low buildings. trees
and hedges.
Fi gure 1.11. Roughness class IV - forest area.
and hedges.
Figure 1. 12.
Roughness class IV - urban area.
- 26 -
and hedges.
and hedges.
- 27 -
Figure 1.11. Roughness class IV - forest area.
Figure 1.12. Roughness class IV - urban area.
- 28 -
- 29 -
,
the -difference
where
peak dynamic design wind pressure determined in 1.1.3.
(e) (whi ch
pressure coefficient at the point under consideration
2.2.- Local pressure coefficient at a
The local pressure coefficient at a point is equa] to
between the pressure coefficients on each face of the wali :
- if one face of the wall is interior (i) and the other exterior
is the case for a structure enclosing an internal volume) :
2.- LOCAL WIND PRESSURE AT APOINT
The local wind pressure w
a
at a point on a structure is given
directly by the relationship :
.\ wa = cp qg>tJal
Roughness class IV - industrial area. Fi gure 1.13.
where
C
pe
external pressure coefficient
C
pi
internal pressure coefficient
- if both faces of the wall (I) and (2) are exterior
IC
p
= C
pe1
- C
pe2
I
for elements of structural cladding (non-load bearing panels parallel to
the and separated from the by an air space comunicating with
the exterior) :
c = C
P pe
Figure 1.14. Roughness class V- centre of large city.
Fi gure 1. 13.
- 28 -
Roughness class IV - industrial area.
- 29 -
2.- LOCAL WIND PRESSURE AT A POINT
The local wind pressure W
z
at a point on a structure is given
\ W
z
= Cp qg,t,z I
where
pressure coefficient at the point under consideration
peak dynamic design wind pressure determined in 1.1.3.
2.2.- Local pressure coefficient at a
The local pressure coefficient at a point is equa) to the difference
between the pressure coeffici ents on each face of the wal'i :
- if one face of the wall is interior (i) and the other exterior (e) (which
is the case for a structure enclosing an internal volume) :
where
C external pressure coefficient
pc
C . internal pressure coefficient
p7,.
- if both faces of the wall (1) and (2) are exterior
I
c-c -c 1
p - pel pe2
- for elements of structural cladding (non-load bearing panels parallel to
the and separated from the facade by an air space comunicating with
the exterior) :
c =
p "
Figure 1.14. Roughness class V- centre of large city.
- 30 -
- corners and prominent architectural features exert a local influence on
the wind pressure; within these areas one should use the local pressure
coefficient c Z and the local external pressure coefficient C
p peZ
Pressure coefficients are positive if there is increased pressure
and negative if there is a suction. They vary generally from one point to
another and according to the wind direction. These coefficients are given
hereafter for wind directions parallel to the main axes of the structure
except for the cases where another direction is critical.
2.3.1.-
a) External pressure coefficients
External pressure coefficients are given in Appendix 1 for a large variety
of structures.
They apply to isolated structures defined as structures whose distance to
the nearest neighbouring structure is more than twice the largest dimension
of either structure.
If two structures are more closely spaced, the wind speed between may
increase and as a consequence may create locally, high pressures or suc-
tions on the walls.
In some especially critical cases, it could be necessary to proceed to wind
tunnel tests, or to seek for specialist advice; but in most cases, one can
assume as a faint approximation that at any point whose distance from a high
structure is less than or equal to the height Z of the structure, the wind
- 31 -
speed can be locally equal to the wind speed at the top of the high
structure and as a consequence, the pressure exerted on the walls of
structures located within this area should be taken as q t Z.
gJ J
b) External pressure coefficients and local pressure coefficients
Appendix 1 contains the local external pressure coefficients c to be
1
d . .. 1 peZ
app 1e 1n zones near proJectlng externa architectural features and in
particular
- along corners
- along the roof verges
- along the roof ridges
- at the foot of projection (penthouse or chimney).
Appendix 1 also contains local pressure coefficients C Z to be applied
to elements projecting from the (balconies, partitions)
and on roofs (parapets).
c) Internal pressure coefficients
A structure is impermeable if its external walls present no opening and
if the material of the walls does not allow air to pass through neither
through joints nor by porosity.
Awall presents a percentage opening if it has openings the sum of
whose areas represents %of the total area of the wall or if it has an
equivalent porosity.
\
\
I
I
/
- 30 -
_ corners and prominent architectural features exert a local influence on
the wind pressure; within these one should use the local pressure
coefficient c , and the local external pressure coefficient C 1
pt. pe ..
Pressure coefficients are positive if there is increased pressure
and negative if there is a suction. They vary generally from one point to
another and according to the wind direction. These coefficients are qiven
hereafter for wind directions parallel to the main axes of the
except for the cases where another direction is critical.
2.3.1.-
a) External pressure coefficients
External pressure coefficients are given in Appendix 1 for a large variety
of structures.
They apply to isolated structures defined as structures whose distance to
the nearest neighbouring structure is more than twice the largest dimension
of either structure.
If two structures are more closely spaced, the wind speed between may
increase and as a consequence may create locally, high pressures or suc-
tions on the walls.
In some especially critical cases, it could be necessary to proceed to wind
tunnel tests, or to seek for specialist advice; but in most cases, one can
assume i:lS a faint approximation that at any point whose distance from a high
structure is less than or equal to the height c of the structure, the wind
- 31 -
speed can be locally equal to the wind speed at the top of the high
structure and as a consequence, the pressure exerted on the walls of
structures located within this area should be taken as Q ,

b) External pressure coefficients and local pressure coefficients
Appendix 1 contains the local external pressure coefficients c to be
1
d . .. 1 pd
app 1e 1n zones near proJect1ng externa architectural features and in
particular
- along corners
- along the roof verges
- along the roof ridges
- at the foot of projection (penthouse or chimney).
Appendix 1 also contains local pressure coefficients C Z to be applied
t 1
.. p
o e ements proJect1ng from the (balconies, canopies, lPartitions)
and on roofs (parapets).
c) Internal pressure coefficients
A structure is impermeable if its external walls present no opening and
if the material of the walls does not allow air to pass through neither
through joints nor by porosity.
Awall presents a percentage opening u if it has openings the sum of
whose areas represents 1 of the total area of the wallar if it has an
equivalent porosity.
- 32 -
- 33 -
2.3.2.-
The local pressure coefficient C
pl
is as follows:
- hoardings, free-standing walls, and canopy roofs
- members of lattice structures
for individual flat-sided members of a lattice structure
with as defined in 3.2 .
In the present case, corresponds to the slenderness A
e
= , e.g.
= 1,55 for individual flat-sided structural members or cylinders with
He 2.10
5
= 1,33 for round-section members ltith He 105
(between these two values of R
e
, is obtained by linear interpolation
Cjn and Cft are in the figure A.1.12, Appendix 1.
2.4.- Effects of vibration
As a general rule, walls of typical structures are rigid enough
to neglect the dynaMic effects under wind action. However, if the natural
frequency of a wall - as calculated accordlnq to 2, Chapter 2 - is
less than 5 Hz (e.g. glazing or cladding with more than 3 m
between supports) the vibration may no longer be negligible and dynamic
effects should be taken into account by checking for safety by an appropriate
method, or by increasing the natural frequency by modifying the design of
the 11.
I
I
,
o ,-0,4
1
0 -0,4
"
I :
----
C
pi
0
j
I
0,3
1
0.=90
0
/0.=180
0
I
c:F0
0
c:F
27OO
I
./
i
I
I
I
+0,8
1
-(), 6 i-(); 4 -0,6
,
I
.
I I
I I
i
!
I
i
i
i
+0,8! +0,81-0,4
I
I
!
, -0,4
i
I I
,
I
I I
I
f
I
I
I
i
I = + + I
5 %
uniformly distributed permeability
impermeable construction
openings in two opposite walls
openings in two adjacent walls
r-:
. .
.
;UJ = + +
5 %
r--"
: : 0 < = = = = 30 %
..... __ J
2nd case
1st case
5th case
3rd case openings in one wall
4th case
for intermediate cases :
C . is obtained by linear interpolation
p7-
I
- 32 -
- 33 -
= :t 2
2.4.- Effects wall vibrati0n
As a general rule, of typical structures are rigid enough
to neglect the dynaMic effects under wind action. However, if the natural
frequency of a wall - as calculated accordinq to 2, Chapter 2 - is
less than 5 Hz (e.g. glazing or cladding with more than 171
between supportsj vibration May no longer be negligible and dynamic
effects should be taken into account by checking for safety by an appropriate
method, or by increasing the natural frequency by modifying the design of
the via 11.
with E as defined in 3.2.
In the present case, E corresponns to the slenderness A
e
= = , e.g.
E = 1,55 for indivirlual flat-sided structural members or cylinders with
Re 2.]()5
- members of lattice structures
for individual flat-sided members of a lattice structure
E = 1,"3 fer inetivic'u?l round-section ",embers (lith He 10
5
(between these two values of He> E is obtained by linear interpolation
en and C:
t
are in the figure A.1.12, Appendix 1.
2.3.2.-
The local pressure cGefficient C is as follows:
P&
- hoardings, free-standing walls, and canopy roofs
I
i 0 -0 4 0
, I
Li-L--_:
C
pi
.
0
i
;
,
I
;: 0,3
I
I
I
0.=010.=90010.=1800 0.=270
0
j
, I
!
I
., 8 1_
0
"-D'
i
I
-0,6
I
,I' ! .
I
I
I
,
I
I
I
I
+0,8 +0,8 -0,4
I
-0,4
!
I
I
!
,
,
I
,
I i
;
I
;--: IIl
1
= \.1
3
?- ,3(1l
2
+ \.1
4
+ \.15)\
5 %
openings in two opposite walls
uni formly di stri buted permeabil ity
impermeable construction
;UJ 1111 = \.12 3(\13 + \.1 4 + \.15)\
5 %
r--"
I I
I t
I- __ J
5th case
2nd case
1st case
3rd case openings in one wa 11
A,
0
1111
>, ,3(1l2
'J ", "5)\
C . = C I
5 %
I p'!. pe
4th case openings in two adjacent wa 11 s
for intermediate cases :
C is obtained by linear interpolation
pi
I
I
- 34 -
- 35 -
3. - OVERALL EFFECTS ON STRUCTURES
For the calculation of overall wind effects two types of structures
should be considered: rigid (or static) and flexible (or dynamic). The cal-
culation of rigid structures, which are the most common, is carried out by a
simple but sufficiently accurate method (3.2). For the calculation of flexible
structures. the detailed dynamic effects of wind have to be taken into
account (3.3.).
3.1.- Definition of rigid structures and flexible structures
The following definitions apply to whole structures, as well as to
structural members such as columns. canopies. f1ag poles, chimneys. lattice
members. etc.
0,3 ,..........,--.---,-------,,---,-,
o
n1.im\ (Hz)
Rigid structures are those which fulfil the following condition
Figure 3.1. Limiting value of the frequency
of oscillation "lim
z

The aspect-ratio (slenderness or elongation of a structure)can be
defined for any wind direction by the following relationship
I A = i \ z4
b is the smaller dimension of the
windward face of the structure.
1 is the larger dimension of the
windward face of the structure, and
Flexible structures have a natural frequency
natural frequency of the first mode oscillation to be calculated by
the methods given in Appendix 2,
n
lim
limiting value of the natural frequency read from figure 3.1 as a
function of the slenderness or elor.gation Aof the structure and of
its logarithmic decrement 0 (see below).
A structure can be eitner or flexible according to the
direction of oscillation or of motion (bending or torsion). As a
simplification, one can assume that a building with a slenderness Aless
than 5 and a less than 50 m is a rigid structure.
where
- 34 -
3.- OVERALL WIND EFFECTS ON STRUCTURES
For the calculation of overall wind effects two types of structures
should be considered: rigid (or static) and flexible (or dynamic). The cal-
culation of rigid structures, \!hich are the most conman, is carried out by a
simple but sufficiently accurate method (3.2). For the calculation of flexible
structures, the detailed dynamic effects of wind have to be taken into
account (3.3.).
3.1.- Definition of rigid structures and flexible structures
The following definitions to whole structures, as well as to
structural members such as columns, canopies, poles, chimneys, lattice
members, etc.
Rigid structures are which fulfil the following condition
where
- 35 -
o
02 03 OS
1't
1
\ (Hz)
,vn
Figure 3.1. Limiting value of the frequency
of oscillation n.
:..1,.,"1')
The aspect-ratio (slenderness or elongation of a structure)can be
defined for any \'Iind direction by the relationship
natural frequency of the first mode oscillation to be calculated by
the given in Apnendix 2,
n
Zim
vRlue of the nntural frequency read from figure 3.1 as a
function of the slenderness or Aof the structure and of
its decrement &(see below).
Ylhere
Z is the larger dimension of the
windward face of the structure, and
x
y
FlexiJle structures a natural frequency
fl. structure can De eitller ri,:,id Dr flexible according to tile
direction of oscillation or of motion (bending or torsion). As c
simplificRtion, one can assume that a buildinr R slenderness A less
t:lan and a 'lei'1:1t less than 50 n; is a rilJid structure.
b is the smaller dimension of
windYiard face of the structure.
- 36 -
The logarithmic decrement of the structure quantifies the
damping of the It is defined by the relationship:
X.
7-
0= Log -x-
i+1
where Xi and X
i
+
1
are the amplitudes of the ith and (i+1)th oscillation. It
can be calculated by the relationship:
where
Os logarithmic decrement due to the structural damping
0a logarithmic decrement due to the aerodynamical damping
0d logarithmic decrement due to possible additional damping devices
Structural damping
For serviceability limit state design of slender or elongated
unclad structures (unclad or unfinished), approximate values of Os are
given in the table below:
Structura1 material
Os
Steel 0,03
Reinforced or prestressed
concrete, (steel-concrete) 0,06
composite construction
Masonry 0,12
Timber 0,15
The damping of a structure is expressed by the damping ratio
(as a %of critical damping) j the following formula relates it to the
logarithmic decrement:
_2 TT ;
-\JMi
For small ( this becomes: 0=2 (
- 37 -
These figures should be increase1 when the structure is clad and
finished by the addition of elements such as partitions and linings j for
habitable bUildings, the increase amounts to 50 %.
For ultimate limit state design, a magnification of 50 %should
be applied to the values of Os used in the serviceability limit state design.
Aerodynamic damping
0a is generally negligible except for very slender lattice structures and
for cables j it can be calculated by the relation :
where
total force exerted by the design wind, determined according to
3.2. (in N)
m oscillating mass of the structure (in kg)
V
m,t,zc speed of the design wind at the height Zc of the centre of the area
exposed to the wind (in mls).
Damping due to additional damping devices
The 0d value has to be determined for each case according to the
additional damping devices to be used.
3.2.- Calculation of wind effects on rigid (or static) structures
The effect Q of the design wind on a rigid structure can be either
a stress (bendinn moment, transverse shear, normal force, torsional moment)

or a strain (deflection, angle of rotation). It is given by the vectorial sum
of the effects due to the pressure exerted on the walls :
- 36 -
- 37 -
The logarithmic decrement 6 of the structure quantifies the
damping of the It is defined by the relationship:
x.
c=Zogx4;.
i+1
where Xi and X
i
+
1
are the amplitudes of the ith and (i+1Jth oscillation. It
can be calculated by the relationship:
These figures should be increase1 when the structure is clad and
finished by the addition of elements such as partitions and linings; for
habitable buildings, the increase amounts to 50 %.
For ultimate limit state design, a magnification of 50 %should
be applied to the values of 6
s
used in the serviceability limit state design.
where
Aerodynamic damping
0a is generally negligible except for very slender lattice structures and
for cables ; it can be calculated by the relation:
Os logarithmic decrement due to the structural damping
a logarithmic decrement due to the aerodynamical damping
logarithmic decrement due to possible additional damping devices where
Damping due to additional damping devices
The d value has to be determined for each case according to the
additional damping devices to be used.
3.2.- Calculation of wind effects on rigid (or static) structures
The effect Qwof the design wind on a rigid structure can be either
a stress (bendino moment, transverse shear, normal force, torsional moment)
or a strain (deflection, angle of rotation). It is !Jiven by the vectorial sum
of the effects due to the pressure exerted on the walls:
total force exerted hy the design wind, determined according to
3.2. (in N)
oscillating mass of the structure (in kg)
speed of the design wind at the height 2
0
of the centre of the area
exposed to the wi nd (i n ml ).
m
Structura1 material
s
Steel 0,03
Reinforced or prestressed
concrete, (steel-concrete) 0,0
composite construction
Masonry 0,12
Timber 0,15
Structural damping
For serviceability limit state design of slender or elongated
unclad structures (unclad or unfinished), approximate values of Os are
2,;

For small this : 6 =2
* The damping of a structure is expressed by the damping ratio
(as a 7. of critical ; the follo>,/ing formula relates it t the
logarithmic decrement:
- 38 -
- 39 -
where
where
y
y
l
where Zc is the height of the centre
of the slice of the wall of area A
xi
horizontal structures (bridges) vertical slices
Z
where zi is the height of the centre
of the slice of the wall, of area A
xi
In practice. the area Ax can be divided into parts or slices i of area A
xi
and the Q
w
effect can be calculated with the formulae
vertical structures (buildings) : horizontal slices
projected area of the structure in a plane perpendicular to the wind
direction =(in m
2
). The y and z axes are respectively the horizontal
and the vertical axes, perpendicular to the wind direction,
peak dynamic design wind pressure (in N/m
2
) determined in 1.1.3.,
A
x
Q=C! q I> dd
W f A g,t,z y z
x
For structures of simple shape, the effect Q
w
in the wind direction (wake)
can be directly determined the following relationship
W pressure at a point on the wall (in N/m
2
) as given in 2.1,
z
dA elementary area on the wall at this point (in m
2
),
B influence coefficient giving the value of the effect Q
W
due to a unit
force applied perpendicularly to the elementary area d
A
C
f
-force coefficient drag coefficient) of the structure it is
given in 1 for a great variety of structures,.
magnification factor in figure 3.3. as a function of the
ratio Aof the structure as defined in figure 3.2.,
influence coefficient giving the value of the effect Q
w
due to a unit
force directed in the sense and applied at a point on the area
Ax with coordinates (y,z).
Example: vertical structure of height Z, constant cross section, Moment of
inertia I. and modulus of elasticity E
- for transverse shear ; B= 1
- for base bending : B= z
- for the deflection: I> _ Z
'" - 6I (3 7. + 1)
- 38 -
- 39 -
y
z
vertical sl ices
where Zc is the height of the centre
of the slice of the wall of area A
xi
horizontal structures (bridges)
where z. is the height of the centre
7.
of the slice of the wall, of area hXi
In practice, the area Ax can be divided into parts or slices i of area A
xi
and the Q
w
effect can be calculated with the formulae
vertical structures (buildings) : horizontal slices
e: magnification factor in figure 3.3. as a function of the
ratio Aof the structure as defined in figure 3.2.,
Q = C e: f
W f l,
x
where
For structures of simple shape, the effect Q
w
in the wind direction (wake)
can be di rect ly determi ned the fall owi ng re1at i onshi p :
where
r.' pressure at a point on the wall (in 1.
1
/m
2
) as given in 2.1,
z
c.,. -force coeffi ci ent( or drag coeffi ci ent) of the structure it is
given in 1 for a great variety of structures,
projected area of the structure in a plane perpendicular to the wind
direction =(in ",2). The U and z axes are respectively the horizontal
and the vertical axes, perpendicular to the wind direction,
qg,.,z peak dynamic design wind pressure (in determined in 1.1.3.,
dA elementary area on the wall at this point (in m
2
),
B influence coefficient giving the value of the effect Q
N
due to a unit
force applied perpendicularly to the elementary area d
A
8 influence coefficient giving the value of the effect Q,/ due to a unit
J!J Z n
force directed in the sense and applied at a point on the area
Ax with coordinates (y,z).
Example; vertical structure of :leiC)ht 7 constant cross section, rl0ment of
inertia I, and modulus of elasticity
- for transverse shear : :: =1
- for base bending : c = z
- for the deflection: 0. =
,,- " (3 -";- + 1)
j....
- 40 -
- 41 -
Usually flexible structures have two principal orthogonal trans-
lational modes and one torsional mode (about the axis of support).
3.3.- Calculation of wind effects on flexible (or dynamic) structures
Flexible structures are those structures whose oscillations under
the wind action cannot be neglected.
I
CD
i
The calculation is carried out separately for
- effects of the design wind for bending
in the wind direction,
- effects of the design wind for torsion
about an axis perpendicular to the wind
direction,
- effects of von Karman vortices : for
oscillation in bending perpendicular
to the wind direction and ovalling
of cylindrical shells,
- effects of aerodynamic instabilities:
to the wind direction and oscillation
in torsion about an axis perpendicular
to the wind direction. with possible
coupling between modes.
Figure 3.2 Equivalent aspect-ratio A
e
as a function of A= Z
(in a plane perpendicular to the wind direction)
e:
I.e =.!.. "e=A l.e=2
A >-t:= 00
2
--.L- ;
I
l

'19
:J';';;:r:;"

//170-.: 711, ,II .I I.
I I
.Q.
1r
V
I
0
_v
I I j,
JJL"
/1111, I /111
I
h :> l
v
I , _v
V
/1'1'11111/ 111
'1/1/1' "I' '/ I
I I I
I
I I I I
, , I I
L .1
I I
md---

__ _!lei _It____
,________ .J
P,.
.........

i"
"ol/i.
r.
. """

:?O't' ITl"

"
""
"$
I ..........
["-...
100 SO 20 l.J2 10
1.6
1,55
1,4
1,3 3
',2
1
o
P2 OD4 Q06 opa
Ae
0,1 l/Ae
For flexible vertical structures, the calculations are carried out
successively for the wind blowing in the two principal directions of flexure.
For flexible horizontal structures, the calculation is restricted
to the wind blowing in the principal horizontal direction of flexure.
Figure 3.3. 'lagnification factor account of the aspect-
ratio of complete structures, E. For effects
on complete lattice = 1.
- 40 -
- 41 -
I
h,,=21. 00
j
2
--..!...-
I
I
I

1 I
III / : I I'" I 1/(
b1Q
__...J I I
'/( I!, Ii / ( I i;/f If,
L:. ____ ...
,
.Q.
v
,10
..Il..
:t
........ V-
V-

I
r0-
t
V
I
l.- II
, ,-v
I
I 'IIIIIII/i" //1/,. (1/1'1 , ',/II,fA/"11
V- ,
I I
I
I I I I
I
, I
l.. .1
I

,--------.,
(in a plane perpendicular to the wind direction)
Usually flexible structures have two principal orthogonal trans-
lational modes and one torsional mode (about the axis of support).
r
C0
I
.
"--. 0..:::
/ "-
The calculation is carried out separately for:
- effects of von Karman vortices : for
to the wind direction and ovalling
of cylindrical shells,
- effects of the design wind for bending
in the wind direction,
- effects of aerodynamic instabilities:
to the wind direction and oscillation
in torsion about an axis perpendicular
to the wind direction, with possible
coupling between modes.
3.3.- Calculation of wind effects on flexible (or dynamic) structures
Flexible structures are those structures whose oscillations under
the wind action cannot be neglected.
- effects of the design wind for torsion
about an axis perpendiculiar to the wind
direction,
as a functior of A L
L
Equivalent aspect-ratio' Figure 3.2
e:
For flexible horizontal structures, the calculation is restricted
to the wind blowing in the principal horizontal direction of flexure.
For flexible vertical structures, the calculations are carried out
successively for the wind blowing in the two principal directions of flexure.
Ae
0.1 l/),e
opa 0.06 004 0.02
I "',.
Ir'
I
:\'-.-.
I"
P"o
"'i.

........... I
i" I"- "O"f'
(,

"

-........
r------:
100 50 20 l.J.2 10 1
o
1,2
'.6
',55
1,4
1,33
Fi9ure 3.3, 'Iafjnification factor tal',ing account of the aspect-
ratio of complete structures, E. For effects
on complete lattice E =1,
- 42 -
- 43 -
3.3.1.-
The flexural effect Q
W
resulting from the pressure exerted by the
design wind on the walls of a flexible structure can be calculated with the
relationship :
3.3.12.-
The factor B expresses the effect of the spatial correlation of
the wind pressure fluctuations over the surface of the structure.
The general calculation method for B is given in Appendix 3. In
practice, B can be determined to a good approximation by the following method.
where q t is the peak dynamic design wind pressure given by the following
g, ,Z
formula:
a) Bending of vertical structures with constant cross sections
(prismatic buildings, towers, masts)
B is given in figure 3.5. as a function of the slenderness (aspect-ratio)
A= Zib and of the equivalent length Z determined in the table below:
e
II d " 1
with qm,t,lO' Sz an as glven 1n .
Band R are defined below.
3.3.11.-
The factor expresses the influence exerted by the height of the
wall on the pressure fluctuations. It can be determined from figure 3.4. as
a function of the height above the ground and of the roughness class of the
surrounding site as defined in 1.
B
qs
\
f\\
\
1\
I
1\\
\ \
\

I
A:ej;>
\ [\ \ \
\ \
\\ \
! \\
\
\\\

\
I

\
l\ 10
o
20
so
Z
e
(m) 200
100
300
Transverse
Bending moment Rotation Oi spl acement
Effect shear at the
at the base of the top (of the top)
base
Z Z 0,75 Z 0,55 Z 0,44 Z
e
2.S 2 I.S
V V
V
I .A /
V
V
V
/ A
V
,./
l.---1
I
/V
V
L--j
11
7
V
/
2
II
1
3
S
10
so
30
20
100
z
(m)
200
Figure 3.5. : Factor B (bending of vertical structures)
- 42 -
- 43 -
3.3.1.-
The flexural effect Q
w
resulting from the pressure exerted by the
design wind on the walls of a flexible structure can be calculated with the
relationship:
3.3.12.-
The factor B expresses the effect of the spatial correlation of
the pressure fluctuations over the surface of the structure.
The general calculation method for B is given in Appendix 3. In
practice, B can be determined to a good approximation by the following method.
where a t is the peak dynamic design wind pressure given by the following
'g., .J;:;
formul a :
a) Bending of vertical structures with constant cross sections
(prismatic buildings, towers, masts)
B is given in figure 3.5. as a function of the slenderness (aspect-ratio)
A= Zib and of the equivalent length Z determined in the table below:
e
3.3.11.-
The factor expresses the influence exerted by the height of the
wall on the pressure fluctuations. It can be determined from figure 3.4. as
a function of the height above the ground and of the roughness class of the
surrounding site as defined in 1.
8
qs a
\
.\\
\
1\ 1\
\\
\ \
\
\
I
I
AEI
.hop
I 1
\ 1\ \
i
I
\ ,I \
I 1\ \ , \
i
I
\\1\
I
\l\\ !\
i
\
I
\\
I
a

a I I
SO
Figure 3.5. : Factor B (bending of vertical structures)
.
e
(m) 200
300
100
Transverse
Bending moment I Rotation oisplacement
Effect shear at the
at the base of the top (of the top)
base
J'
Z Z oJ 75 Z II OJ 55 Z OJ 44 Z
e
I
2.S
1 L1
I
)f;
V
V
I A h
I
.-/'
V
V
f:::/V
,./ / A
V
V

I
I.........
I I
./
V
v:;
./
V"

/
/
J
2
\I
1
10
20
SO
30
100
I I S d ,I, . " n 1
qm,t, 10 , z an as g,ven .
z' Band R are defined below.
z
(m)
200
with
- 44 -
- 45 -
b) Bending of long horizontal structures (A 6) with constant cross
section (bridges, ... )
---
8 is given in figure 3.7 as a function of the ratio I II with L as
e' y Y
given in figure 3.6 as a function of the height Zc of the centre of the
area of the structure Ax and of the equivalent length Ie determined in
the table below.
One span (2 supports) Two spans (3 supports)
Effect - reaction at the support
- reaction at the centre support
- bending moment at mid-span - bending moment at the centre
support
Ze 0,75 I 0,8 I
c) Structures of any shape
As a first approximation: 8 =8
1
' 8
2
8
1
is the value of 8 calculated for a structure of length Ilequal to the
largest dimension of the structure under consideration having an aspect-
ratio A= '" .
8
2
is the value of 8 calculated for a structure of length equal to 0.8
the other dimension 12 of the structure to the wind having an
aspect-ratio A= '" .
B
I
I
I
I '\ I
I I I
I \. I
I
I
I \.. I
I
I
I
'\
!
I I
I
'\
,
'" '\
I
,\ I
I I I \
J
os
,
0,2
D,S
60 L
y
40
cantilevers, the values of Ie to be taken into account
ven for vertical structures).
20
are the same 1Is' those gf
I
I
I
I I
I I
I
II
I
/
/
",,/
o
20
BO
60
40
100
Zc
(m)
Figure 3.6. Factor L
y
Figure 3.7. Factor 8
(bending of horizontal structures) I
- 44 -
- 45 -
b) Bending of long horizontal structures (A 6) with constant cross
section (bridges, ... )
---
8 is given in figure 3.7 as a function of the ratio 1 /1 with L as
e' y Y
given in figure 3.6 as a function of the height Zc of the centre of the
area of the structure Ax and of the equivalent length le determined in
the table below.
One span (2 supports) Two spans (3 supports)
Effect - reaction at the support - reaction at the centre support
- bending moment at mid-span - bending moment at the centre
support
le
0,75 l 0,8 l
c) Structures of any shape
As a first approximation: B = 8] . 8
2
8] is the value of B calculated for a structure of length l]equal to the
largest dimension of the structure under consideration having an aspect-
ratio A= '" .
8
2
is the value of B calculated for a structure of length equal to O,8
the other dimension of the structure to the wind having an
aspect-ratio A= '" .
B
! ! I
I "\1 I
I I
, I
I \..1 I
!
I 1'. I I
I I
I "-
I I
I
I '\...1 !
I
I
I
\\1
I
I
I
'(
,
i I : 1 \ I
I I I \
I I \
I I i
as I
10
0.2
a,s
60 L
y
40
cantilevers, the values of 1e to be taken into account
ven for vertical structures).
20
are the same those Y1
I
I
I
, I
I
i
I I I
I I
I II
II
I J
-r
-7
I :I
! I
.... v
o
20
60
40
80
100
Zc.
(m)
Figure 3.6. factor L
y
3.7. Factor B
(bending of horizontal structures)
- 46 -
- 47 -
vertical structures
Z
shapes
Z
Z
X
I I
S31
3.3.13.- Determination of R
The factor R expresses the influence exerted by the oscillations
of the structure at its natural frequencies under the effect of the wind
pressure fluctuations of same frequencies.
The factor R is the sum of the contributions from the various
modes r of bending oscillation:
IR = ; Rr I
In most cases only the first bending mode is significant;
however there are cases in which the second mode has also to be taken into
account.
The factor R related to the mode r is given by the following
relationship:
Effect
Transverse shear Base bending Defl ection
-=---- at the base --moment-
--
at the top '.
,.
H
1
0,3 0,67 0,86
H
2
0,03 0,005 0,004
where
o is the logarithmic decrement defined in 3.1.
H
r
, E
r
and B
I'
are defined below.
Determination of H _______ r_
The factor H
r
expresses the contribution of mode r to the resultant effect
Q
w
; it is defined in Appendix 3. For structures of constant mass and cross
section and for a wind speed assumed to be constant with height, the values
given in figure 3.8. can be adopted as a first approximation.
Determination of E
-=--.,..----- !'-
The factor E
r
expresses the energy of the wind gusts at the r-th modal fre-
quency. It is given in figure 3.9 as a function of the natural frequency of
the oscillation n
r
(defined in Appendix 2) and of the design wind speed
v t (defined in 1.1.2.) for z = 10 m.
m" JZ
Horizontal structures
rc_
p
_
e
__........ "':::----...
y
I -1
Effect
Transverse shear Bending moment Di splacement
at the support at at mid-span
B 0,66 1,06 1,13
1
H
2

Figure 3.8. Factor fir (bending oscillations)
- 46 -
- 47 -
vertical structures
Z
shapes
z
z
x
I I
S3l
The factor R is the sum of the contributions from the various
modes r of bending oscillation:
I R = ; Rr \
3.3.13.- Determination of R
The factor R expresses the influence exerted by the oscillations
of the structure at its natural frequencies under the effect of the wind
pressure fluctuations of same frequencies.
In most cases only the first bending mode is significant;
however there are cases in which the second mode has also to be taken into
account.
The factor R related to the mode p is given by the following
relationship:
IiI =211 fJ E B I
'r 0- r r r
Effect
Transverse shear Base bending Deflection
at the base -
mOlllent-
- -
at the top "
H
1
0, ;; 0,67 0,86
82-
0,03 0,005 0,004
I
Effect
Transverse shear Rending moment Displacement
at the support at at mid-span
HI
0,66 1,06 1,13
li
2
0 0
where
6 is the logarithmic decrement defined in 3.1.
H
r
, E
r
and B
r
are defined below.
Determination of 8
r_
The factor B
p
expresses the contribution of mode r to the resultant effect
Q
w
; it is defined in Appendix 3. For structures of constant mass and cross
section and for a wind speed assumed to be constant with height, the values
given in figure 3.8. can be adorted as a first approximation.
Determination of E
p
_
The factor E
p
exrresses the of the wind gusts at the r-th modal fre-
quency. It is given in figure 3.9 as a function of the natural frequency of
the oscillation n
p
(defined in Appendix 2) and of the design wind speed
Vm,t,z (defined in 1.1.2.) for z = 10 m.
Horizontal structures
Figure 3.8.
[a_p_e__
y

Factor R
p
(bending oscillations)
- 48 -
- 49 -
0,5 0,2 0;3
0.'
r=2
0,05
(bending oscillations of vertical structures)
0. 02 . 0.03
Factor B
l'
r:l
5
3
2
o
,
I'\.
"-
'\.
I
'1'
I'\. _.
"
"
'"
'\
\
"-
"-
........ r-.., \ r\
r- 1", I:
"
r:
1 0.1'\
A= 1 r-....
A: A
i" ,
I
I
I
'" I'.
I'
I\.
5
......
'\
1\
I
......1\..
I'\. 1\
3
"-
f\

I\.
,2
\
,
1\\
,
1
5
"
-
l--
3
2
01
,. ';'/
10
a
o.
0,
0.0
0,0
0.0
n 2
l'
V
m
Figure 3.10.
n
r
0,1 001
I
V 1\
II
1\
1\
/
\
1\
V
\
V
1\
1\
V
\
f\
0,01
0,0 OS
0,00001 0,0001 0.001
Figure 3.9. : Factor E
p
0,3
0,02
0,0 5
0,1
0,2
in the following cases: l' = 1 and A= 1,4 or ...
l' = 2 and A=...
Determination of B
p-
The factor Bp expresses the influence exerted upon the oscillations in the
r-th mode by the spatial correlation of the gust pressures over the extent
of the surface of the structure. The general method of calculation of B
p
is given in Appendix 3.
Br can be calculated to a approximation as follows:
- Vertical structures with constant cross section
Bp is given in figure 3.10. as a function of :
If p = 2 and A=1 Or 4, the factor B
p
is generally negligible.
- Horizontally elongated structures with constant cross section
Bp is for the first mode (p = 1) using figure 3.7 but replacing
L by L _ Vm,t,10 and taking 2 = 0,8 2.
Y 1- 9n e
1
- Structures of any shaoe
As a first approximation one can proceed in the same way as for the calcu.
lation of B (3.3.12c) but putting 0,55 2? (instead of 0,8 2
2
) in the calcu-
lation of 8
2
,
- 48 -
- 49 -
If l' =2 and A=1 or 4, the factor E
r
is generally negligible.
2 1
B
l'
a,s 0,2 0) 0,1
r=2
0,02 0.03 0.05
Factor (bending oscillations of vertical structures)
r=l
0.01
5
2
3
,
"-
"
!'I
"
i"..
-
'"
f--I-
i\.
I'...
'"
t'-.- I
'\
(\
J'.,. '",-
'\ r\
r=r,"
n=

r I\.
.\=1 t'-..
.\ ..

1
I
I I I I
I "'-
...
"-
\.
5
"
'\ 1\
I ...... "
['\
1\ I
\
3
I
"
\
I\.
2
I I
\ I
,

,1
I
I
J
5
I I
f'
Y-
I
3
2
I
I I
I
01
o
10
o
o.
/
0,
0.
QO
0.0
0,0
Fi'Jure 3.10.
"
m, t, 10
0,1
V
1\
V
1\
\
I
\
1\
\
1/
r\
"-
1/
\
1\
0,2
0,1
0,3
0,05
0,01
0,02
0,005
0,00001 0,0001 0,001
Figure 3.9. : Factor E
r
E
r
in the following cilses : l' =1 and A=1,4 or '"
l' =2 and A='"
Determination of B
1'-
The factor B
r
expresses the influence exerted upon the oscillations in the
r-th mode by the spatial correlation of the gust pressures over the extent
of the surface of the structure. The general method of calculation of 21'
is given in Appendix 3.
Br
can be calculated to a approximation as follows:
- Vertical structures with constant cross section
E
r
is given in figure 3.10. as a function of :
- Horizontally elongated structures with constant cross section
PI' is determined for the first mode (1' = ) using figure 3.7 but replacing
L by & _ Vm,t,JO and taking = 0,8 l,
'J 1- 9n
1
- Structures of any shane
As a first approximation one can proceed in same way as for the calcu.
lation of B (3.3.12c) but putting ,{j (instead of .. 8 2) in the calcu-
lation of 8
2
,
- 50 -
- 51 -
3.3.2.-
The torsional effect Q t resulting from the pressure exerted
w. or
by the design wind upon the walls of a flexible structure (torsional moment,
strain) is given by the relationship:
and of
\ _ 7..
"'-"5
is the first mode torsional natural frequency and can be calculated
n
1
as shown in Appendix 2.
o and E are determined in the same way as in 3.3.13,
l'
H as defined in 3.3.13 is given as a first approximation in figure
r
3.12 for the first mode (1' = 1).
B as defined in 3.3.13 is given in figure 3.13 for the first mode
r
(1' =1) as a function of the aspect-ratio (slenderness) :
y
where
Q is the mean effect of the design wind.
m
It can be determined by the method of
calculation of Q
w
in 3.2., but replacing
the peak dynamic pressure q t by the
g, ,2
mean dynamic pressure q t given in
mJ
1.1.2. Note that if the torsional axis
is a symmetrical axis, Q
m
= O.
Q... is the effect of the pressure fl uctua ti ons of the des i gn wi nd. It can be
J
determined by the method of calculation of Q in 3.2., but:
111
- by calculating separately the two terms of Q
f
which correspond to the
two parts of the area Ax where the influence coefficient B is of opposite
sign and by retaining only the greatest of them in absolute value,
- by replacing the peak dynamic pressure q t by the pressure qf t 2
,,2 " "
calculated by the relationship :
where
and 52 are given in figure 1.1.2.)
is gi ven in fi gure 3.4.,
B is given in figure 3.11. for vertical prismatic structures
whose torsional axis is the axis of symmetry. If the torsional
axis is located at one end of the face exposed to the wind. B
can be determined by using figure 3.5. with le replaced by b,
lR = HI' 1' 81' \
- 50 -
- 51 -
3.3.2.-
The torsional effect Q resulting from the pressure exerted
w> tOl'
by the design wind upon the walls of a flexible structure (torsional moment,
strain) is given by the relations/lip
and of
A= J.
o
is the first mode torsional natural frequency and can be calculated
n
1
as shown in Appendix 2.
81' as defined in 3.3.13 is given as a first approximation in figure
3.12 for the first mode (1' = 1),
B as defined in 3.3.13 is given in figure 3.13 for the first mode
l'
(1' = 1) as a function of the aspect-ratio (slenderness) :
o and E are determined in the same way as in 3.3.13,
l'
y
where
Q
m
is the mean effect of the design wind.
It can be determined by the method of
calculation of Qwin 3.2., but replacing
the peak dynamic pressure q t by the
g> > Z
mean dynamic pressure q t given in
>z
1.1.2. Note that if the torsional axis
is a symmetrical axis, Q
m
= o.
Q... is the effect of the pressure fluctuations of the design wind. It can be
J
determined by the method of calculation of Q in 3.2., but:
w
- by calculating separately the two terms of Q
f
which correspond to the
two parts of the area Ax where the influence coefficient B is of opposite
sign and by retaining only the greatest of them in absolute value,
- by replacing the peak dynamic pressure q t by the pressure q... t
.J z ,; .J z
calculated by the relationship
II 2 r--
q... = q t 10 S ,. VB + R
J t 3 Z m, JI Z 't'3
where
oIl 10 and are given in figure 1.1.2.,
'm, t, _
is given in figure 3.4.,
B is given in figure 3.11. for vertical prismatic structures
whose torsional axis is the axis of symmetry. If the torsional
axis is located at one end of the face exposed to the wind, 8
can be determined by using figure 3.5. Ze replaced by b,
r 2n H E B \
IR ="6 .1' l' x:
- 53 -
- 52 -
Torsional oscillations mode r =1
Effect
Torsional moment Angle of rotation
at the base of the top
n 0,56 1
1
- I
\ .
~
Z
A=Ji
Torsional mode shape ;
Figure 3.12. Value of B
1
(Torsional oscillations of vertical structures)
OS
, 8,
0,2 0,3 0,1 0.02 0P3 O,oS
....... ..........
r-....
......
.......
.......
....
........
"-
i"-
..........
~
I I
i'-.... ......
~
I
r"
~ I
I
,
"-
I I
I
. A.
~ /
A:
~ /
.
/ /
/
I
./
/ I
I /
/
V
/ /
/ /
'/
/V
l/
0,1
O,s
0,3
0,2
0.01
0.01
0.05
0.03
0.02
Fiure 3.13 Values of B
1
rl
1
Z
10
V
m,t.10
S
3
2
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Angle of
hori zontal
rotation of
the top
Torsional
moment at
the base
about axis z
8
as o
I
I
\
~ o o
i-fr
,. A
~ ~
~ -J
-
I--'"
I / ;
I
r
1/
I /
I
I
I
I il I
I
I
J I I
II
/
I
/ /
/ / 1/
V
f / /
I /
!
I /
/
J
I
!
/
V/
I
/ /
-
I
1/
II
,
I
1/
, I
/
0
2
so
100
200
300
l
Figure 3.11. ; Value cf B (Torsion of a vertical structure
about an axis of symmetry)
- 53 -
- 52 -
Torsional oscillations mode r = ]
Torsional mode shape:
I
- I
~
- ~
A- b
Figure 3.12.
Effect
Torsional moment Angle of rotation
at the base of the top
Fl 0,56 ]
1
Value of H]
05
, B1
0,2 0,3 0,1 0.02 0P3 0,05
....... .......... I
......... .......
i'-. .............
r...
.......
i'-.
r--....
I
I'-.N-
~
I II
1"--.. ......
~
II
r"
~ , I
1 , , , ,
-
I
I j i L
J
"'
I
i I I 1\1
I V
I
A . ~ J A=!J
.
I
I
1
I V / V
I I
,
I
, F I
/
I
/ I
I 1/ I
/v
l/
V II
1/
1
/V
V I ,V
I
5
3
2
10
0,
0,5
0,2
0,3
0,0
0.
01
0.05
0.03
0.
02
Fiure 3.13 Values of 3
1
I
J
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Angle of
hori zonta1
rotation of
the top
Torsional
moment at
the base
about axis z
8
os
Figure 3.11. : Value ('f B (Torsion of a vertical structure
about an axis of symMetry)
o
I
I
J
y.oo
1l-fr
It
~
F,21
~ J - :
- .
I ~
I v
;
!
/
/
/
I
L
It
II /
I II II
I
I
I I I
t
I
/
/ /1 I I
J I
I
1/
v
I
a
I I
/1
I /
1/
11/
/
II
I
I
1/
VI
\ I! /
I
-
II
v
fl
1/
/1
,
II
I
1/
'[ I.
/
a
2
s
100
200
300
l
- 54 -
3.3.3.-
These should be considered only for flexible structures defined
in 3.1. (for the physical explanation, see Appendix 3).
3.3.31.-
To be considered if :
V is the critical speed as rlefined hereafter
a
Y is the mean des i gn wi nd speed at the height z of the too of the
m, t,z
structure.
a) Oscillations of the entire structure
St the Strouhal number dependent upon the cross-section, and given below
Cross section
St
--
0
--
L.....J .---J -L 0,15
101<R < lOS 0,2
0
e
-
10s<R <2.10
6
(R=O,7.lO
S
y b) 0,2 to 0,3
e e m
R
e
> 2.10
6
0,3
- 55 -
b) Ovalling of cylindrical shells
nov b
Va = J"Sf
b diameter of the cylinder (in m)
St Strouhal number (see a) above)
n first mode natural frequency of ovalling (in Ra)
ov
j ratio between the natural frequency of oval ling and the von Karman vortex
sheddi ng frequency ; j can be equal to 1, 2, 3, 4 ...
In the particular case of steel, only j = 2 needs to be considered.
In particular of tubes
where
e thickness of the shell (in m)
E modulus of elasticity (in N/m
2
)
v Poisson's ratio
m density (in kg/ml).
For the particular case of steel this formula becomes
Inov =2530 I
3.3.32.-
Oscillation of the whole structure can be permitted provided that
the structure can resist the maximum resultant effect of the oscillation
(maXimum amplitude) and also the fatigue effect due to repeated oscillation
(see 5).
a) isolated stru.<:.ture in bending perpendicular to
the wind direction
----------
1st case : b is constant over the whole length of the structure
The maximum resultant effect of the oscillations is equivalent to that of
an uniformly distributed pressure Q
s
acting upon the projected area of the
outline of the structure in rt plane perpendicular to the wind direction
- 54 -
- 55 -
3.3.3.'
These should be considered only for flexible structures defined
in 3.1. (for the physical explanation, see Appendix 3).
b) Oval1ing of cylindrical shells
I'c = I
3.3.31.-
To be considered if :
Va is the critical speed as npfined hereafter
v is the mean design wind speed at the height z of the too of the
!T/, t, z
structure.
b diameter of the cylinder (in m)
St Strouhal number (see a) above)
n first mode natural frequency of oval1ing (in Ha)
OJ)
j ratio between the natural frequency of oval1ing and the von Karman vortex
shedding frequency; j can be equal to 1, 2, 3, 4
In the particular case of steel, only j =2 needs to be considered.
In the particular case of unstiffened tubes
a) to
the wind direction
1st case: b is constant over the whole length Z of the structure
The maximum resultant effect of the oscillations is equivalent to that of
an uniformly distributed oressure 1
s
acting upon the projected area of the
outline of the structure in il plane perrendicular to the wind direction:
3.3.32.-
Oscillation of the structure can be permitted provided that
the structure can resist the maximum resultant effect of the oscillation
(maximum amplitude) and also the fatigue effect due to repeated oscillation
(see 5).
n = 0,492 1/ E
OJ) V
mO
....: v
2
)
where
e thickness of the shell (in m)
E modulus of e1asticlty (in Nlm
Z
)
v Poisson's ratio
m density (in kglm
3
).
For the particular case of steel this formula becomes
GJ
b
V - l'
a St
a) Oscillations of the entire structure
n]' natural frequency of oscillation r = ] or 2 of the structure in
bending in the plane perpendicular to the wind direction, or in the
first torsional mode (]' = 1) about an axis perpendicular to the wind
direction (in Hz)
b width of the structure in the across-wind direction (in m)
I
Cross section
St
-
0
--
L....-J 1--1 ----.J -.L 0,15
10
3
< R < lOS 0,2
0
e
--
10
5
< R < 2.10'(R =O,7.10
5
V b) 0,2 to 0,3
e e m
R > 2.10' 0,3
e
St the number derendent unon the cross-section, and given below
- 56 -
dll.
v
2
- 57 -
c
qc = 1,63
where
6 as defined in 3.1.
$ is a factor which takes into account the amplification of the resul-
tant effect due to the oscillations themselves.
Q
s
is first calculated assuming $ = 1 ; the deflection of the structure
a is then determined under the effect of this value Q . Afterwards
y a s
<b is obtained from figure 3.17 as a function of t .
d is the dimens'ion of a structure parallel to the wind direction,
5
s
is the turbulence in the wake as defineo in figure 3.15 as a
funct i on of the Reynolds number Re ,
8 is a reduction factor siven in figure 3.16. as a function of the ratio
s
b)
Downstream of the second structure, the resultant effect is amplified by
the action of the vortices coming from the upstream structures. In order
to take this amplification into account, the equivalent pressure s must
be multiplied by 2 if the spacing is less than 7b and by a coefficient
linearly interpolated bet\"een 2 and 1 if the spacing is between lb and 14u.
Means of reducing oscillations
Oscillations perpendicular to the Hind can be significantly reduced;
- either by increasing the damping.
or by the use of aerodynamic spoilers such as :
three helical strakes of rectangular section, projecting 0,09 d and
spaced by d. which will reduce the amplitude of oscillation to about
114.
or four vertical strakes placed on right angles and projecting v,r9 d
over a cylinder segment of length between d and 0,9 d, the strakes
in the adjoining segment staggered by 30. which will reduce the
amplitude of oscillation to about 1/3.
2nd case : b varies over the length l of the structure.
If the width b varies along the longitudinal
axis of the structure. V
c
also varies. and
the equi va 1ent pressure Q
s
acts on',y_ upon a
length within which b varies by less than
5 %.
(In the figure. Q
s
applies only to the
hatched area).
2.10
7
Re
:r.
0.01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 (Jl6 d
v
/
/
V
V
/
6
2
5
4
3
Figure 3.17 : Amplification factor
Turbulence intensity of the wake 56 Figure 3.15.
Figure 3.16. : Reduction factor 8
s
r----...
cl//
q;.
s:
tOI]
"'-..
"

Rectangular section
r--_
I-
2.10
4
0.1
0,2
0.3
Oof------::!;----::!=------"L,--_....J d 0
0, 1 0,2 0,3 0,4 T
0,06
0,2 t------:J/9----+----+-----l
0,1 t---t---+---li----l----J
- 56 -
- 57 -
:
(In the C applies only to the
ha tched a.rea).
where
6 as defined in 3.1.,
$ is a factor which takes into account the amplification of the resul-
tant effect due to the oscillations themselves,
,., is first calculated assur,ling 11 = 1 , the deflection of the structure
a is then detenni ned under the effect of thi 5 va 1ue Q . Afterwards
!t'
ill is obtained from 3.17 as a function of tl ,
d is the dilT1enS'ion of a structure parallel to tile wind direction,
.\; is the tudlillence in the ,.. as definer! in figure 3.15 as a
funct i on of the Reyno1cis number Re ,
H
g
is a reduction factor siven in figure 3.16. as a function of t Ie ratio
dll .
Means of reducing oscillations
Oscillations perpendicular to the Hind can be significantly reduced:
- either by increasing the dill1lping,
- or by the use of aerodynamic spoilers such 5 :
three helical straKes of rectangular section, projecting 0,09 and
spaced hy 5 d. which will reduce the amplitude of oscillation to about
1/9
or four vertical .trakes placed on right angles and projecting
over a cylinder se')ment of length bet\'/een 0 7' d and (1,9 d, the strakes
in the adjoining se ment beinn stap ered by 30, which will reduce the
ilmplitude of oscillation to about 1/J.
2!ld ca se : b va ri es over the 1en'lth of the truc ture.
If the width b varies along the longitudinal
axis of the structure, lie: also vJries, ilnd
the equi va Ient pressure '1.. acts on1 Y.. upon a
,::, .
lenl]th within by less than
. )
OOI'lnstre,1m of the second structure, the resul tant effect is ampl ified by
the action of the vortices coming from the upstream structures. in order
to take this amp1 ification into account, the equivaler.t pressure. 8 must
be multiplied by if the sp cing is less than 7h and by a coefficient
linearljl interpolated L,etl/een 2 and J if the sfJilcing is 7?:- and j'h.
2.10
7
Re
:r.
0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 gas qD6 d
v
/
/
V
/
1/
/1
a
6
4
2.10
6
3
2
s
Figure 3.17 : Amplification factor $
Figure 3.15. Turbulence intensity of the wake Ss
---..
Cl//
ilr
S
101}
............
'"
Rectangular section
""-
-
2.10
4
0.1
0,2
Figure 3.16. : Reduction factor B
s
a d
0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 T
0,06
q2 r-----7t---t---t-----I
0,1 r--{---t-----+----+-------J
- 58 -
c)
As a general rule oscillations should be avoided. There are two
ways of achieving this:
1) by increasing the thickness e of the cylindrical shell in order to
obtain
, ,
2) by providing the cylindrical shell with ring stiffeners with a spacing
8, so as to obtain:
I V
--.!: ( m, t, Z) 2
I? V
C
where
I = is the moment of inertia of the ring without any stiffener,
I
r
is the moment of inertia of of width H one
sti ffener.
3.3.4.-
To be considered only for flexible structures as defined in 3.1.
(for physical explanation, see Appendix 3).
3.3.41.-
1) Oscillations in pure first mode bending
To be taken into consideration for rectangular or polygonal structures
if :
V
c
critical speed
V mean design wind speed determined in 1.1.2.
m, t, za
Za height of anti-mode of oscillation
For a structure with constant cross-section
- 59 -
logarithmic decrement given in 3.1. with 0a =0
n
1
natural frequency of first mode oscillation in bending, in the plane
perpendicular to the wind direction (in Hz)
m mass per unit length (in kg/m)
b width of the structure perpendicular to the wind direction (in m)
o coefficient of aerodynamic stability, depending on the section:
-
LJ
0=5
-
0
o = 3
---+
H
o = 2,5
D
o = 0,3
For a structure of variable cross-section, one can apply the calculation
formula for the decrement 0a due to the aerodynamic damping
which is given in Appendix 3, but 0a should be replaced by os' C
p
by 0
and V t by V
c
'
m, ,za
2) First mode oscillations in pure torsion
The formula given in 3) hereafter for the calculation of the critical
speed V
c
for COl/pled oscillations is also val id for the calculation of
the critical speed of oscillation in pure torsion.
3) Coupled oscillations in bending and first mode of torsion
To be taken into account only for slender structures with constant cross-
section such as bridne decks if :
- 58 -
c)
As a general rule ova)ling oscillations should be avoided. There are two
ways of achieving this:
1) by increasing the thickness e of the cylindrical shell in order to
obtain Vm,t,Z
2) by providing the cylindrical shell with ring stiffeners with a spacing
R, so as to obtain:
is the moment of inertia of the ring without any stiffener,
is the moment of inertia of the"ring of width H one
stiffener.
3.3.4.-
To be considered only for flexible structures as defined in 3.1.
(for physical explanation, see Appendix 3).
3.3.41.-
1) Oscillations in pure first mode bending
To be taken into consideration for rectangular or polygonal structures
if :
V
e
critical speed
v mean design wind speed determined in 1.1.2.
m,"t,za
z height of anti-mode of oscillation.
a
For a structure with constant cross-section
1,63 " n,'"
V
c
= 0 b -
- 59 -
6 logarithmic decrement given in 3.1. with 0a = 0
n
1
natural frequency of first mode oscillation in bending, in the plane
perpendicular to the wind direction (in Hz)
m mass per unit length (in
b width of the structure perpendicular to the wind direction (in m)
a coefficient of aerodynamic stability, depending on the section:
-+
LJ
0=5
-
D
o =3
-
t-----l
o = 2,5
D
o = 0,3
For a structure of variable cross-section, one can apply the calculation
formula for the losarithmic decrement 0a due to the aerodynamic damping
which is given in Appendix 3, but 6 should be replaced by 6 , C by a
asp
and v by V
n

m" t"za L.
2) First mode oscillations in pure torsion
The formula given in 3) hereafter for the calculation of the critical
speed V
e
for coupled oscillations is also valid for the calculation of
the critical speed of oscillation in pure torsion.
3) Coupled oscillations in bending and first mode of torsion
To be taken into account only for slender structures with constant cross-
section such as bridqe decks if
v
C
- 60 -
SECTION
/f(
I I t#,'1' - d.
02
I I

V
1
0,3
--rJ t
0,2 c:L
---0-
J.orJd.
".
(),1f - 0,$d. -
--
I I f 0,05 d.
I
I J
0,5
c::::J S0.-( - t:J., I I l
0111. - o,rd.
-
- d-
oc;
... # o,od.
\.J -6l.t.i 0,7
&

r
<
-e >-
1
d..
d..
- -
.. .
Figure 3.18. Values of 11
- 61 -
V t mean design wind speed at the height of the centre of the surface
m" ,,2
C A of the bridge,
x
critical speed determined by the following formula
v = 3,14 11 n d [1 + (n
1tO
l'S _
C n
1f
7-ex J d
l
natural first mode frequency in bending perpendicular to the wind
direction (Hz)
natural first mode frequency in torsion about an axis perpendicular
to the wind direction (8
z
)
m mass per unit length (kg/m)
I torsional stiffness factor per unit length (kgm2/
m
)
p density of air: 1225 kg/m
3
d alongwind dimension of the section (m)
11 empirical coefficient equal to the ratio between the critical speed
for the section and the critical speed for a flat plate given fn
figure 3.18.
3.3.42.-
As a general rule, aerodynamic instabilities should be avoided
except in cases where the flexibility of the structure allows for very large
amplitudes of oscillations .
Nevertheless, if V V t it is necessary to check either by
c m.J"z
a more detailed calculation of the critical speed or by a wind tunnel test
or not, in the particular case under consideration, aerodynamic ins-
tabilities will occur. Actually the calculation formula for the critical speed
is only a first approximation in the absence of any better, the purpose of
which is simply to define structures which are certainly not sensitive to
these phenomena.
- 60 -
SECTION
/f"{
I I

0,2
I I

V
10,3 d.
0,3
--rr- t
0. d..
---cr J
O,3d.
- o./f - o,ja.
.-
I I r 0,05 d,
I I j o,OS'a,
D,S
t=J
o..f - I I l
d/', - o.J..
-
I t1t?x,
'< ?
, 0.-13 d.
\.J 10,-1 - 6;.I!: d. 0,7
& o,.=l:f.c:L

r ""
-< >-
,
- de
-

Figure 3.18. Values of n
- 61 -
Vm,t,z" mean design wind speed at the height of the centre of the surface
Ax of the bridge,
V
c
critical speed determined by the following formula:
V
c
= 3,14 Tl d [1 + (n
1tO
l'S -
n]fZex / d
3
n
1fZex
natural first mode frequency in bending perpendicular to the vlind
direction (.If,)
n]tOl'S natural first Mode frequency in torsion about an axis perpendicular
to the wind direction (Hz)
m mass per unit length (kg/m)
I torsional stiffness factor per unit length (kgm2/
m
)
P density of air: ]225
d alongwind dimension of the section (m)
n empirical coefficient equal to the ratio between the critical speed
for the section and the critical speed for a flat plate given
figure 3.18.
3.3.42.-
As a general rule, aerodynamic instabilities should be avoided
except in cases where the flexibility of the structure allows for very large
amplitudes of oscillations .
Nevertheless, if v,., ( V t _, it is necessary to check either by
- m, J
a more detailed calculation of the critical speed or by a wind tunnel test
or not, in the particular case under consideration, aerodynamic ins-
tabilities will occur. Actually the calculation formula for the critical speed
is only a first approximation in the absence of any better, the purpose of
which is simply to define structures which are certainly not sensitive to
these phenomena.
- 62 -
- 63 -
E
G
F
as defined in 3.1. and
- displacement of the particular point of the structure in the di-
rection perpendicular to the wind, calculated as shown in 3.3.32
(in m). For horizontal structures y must be replaced by z.
4.3.- Torsional oscillations
The angular speed of rotation can be calculated from the formula
0,5 1---c...-L-H-++1I+++--+--If-H++ttt--+
acceleration
5 2
(m/5
2
)
1 vl"A91
0,02
0,0 1
0005 L--L--L.LLl.lll.l.----L.....LLLl..LL.Ll...---l....-L-l....Ll...u..J.J
'0) 0,5 5 10 SO 100
frequency n
1
(Hz)
where "1
a
y
Ie=2 n
1
a I
where "1 as defined in 3.3.2.
a - angle of rotation calculated according to 3.3.2. (in rod).
4.4.- Limiting conditions for comfort
The limiting accelererations for comfort j for bending oscillations
are given in Figure 4.1. as a function of oscillation frequency. On the other
hand. slight rotations of a building can easily be discerned by looking out
of windows. The limiting angular speed for perception of these rotations is
e =0,001 rad/a.-fhis spee'd may perhaps be allowed once or twice a
year.
Ij y = '1 TT
2
a
y
I
where
n
1
as defined in 3.1.
ax displacement of the particular point of the structure in the wind direc-
tion (in m). calculated as shown in 3.2. but with the dynamic wind
pressure qr t z whose effect is equivalent to the maximum amplitude of
the at the frequency "1 ; the pressure q is calculated
f
1', t, z
rom :
4.- EFFECT OF OSCILLATIONS OF FLEXIBLE STRUCTURES ON THE COMFORT OF OCCUPANTS
It is necessary to consider oscillations in each of the principal
bending and torsional modes and to determine in each case the maximum accele-
rations at the point on the structure under consideration, and the natural
frequency "1 of the structure. Acomparison is then made between these values
and those corresponding to comfort limits.
4.1.- Oscillations in bending in the wind direction
The maximum acceleration in the wind direction for the first mode
oscillation can be calculated with the formula
and R are as given in 3.3.1.
where
4.2.- Oscillations in bending in the accross wind direction
(under the effect of von Karman vortices)
The maximum acceleration in the direction perpendicular to the
wind for the first mode oscillation can be calculated by the relationship
Figure 4.1. Limiting acceleration of bending oscillations
- 62 -
- 63 -
where "1 as defined in 3.1. and
a - displacement of the particular point of the structure in the di-
y
rection perpendicular to the wind, calculated as shown in 3.3.32
(in m). For horizontal structures y must be replaced by z.
4.3.- Torsional oscillations
The angul ar speed of rotation can be ca 1cul ated from the formul a
G
F
E
10 SO 100
frequency "1 (Hz)
5
acceleration
J
2
<m/s
2
)
1
D,S
0,2
0,1
O,oS
0.02
0,01
0005
, D;1
OS
I
Ie= 2 "1 e I
where "1 as defined in 3.3.2,
o - angle of rotation calculated according to 3.3.2. (in md).
4.4.- Limiting conditions for comfort
The 1imiting accelererations for comfort j for bending oscillations
are given in Figure 4.1. as a function of oscillation frequency. On the other
hand, slight rotations of a building can easily be discerned by looking out
of windows. The limiting angular speed for perception of these rotations is
a = 0,001 rcuVs.-rhis spee'd may perhaps be allowed once or twice a
year.
4.1,- Oscillations in bending in the wind direction
The maximum acceleration in the wind direction for the first mode
oscillation can be calculated with the formula
"1 as defined in 3.1,
ax displacement of the particular point of the structure in the wind direc-
tion (in m), calculated as shown in 3.2. but with the dynamic wind
pressure qr,t,a whose effect is equivalent to the maximum amplitude of
the oscillations at the frequency n ; the pressure a is calculated
] 'p t "
from:
'
4.- EFFECT OF OSCILLATIONS OF FLEXIBLE STRUCTURES ON THE COMFORT OF OCCUPANTS
It is necessary to consider oscillations in each of the principal
bending and torsional modes and to determine in each case the maximum accele-
rations at the point on the structure under consideration, and the natural
frequency "1 of the structure. Acomparison is then made between these values
and those corresponding to comfort limits.
where
and R are as given in 3.3.1.
where
4.2.- Oscillations in bending in the accress wind direction
(under the effect of von Karman vortices)
The maximum acceleration in the direction perpendicular to the
wind for the first oscillation can be calculated by the relationship
Figure 4.1. Limiting acceleration of bending oscillations
Eees - RECOMMENVATIONS
60JL the. Ca.c.u.ta.tt.on 06 Whtd E66e.c.t6 on Bu.il.dhtg6 and stIt.u.c.tuJLeA
AND FOR C E C0 E F F I C I E NT S
AP PEN 0 I X 1
PRESSURE
"
Figure 5.1. Q
- 64 -
If the natural frequency of the structure is n
1
< 0,5 Hz, the
estimated number of oscillations is taken as equal to 0,5 N .
n
1
5.- EFFECTS OF THE REPEATED ACiION THE WIND
11' the natural frequency of the structure is n
1
0,5 Hz, the
number of a vaTiTe-Q 0 toe effect of tile wino under conside-
ration occurs during a period t is given in figure 5.1. as a function of the
ratio Q/Q
w
where Q
w
is the effect of the. design wind of return-period t.
25
75 I------l--.::!.......---l----+----+----+---+----j----+---j
50
..Q.. (0'0)
Ow
100
September 1978
-\
- 64 -
5.- EFFECTS OF THE REPEATED ACTION OF THE WIND
If the natural frequency of the structure is "
1
0,5 Hz, the
number of-times, N, -that a value Qof the effect of the wina under conside-
ration occurs during a period t is given in figure 5.1. as a function of the
ratio Q/Q
w
where Q
w
is the effect of the design wind of return-period t.
If the natural frequency of the structure is "
1
< 0,5 Hz, the
estimated number of oscillations is taken as equal to 0,5 N .
"
1
JL (0/0)
Ow
100
ECCS - RECOMMENDATIONS
APPENDIX
7S
so
2S
Figure 5.1. Q
PRE S SUR E AND FOR CE C0 E F F I C lEN T S
September 1978
- 67 -
Appendix 1 Pressure and force coefficients
CONTENTS
External pressure coefficients C
pe
- Structures with rectangular planform with A
e
~ 12
- High aspect-ratio rectangular planform structures
(12 < A ~ ~ )
e
- Rectangular planform structures with saw-tooth roofs
Rectangular planform structures with circular,
elliptic or parabolic roofs
- Structures of L, T and V-shaped planform
- Structures with polygonal or circular section,
with vertical or horizontal axis distant from
the ground
Structures with polygonal or circular section, with
horizontal axis near the ground
Cylindrical structures supporting spheres or
portions of spheres
Local external pressure coefficient C
peZ
Local pressure coefficients C
pZ
applicable to various
external architectural features and to roofs
Force coefficients C
f
- Canopy roofs ; mono or duo pitched
- Prisms with rectangular base and sections
- Prisms with polyponal section
- Prisms with rounded corners
- Cylinders with circular or elliptical section
- Bridge decks
- Spheres and portions of spheres
- 67 -
Appendix 1 Pressure and force coefficients
CONTENTS
External pressure coefficients C
pe
- Structures with rectangular planform with A
e
~ 12
- High aspect-ratio rectangular planform structures
(12 < A
e
~ co)
- Rectangular planform structures with saw-tooth roofs
- Rectangular planform structures with circular,
- Structures of L, T and V-shaped planform
- Structures with polygonal or circular section,
with vertical or horizontal axis distant from
the ground
Structures with polygonal or circular section, with
horizontal axis near the ground
Cylindrical structures supporting spheres or
portions of spheres
Local external pressure coefficient ~ ?
pe"
Local pressure coefficients C p ~ applicable to various
external architectural features and to roofs
Force coefficients C
r
- Canopy roofs; mono or duo pitched
- Prisms with rectangular base and sections
- Prisms with polynonal section
- Prisms with rounded earners
- Cylinders with circular or elliptical section
- Bridge decks
- Spheres and portions of spheres
- 69 -
- 68 -
- Lattices composed of square edged members
- Plane lattice frame composed of cylindrical members
- Lattice masts of triangular section composed of
cylindrical members
- Lattice masts of square section composed of
cylindrical members
- Series of plane lattice frames
- -
Cpe.-O,1 Cpe.- 0,5
Cpe",
c:J
pe
+0,9
Cpea -O,1 Cpe.-O,S
d >b
d
-
Cpeo-O
i
....
Cpe:
Cpi
\..pe
l
+0,8 r>O,1
1/ / /1 '//////1//1/1/
/.
-
'4i.ndwi'rc:l
sloop.
Leeward
slope
Pi tched. roof _d_
-L ....L -L
-+
b -
--.-
cJ -tJ
llor b
Cpa
0.8 ------------
0(
60' 90'
If
40'
calculations should
be carried out for
two possible values
of C
pe
60' . 30' ; 0 30'
, I
I I
I I
Ii' I
__________.. ' -OS _ '__ 1._
I' I
1
0
"6 I
-o,e
oc
90'
Figure Al.I External pressure coefficients C
pe
: .
Structures with rectangular planform wlth 12
- 69 -
- 68 -
- Lattices composerl of square edged members
- Plane lattice frame composed of cylindrical members
- Lattice masts of triangular section composed of
cylindrical members
- Lattice masts of square section composed of
cylindrical members
- Series of plane lattice frames
-
,...--
cp..-_O,
Cpea
cpi
pe
0,8 -0;
peo-o.
-
-
Cpe 0,7 cpe.-O,s
Cpe ..
oj
pe
+0,8
Cpe 0,7 cpe.-O,S
-
-
Cpe>-O;f
-'
Cpe:
cpi
pe
l
+0,8 b.o,:
11/1// '/////////////
d >b
d

sloop.
--
Cpe
o.s
0.8 - - -- - - - - - - ---r-------
Leeward
slope
-
Pitched, roof
-0.8
If. .

calculations should
be carried out for
two possible values
of C
pe
0(
60 . 30' 0 30
I
I
I , , I
r I
----------J.,;' -Q,S _'. _ 1.. -
I I
0116......._-+-....
'"
90'
Figure AI.l External pressure coefficients C
pe
: .
Structures with rectangular planform wlth A
e
12
- 70 -
External pressure coefficients c p ~ are determined as a function of
the coefficients cpe for non-slender structures (A
e
< 12) given in
figure Al.l and of the magnification coefficient E given in figure
3.3. of the Recommendations according to the equivalent aspect-
ratio A
e
defined in figure 3.2. :
- positive values of cpe (A
e
~ 12) are multiplied by ~
- negative values of Cpe (A
e
~ 12) are multiplied by ~
- 71 -
=
(Cpel
a
and (Cpel
z
; see Fig. A1.1
(Cpeld =(Cpel
m
=(Cpeln =(Cpel
x
=-0,3
Figure Al.2 External' pressure coefficients Cpe :
high aspect-ratio rectangular planform struct4res
(12 < A
e
~ aJ)
Wind parallel to the ridges ; see Fi g. AI. 1
(Cpe)a and (Cpe)2 : see Fig.Al.l
I 2
-
..
(Cpel
b
= (Cpel, -0,7 -0,3
(Cpeld :(Cpelm =(<:peln -0,3 -0,3
(Cpelw = (epe lx -0,3 -0,6
Wind parallel to the_ ridges see Fig. AI. 1
Figure Al.3. External pressure coefficients Cpe :
Rectangular planform structures with
saw-tooth roofs
- 70 -
External pressure coefficients C p ~ are determined as a function of
the coefficients Cpe for non-slender structures rAe < 12) given in
figure AI.I and of the magnification coefficient E given in figure
3.3. of the Recommendations according to the equivalent aspect-
ratio A
e
defined in figure 3.2. :
- E + 2
- positive values of Cpe rAe ~ 12) are multiplied by --r--
- negative values of Cpe rAe ~ 12) are multiplied by ~
-
- 71 -
=
(Cpel
a
and (Cpel
z
: see Fig.ALl
(Cpe1b =- 0,6
(Cpe)d = (Cpe)m = (Cpe)n =(Cpel
x
=-0,3
Figure AI.2 External pressure coefficients Cpe :
high aspect-ratio rectangular planform structures
(12 < A e ~ aJ)
Wind parallel to the ridges ; see Fig. A1. I
(Cpe)a and (C pe)z : see Fig.A1.1
I 2
-
..
(Cpel
b
= (Cpel
c
-O?
-0,3
(Cpe1d =(Cpelm =(peln -0,3 -0,3
(Cpelw = (Cpel
x
-0,3 -0,6
see Fig. AI. I
Figure AI.3. External pressure coefficients Cpe :
Rectangular planform structures with
saw-tooth roofs
- 72 - - 73 -
Cpe.
Cpe =
-1,3
-1,3
Cpe:to.e
p pe
..
=
.
Cpe=+a,8 o,e a
CpenO,e
Cpe.:.-0,6
Cpe -
-1,3
C
o,s 0,4
_ _ _ _ _ __ __

to,S
a,)
I
I
- 0,3 - - - - - ... - - - - - - - - - - .
- 0,4
-O.S
Zone A :
-If o<lJ.a< O,S, Cpe is obtained by interpolation
_If et h;l!O I has two values
Wind parallel to tlJe ridges: see Figure AI.l Figure Al.5. External pressure coefficients Cpe:
structures of L, T and V-shaped planform
Figure Al.4. External pressure coefficients Cpe:
- 72 - - 73 -
cp;:-
-1,3
Cpe:to,s

0)
.
0,
Cpe "+0,8
Cpe ...
-1,3
-
Cpe =
-1,3
p

B
A
o,s 0,4
Cpe
roof
t
0+-----+---+-----11-----+----1----
I
- 0,3 - - - - - ... - - - -
- 0,4 - - - - - _...---__-+__-f- ----:._--=C=_____
- 0.5
+0,5
-\2
- ,
---+EliI:a
B
f S C'
JI!!: 1 Cpe::+O,8 h cpi Cpe=-Q,4
::;..00-

d
Zone A :
-If O<h"cl< 0,5, Cpe is obtained by interpolation
_If et hiO, has two va].ues
Wind parallel to ridges: see Figure AI. \ Figure Al.S. External pressure coefficients Cpe:
structures of l, T and V-shaped planform
Figure Al.4. External pressure coefficients Cpe:
- 74 -
- 75 -
..
:"'10
; .. ..
_' i.l. " .:. _ '0"'_.'

-.... ' '.'
tcpc
, .....,:.:::, ...;;i .!.... ----,
: -t t c.-_ I
.. .':t t.... I
0) 'n
, ..
..
u
: '
I
, , ...
,+II ...
:q:
Tt
...
f+H
, , I
..
--
....
1/
"
u
u
' ,
,;
,
'11
."
'0
L..L.J...i.
"
...
,
, 0
I
'.-
,
L.J...L..1 -no
..... ...,..,....,.
d
e<d
"1. ' ,
" ,
I +-;

I ;C'"

;'lpD __ i

,-.,vl.....
.::';+-+
..
...
..
..
..
..'
+1-\1 I I I I
."IT
....

-'-
, "
.:ti"i,;-r:
-\4 '
tt
_ i..L'
: External pres sure
with coefficients cpe :
wlth horizontal or ci X1S near the rcular sect'
Fl<. > 105 - ground to..! lon,
where Re = 0.7.10
5
V_. d
Figure AI,7.
face

w-er fo..ce
- ,,'"
.!,-L TI '0
1r+1I:!':n.no 1,..+...!,.
r I . WI"U I
,..:. , ' ,
,
:' I
'-'-'
Ib-'---
I ' II
I
I':
L-u
,. I
.J+++++

'''aIr'' 0
I ., I I
, ..
CD ld
fr///////
>.e:Yc!
I.e c I rr-r+.......
u
I

.
'-'-'-'- '
: Externa 1 pres sure
structures with Cpe :
with vertical or ygonal or clrcular
the ground for horizontal axis section distant f '
rom
Re>, 4.10
5
I
Figure A1.6.
'J
rTT"7+++ I j I II' H- .. =
.........rt-+-! +I :l4:J=R=j
+ .. :. u '. :, : I,ttj
+; 7. - ..-=tl '0 cJ."
!l+ 0
:::IJ
i I
- 74 -
- 75 -
: External pressure c .
with oefflcients Cpe '
wlth horizontal or c .
aX1S near the lrcular sect'
R" > 10 5 - 9.round for 1on.
where " -
ne = 0.7.10
5
V_ d
Figure A1. 7.
,
- =0
." '
I I
Externa1 Pres sure
structures wl'th coefficients c '
poly pe ,
with vertical Or gonal Or clrcular
the ground for hori zonta1 ax i s secti on distant f
rom
He 4.10
5
where 'Ie
I
UI'
face
..sL.
-.J..........
-

--J.........
-L
CD I'
d
O)l
d
/
#uL
////////
/
$/////////;/<d
Ae =lJd

urer fa.<e
e<d

Ae =Vd
Ae= 2l/d
Ae= \I'd
Figure A1.6.
"':o:::iII u,C --e-----
1

1
- 76 -
- 77-
Cpe is constant along the intersection between the dome and planes
perpendicular to the wind: it can be determined as a first approxi-
mation by linear interpolation between the values at A, Band C.
In the same way, values of Cpe at Aif 0 < hid < h and at Bor C if
o < hid < 0,5 can be obtained by linear interpolation.
az = fa" 9 Ig<dZ 1
lO,l d
Z
Id2 <g 1
aZ >--'m
a,= fO.2s d, (C1
lo,ls dZ Id
2
<d, 1
a,
c
d
A
c
d
..
A
Cpe
+1
-1
-1,5
,
I
c( tyd ::. a)
o,s 0,6
.Yd
,
I
(% 'C
8 )
B (Ycl 0,5 )
Figure Al.9. Local external pressure coefficients CpeZ
(extreme values covering any wind direction)
Figure Al.8. External pressure coefficients Cpe :
Cylindrical structures supporting spheres
or nf soheres
- 76 -
- 77-
Cpe is constant along the intersection between the dome and planes
perpendicular to the wind: it can be determined as a first approxi-
mation by linear interpolation between the values at A, Band C.
In the same way. values of Cpe at A if 0 < hid < h and at Bor C if
o < hid < 0,5 can be obtained by linear interpolation.
c
p
d
A
c
d
Cpe
+1
Figure AI.9. Local external pressure coefficients
(extreme values covering any wind direction)
B < Ycl O,S)
B<'Yc!=O)
-1
-1,5
,
0
c( 'Yd
=. 0. )
0,2 o,s 0,6
ld
-0,5
c <%
oj- o,S
Figure AI.a. External pressure coefficients epe :
Cylindrical structures supporting spheres
nr nf soheres
- 78 -
- 79 -
-
. ,Jell

/ I I ; 7 7 7 ; 7 I n
-1-
-qs
tl o' S
Cf
oM:!...
9
Figure AI.II Force coefficients Cf :
canopy roofs, mono or duo pitched for
h/g 0, '15 and a 5"
The coefficients C
f1
, C
f2
and C
f3
correspond to pressures acting perpendicular
to each panel. In order to calculate the corresponding resultant force, the
pressure must be multiplied by the surface area of the panel. If h/g < 0,75
or if obstacles may be placed under the roof, it must also resist the most
unfavourable actions for the case of structures enclosing internal volume
but open on one or several walls.
.L
Cpl e
5 1,9
1 \35
Mull ions
h
Cpt
-....
5
6
5
4
Cpl
Cpel
L
-5
Op3 -4
-7
-3
----
Figure AI.IO Local pressure coefficients CpZ :
applicable to various external architectural
features and to roofs
1-
Balconies and
roof overhangs
- 80 -
ex
o 90 180
Cfn
1,3 0 _1,3
tL.. J4

d,
n -1
ctt
0 -0,8 0
ctn
1,3 0 1,3

d
-(1,3-0.1
ctt
0 0

Cfn
1,3 0 -1,3
Cft
0 -1,3 0
'
Cfn
1,3 I -1
..
ctt
-1,3 -1,3 0,1
---{--. 4 -
Cfn
1,3 0.8 -1,3
ctt
0 -1,3 0
Figure AI.12 Force coefficients en (normal) and eft (transverse)
prisms with rectangular base and sections
Number
3-4 5 6-8 10 12
of s,des
[-
3 4 5
0--- l> DO
Cf 1,3 1,1 0,9 OJ5 0,6
Figure AI.13 Force coefficients C
f
prisms with polygonal section
- 81 -
0(
O 45
r 4; I
Ct 1,3 1
b
Re 5.10
5
Cf
Q,15 1
",.
*'
(]
f= t
b Re 10
8
Ct
0,5 -
Re 2.10
5
Cf
0,6 1
f= +
-.;;:
Re ;r4.10
5
Ct
-
0(
O 90
r 1
ct
1,3 0.9
......-. b" 50
LJ
r 1
R
e
1O!i
Ct 1.1 0.5
b
b=lf
r _ 1
ct
1 0,3
ti-T
r 1
Cf 1,3 0,1
50
1

Re 10
5
Cf
1 01
r,", T
Cf 1 0,7
ii-T
ex
O 60
r I
Cf 1,3 0,75
....
50
b
t>
!.=J... Re 105 Cf 1,2 0,75
b 12
i=t
ct
0,8 0.7
Figure AI.14. Force coefficients C
f
; prisms with rounded corners
(Re= 0,7.10
5
V _.bJ
- 82 -
- 83 -
0,2 b
t
< 1,4 b
(since A
e
= for a bridge, the product EC; is given
directly when E is taken as the magnification factor
as defined in figure 3.3,)
Figure AI,I? Force coefficients C
r
: spheres and portions of spheres
Re = 0,7.10
5
V
m
t z,b
(for intermediate values of Re, is obtained by' ,
lOS
2.10
IJ
,R
e

-.0}
1,3 0,5
---.
I
disk
1,3 1,3 1,3
Q( =0"
1,3 0,5

ot=180" 1,3
',3 ',3

c( =0' 1,3 0,5
.=.180 1,5
',5 1,5
bridge
e =0,6 b
EC
r
= 1,35
traffic EC
r
= 1,6
e = O,6(b + btl
bridge without traffic
EC
r
= 1,6 +
bridge with traffic
0,6 d < d] < 0,9 d
0,1 d < b < 0,8 d
..
d
Figure AI,16 Force coefficients C
r
bridge decks for :
Figure Al.IS. Force coefficients :
cylinders with circuiar or elliptical section
(Re = 0,7,10
5
Vm,t,z,bJ
ex
o' 90'
R
e
'lJS
Cf 09
s Moot/.- I
-bIO
!.=o
Re 2.10
5
Ct
D,S b
-blO-+'
rouglL-
R
e
105
Ct
0,9
= 0.0
2
Re 2.10
5
Cf 0,7
-blO-tc
Very rou'.);'" Ju.!flJ(e
R
e
105
Cf 0,9
=0.08
Re 2.10
5
Cf 0,8

0
.lmocu... Surfa.LC' R
e
105 Cf 0,9 0,'
rOIll- of
t= 0,1 Ct 1,1 0,8
"'.h.
5mOt.tl,..
0)
1 cylincWr Re laS
Ct
I 0,7
b
!. 2
Gt
0,9 0,9
e
b
bO =0,1 Ct
1,1 -a,s
:10
2
11d
cylinoer
t =1 Re \0
5
Cf 1 0
t Cf 0,9 0,15
,
t :0,1
Cf 1.l 0,15 .
ortl -It .
b
n 3- .... cyl.ncler
t=1
R
e
105
Cf 1 0,2
'"
2 Cf 0,9 0,15
- 84 -
- 85 -
3
1 . 3 . ~ ~
1.0
Square edged
members
~ _ ~ I
I pl- A
0,5
+--
\ ~
\ \
1\
[]
~
t\
t
\ ~
~
............ .-
'"
f'-...:
./bI'
............
-.........
--
'-
/'
V
--
r-. ./
2
1,5
3,5
Cf
A
overall projected area in a plane perpendicular to the wind direction
I I I I I
5 6
I I I
a 9 10'
I I I I I I I
a 9 10'
Re
A
pZ
total surface of solid parts as seen by the wind
The coefficient C
f
applies to the total surface of the solid parts A
pZ
' A
Overall projected area of the outline, in a plane perpendicular
to the wind direction
A
pl
total surface of solid parts as seen by the wind
Figure Al.18 Force coefficients EC
f
:
lattices composed of square edged members
- flat lattice members
lattice towers and masts with square or triangular
cross section
The coefficient C
f
pl
Figure Al.19 Force coefficients C
f
:
plane lattice frames composed of cylindrical members
- 86 -
- 87 -
A
pl
Total surface of solid parts as seen by the wind
Overall projected area of the outline in a plane perpendicular to
the wind direction
2.5
1.0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ ~
2.0
Re 2
5 6 7 8 9 10'
I I I "
I I
1 8 9 10'
A
I I I I
The coefficient C
f
pl
' 5 6 1 8 9 10'
I I I I I ! I
6 1 8 9 10'
Re
>iQure Al.20 Force coefficients C
f
:
lattice masts of triangular section composed
of cy1i ndri ca1 mer,lbers
A Overall projected area of the outline in a plane perpendicular to
the wind direction
A
pL
. Total surface of sol id parts as seen by the ~ I i n d
The coefficient C ~ applies to the total surface of the sclid parts A
pZ
'
Figure Al.21 : Fcrce coefficier.ta C
f
:
1attice masts of square section composed
of cylindrical members
- 88 -

.

,
'1 0,01
0+---'------4-.---_----4-
o 0.5 'l'pl:
A
1st case Set of n lattice placed exactly in line
1 =C
r
isolated member
J" J )
ECCS - RECOMMENVATI0NS
601t .the Calc.u1.atlon 06 W.<.nd E66e.ca on an.d StJw.ctWt.e.6
AP PEN 0 I X 2
CAL CUL AT ION
o F
NAT URAL F REQUE NC I E S 0 F 0 SCI L L AT ION
----I... bI T
,. e
......
1
-.-
,
,
1------.
...... -4.
2 n
C = n C
f,n f,n-1
n equidistant members
Cf = (] + n + n
l
+ '" + nn) C
r
,l
non equidistant members
C
f
= {I + 11
12
[1 + 11
23
(1 + ... J]) C
fl
2nd ca se Seri es Of members of any type : it is genera 11 y accepted thilt
first member has the sar.le wilke coefficient as if it isolilted
and that for the second memter, the parts which are screened by
the first lattice frame behave as in the previous case, but the
parts are not screened' J' the first lattice frame are consi-
dered to be unshielded. Effects on the third anrl on the
following ones ure determined to the same principle.
FiJure Al.22 . Force coefficients C
f
:
series of plane lattice frames
September 1978
- 91 -
Appendix 2 Calculation of natural frequencies of oscillation
CONTENTS
1.- BENDING MODES OF SLENDER OR ELONGATED STRUCTURES
1.1.- Introduction
1.1.1.- F i ~ l d of validity
1.1.2.- Idealisation of the structure
1.2.- ~ a s s distributed over the whole length
1.2.1.- Constant inertia
1.2.2.- Truncated cone or pyramid
1.3.- Concentrated mass on a support of distl'ibuted mass
1.3.1.- Constant moment of inertia
1.3.2.- Variable moment of inertia
1.4.- ~ a s s a s s u ~ d to be concentrated at various levels
1.4.1.- Empirical formulae to apply to prismatic
buil di ngs
1.4.2.- Rayleigh's fonmulae
1.4.3.- Vianello-Stodola method of successive
aoproximations
2.- FLEXURAL OSCILLATIONS OF THIN FLAT PLATES
3.- TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS OF SLENnER STRUCTURES
- 93 -
1.- BENDING MODES DF SLENDER DR ELONGATED STRUCTURES
1.1.- Introduction
1.1.1.-
The proposed methods and formulae permit the treatment of many
practical cases. Nevertheless it should be noted that they implicitly assume
- that the principle bending modes are uncoupled, i.e. it is possible to
excite the structure so that all motion is confined to one plane, without
thereby producing motion in a direction at right angles,
- the torsional inertia can be neglected compared with the translational
inertia.
The first condition is satisfied by structures having a vertical
plane of symmetry of the direction of the wind; but the condition is not
satisfied for asymmetric structures because all lateral oscillations produce
torsional oscillations which become more pronounced as the asymmetry becomes
more marked.
Concerning the second condition, the fact of neglecting the rota-
tional inertia does not generally introduce a systematic error greater than
5 %in the period of the fundamental mode of oscillation of slender structures.
The calculated periods are consequently shorter than the actual periods.
It follows from the above considerations that the proposed methods
and formulae do not apply to asymmetric structures.
1.1.2.-
From the point of view of oscillations, the masses which compose a
structure may behave as :
- either concentrated masses at a aiven level (ex. : horizontal floors),
- or distributed masses about the vertical axis (ex. : shafts of towers, of
chimneys, etc ... ).
For complex structures, such as buildings, one has to proceed to
their arbitrary decomposition in fictitious sections in order to replace the
distributed masses, which are difficult to introduce into the calculation, by
masses concentrated at the level of the centre of gravity of each section.
- 94 -
- 95 -
1.2.- Mass distributed over the whole length
The natural frequency of mode is given by
where
E modulus of elasticity (N/m
2
)
I moment of inertia of the CroSS section (m")
1.2.2.-
The cross section is supposed to
vary linearly from the base to the top
(figure A2.2.).
The coefficient Aof the first
mode natural frequency js given ia figure
A2.3. as a function of / and of f

." .. 1
1. 1ength of the structure (m)
m mass per unit length of the structure (kg/m)
A frequency coefficient of mode r as defined hereafter.
d external diameter at the base (m)
d
s
external diameter at the top em)
e thickness of the load-bearing wall
at the base (m)
'f '.'_'-"''-_-''':-'-
'1=. I
.i: 1:- d
'" .
1.2.1.-
The Acoefficient and the mode shape are given in figure A2.1.
for the first 5 modes of oscillation and for different support conditions.
e
s
thickness of the load-bearing wall
at the top (m)
Figure A2.'2.
6
9
8
I"-
.........
r---.
r-...

7
1
"-.
1'---,- -""-
r--..
l"-
t-
t-
25
I\.. I'.....
l-
t-
In
"
r--.. I'--- l- f-
I' r-..
I--
t-
t- f- 05
.....
l-I--
l-
t- !?.7 t-
O 01 02 03
Figure ,11.2.3.
0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,6 0 9 1 0
'd '
-!.
d
3
5
In the formula which gives the natural frequency, I and mare
calculated for the section at the base. r. I r.2 r.:3 r=4 f= S

0....

). : "'52 A : 22'" >. : .A : 12\0 ). =201
0,011
A
0,40 qII0
D,500
n,
t t
), =.17 ),. -31,5 A =.... >. ::151 =247
p::y
D,5Oo 0,401
>. :22,' ).
:'\7 ). = 121 ), = 200 ). = 288
0,0'. 0,8." C\277 '\723 0,060 o:aoe 0.773
0,22' <\77.

).. =22.' }. :.". >-
"::: 121 X :. 200 >- =2-"
0"'0
<>,52.

A : 10' t
>. : ". t
>- ,.272 i
0,." 0)153
0,0" 0,311 ,0113
0,73.

t ). : ",'
t ). =sop t A = lO- t A ="1 t A =272
Figure A2.1.
Acoefficients (horizontal or vertical structures)
- 96 -
1.3.- Concentrated mass on a support of distributed mass
1.3.1.-

The natural frequency of the first mode n
1
is given by :
n = LVJEI (Hz)
1 2rr M'L i
where
E modulus of elasticity of the support material (Nlm
2
)
I moment of inertia of the support section (m")
M' = M + ml
M concentrated mass (kg)
l length of the support measured from the restrained end (base) up to the
centre of gravity of the oscillating mass (m)
m mass of the support per unit length (kglm).
1.3.2.-
1.3.21.-
The natural frequency of the first mode n
1
is given by
Ind. hI (8.)
where
M mass assumed to be concentrated at its centre of gravity (kg)
f displacement of this mass under the action of a unit force acting at the
level of the concentrated mass, perpendicular to the support axis (miN).
- 97 -
1.3.22. -
The formula given in 1.3.1. can be used for containers, e.g. tanks
supported on a column with variable moment of inertia, but with I being the
equivalent moment of inertia of the column as obtained by the method of
equating the deflections, and M' = M +- with M" being the total mass
of the column.
1.4.- Mass assumed to be concentrated at various levels
To a first order, it is always possible to approximate the struc-
ture to one of the cases.
1.4.1.-
In these formulae :
d is the in plan dimension parallel to the particular direction considered
(m), and
the total hei ght of the buil di ng (m)
1) Windbracing consisting of masonry or concrete walls
_ lid \fiX+i
n
1
- 0,06 t (Hz)
2) Windbracing consisting of reinforced concrete shells
(Hz)
3) Windbracing consisting of reinforced concrete structure
(Hz)
4) Windbracing consisting of steel structure
(Hz)
- 98 -
- 99 -
1.4.2.-
These "upper-bound" fonnulae take into account rotation of the
foundations.
Let f
1
, f
2
, .. f
n
(in m) be the resulting deflections of the different
masses M
1
, M2' .. M
n
under the effect of this unit force (figure A2.5.).
1) First fonnula
Let M
1
, M
2
, ... M
n
(in kg) be the masses assumed to be concentrated at the
centre of gravity of each section (figure A2.4).
The structure is turned through goo
in the gravity field.
Let Y
1
, Y2' .. , Y
n
(in m) be the
deflections of the different masses
supposing that the deformations
remain completely elastic.
The fundamental natural frequency n
1
is given by :
where
f
i
is expressed in N/m.
1.4.3.-
This method enables the angular frequency w (linked to the frequency
by the relation w= 2nn) to be obtained, as well as the mode shape of the
structure oy successive approximations wi th a-s uch accuracy as desired.
,Figure A2.4
g is the acceleration due to the gravity (g = 9,81 m/s
L
)
a) Approach for the 1st mode

The total mass of the structure is divided into a series of concentrated
masses M
1
, M
2
, ... M
n
" For the structure vibrating in the fundamental mode,
let
w be the angular frequency, and
c the mode shape as defined by its displacements Xl' x
2
' .. X
n
.
(Hz)
n
1: M
i=1 '/. '/.
where
The natural frequency of the first
mode n
1
is then given by :
2) Second fonnula
This is called the first approximation
accuracy is not required.
and can be used when very great
f
n
The inertia forces acting upon the different masses at a given moment are
proportional to :
The structure is submitted to the
action of a unit horizontal force
(1 Newton) acting at the level of
the last mass.
Mn
The sum of these forces is called the characteristic inertia. The Vianello-
Stodola method is based on the following property: if the characteristic
inertia load is dealt with as if it were a static load, and if the corres-
ponding mode shape is calculated, this mode shape coincides with the mode
shape c of the oscillating structure in the fundamental mode. It can be
demonstrated that the method is convergent and that it allows the actual
angular frequency and mode shape to be obtained from an assumed angular
frequency and mode shape.
Figure A2.5.
- 100 -

The starting point is an assumed angular frequency W
o
and an assumed
mode shape Co defined by the displacements K
01
' X
02
' '" X
On
,
The corresponding inertia forces are
to which corresponds a mode shape c
l
defined by the displacements
Xll' X
12
, ... X
ln
'
Afirst approximation for the angular frequency w
1
is deduced by writing
the deflection equality for the end mass; Mn(X
On
= X
ln
).
One procceds to the next iteration using the new mode shape X
ll
' x
12
' X
ln
and the new angular frequency w
l
. One is led to the next approximation to
the mode shape X
21
, X
22
' ... X
2n
and the angular frequency w
2
.
The operation is repeated again as many times as necessary.
Remarks
- Choice of the mode shape
As the convergence is generally rapid, it is sufficient to repeat the
operation once or twice starting from a parabolic mode shape of the form
X = X
On
(7)2 z being the height of any particular point and Z the height
of the structure. .
Astraight line X =X
On
1) can also be adopted as a starting point, but
the convergence is less rapid.
- Choice of the angular frequency
In the absence of other indications, one can start from Wo = 1 rad/s.
Approach for higher frequency modes
The method used for the first mode does not apply as it stands to the suc-
ceeding modes. Whatever assumed mode shape Co may be adopted as a starting
point, the previously described iterations always converge towards the first
- 101 -
mode. This is due to the fact that if the assumed mode shape is considered
as a linear combination of the shapes of various modes, the successive
iterations tend to eliminate the components corresponding to the higher
modes and to emphasize the importance of the lower modes. In the limit, the
only one which remains is the first mode.
If, for instance, the characteristic properties of the rth mode are sought
it is convenient ;
- to examine at first the characteristic properties of the modes of lower
frequency than r,
- to remove the successive approximate mode shapes of the parasitic components
corresponding to the low frequency mode up to and including r - 1. This
elimination based on the orthogonality properties of the modal vectors
(or of the principal modes of vibration) is carried out in the following
pract i ca1 way ...
b) Second mode
Let Xli, XI X
I
be the coordinates of the mode shape of the first mode
2 n
(calculated as indicated in the preceding paragraph).
Let be the coordinates of an assumed mode shape for
the second mode,
The first iteration is started not from but from an assumed filtered
mode shape whose coordinates are given by ;
X
21 = x2 _ ,,1 Xl
oi Oi Vi i
where
and the calculation proceeds as in a).
The first iteration will define a first approximation to the mode shape
which will be dealt with - and will also be filtered as the mode shape
cb, and so on.
- 102 -
c) Third mode and higher modes
The mode shapes xi and xi of the first and the second mode being considered
as known. the approach for the third mode is carried out using the same process;
but the a.ssumed mode shape c ~ , whi ch is chosen and is defi ned by its general
term Xi' has to be replaced by a filtered assumed mode shape defined by
12 - Xl _ ,I Xl _ ,2 X
2
X
Oi
- Oi "Oi i "Oi i
In this expression. A ~ i has the value which has been determined in the calcu-
lation of the second mode and A ~ i has the value
The process is easily generalized for higher modes.
2.- FLEXURAL OSCILLATIONS OF THIN FLAT PLATES
The natural frequency of mode r of a thin flat plate is given by
where
E modulus of elasticity (N/m
2
)
e thickness of the plate (m)
a major dimension of the plate (m)
b minor dimension of the plate (1'))
u mass per unit area (kg/m
2
)
v Poisson's ratio
S frequency coefficient of mode r as defined in figure A2.6. for various
cases of supports of the plates.
- 103 -
a
r:l r=2 r=3 r=4
b
a
11,84 24.61 40,41 46,14
a
5.9
E9
4.35 24.26 70.39 138.85
ID
1 1.01 2.47 6.20 7.94
W
1. 2,01 6,96 7,74 13,89
fa
1 10.40 21.21 31.29 38,04
~
1 5,70 14,26 22,82 37.08
~
1 6,83 14.94 16.95 24,89
~
1 8,37 15,82 20,03 29,54
~
0,5 3,56 14,22 32,05 57,0
2 14.22 57,0 128,0 228,0
u;)
0,5 5,0
2 14.9
u;)
0,5 6,87
2 15,81
gg
a 6.47
0.33 6,70
0.5 7.10
gIoJ
0.5 1. 013 1,55 6.35
2 1,0
4.3 6,23
Figure A2.6. Vnlues of the coefficient B
- 104 -
3.- TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS OF SLENDER STRUCTURES
3.1.- Slender structure simply restrained at the base
with constant cross-section over the height
The natural frequency of the first torsional mode about the
z axis for a slender structure is given by
where ~ is the height of the structure (in m)
G is the shear modulus (in Nlm
2
)
G - E
- 2 (1 + v)
where E is the modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) (in Nlm
2
)
v is the Poisson's ratio
J is the torsional stiffness factor of the section (in m')
J = f 1'2 dA =ffr
l
dI' de
A
where A is the area of the section (in m
2
)
l' and e are the polar coordinates with respect to the torsional axis
I is the polar moment of inertia (in kg.m
2
)
where M is the mass (in kg).
If the mass is distributed over the height
where p is the density (in kglm
3
).
fCes - RECOMMEWVATIONS
APPENDIX 3
GENE RALAC C0 UNTAN D JUS T I F I CAT ION
OF THE METHOD OF CALCULATION
o F WIN D E F F E CT SON S T RUCT URES
September 1978
- 107 -
Appendix 3 General account and justification of the method of
calculation of wind effects on structures
CONTENTS
1.- THE WIND
1.1.- Nature of the wind
1.2.- Variation in time
1.3.- Variation in space
1.4.- Air flow around a solid body
2.- WIND ACTION ON STRUCTURES
2.1.- Pressure exerted by the wind
2.2.- Dynamic effects of the wind
2.3.- Wind effects and occupant comfort
2.4.- Influence of the flow on building ventilation
and smoke extraction
2.5.- Influence of the flow on the environment of
a structure
3.- CALCULATION OF WIND ACTION
3.1.- Calculation principle
3.2.- Calculation of local pressures
3.3.- Calculation of general wind effects
3.4.- Calculation of the effects due to
the von Karman vortices
- 109 -
1. - THE NO
1.1.- Nature of the wind
The wind is a movement of air tending to balance the zones of
different pressure from an uneven heating of the atmosphere
according to latitude and terrain nature; the earth's rotation and the
effect of gravity together with the friction at the earth's surface also
exert an influence on the wind.
The friction acts especially near the ground and gives rise to
turbulent exchanges between air layers at different heights, which are
more intense as the ground roughness increases.
1.2.- Variation in time
1.2.1.-
At a given moment, the wind is defined by both its velocity and
direction.
Figure A3.1. gives an example of a record of wind velocity and
direction as a function of the time.
Wind direction N
W
S
Wind velocity 110
(m!s) 30
20
10
o
Figure A3.1. Example of anemograph record'
(Storm of November 13th to 14 th, 1940, recorded in
., _ ... _ "n _ .... ..........
- 110 -
- III -
6
The wind velocity V can be considered as a random process. It
can be expanded in a Fourier series as a function of the frequency n of its
fluctuations as follows:
V = fa> a(n) sin (2rr nt + ern)) dn
o
where
a(n) =
[
foT V.cos (2rr nt) dt]
ern) = Arc tg;;,-;; f
T
,.-------
. Jo V,sin (2lT nt) dt
(m/s) 2
Mean wind Fluctuations
The variance of the wind velocity oVer a period T long enough in order to
have (?f'T
V
dt)2 negligible with respect to ~ L T V2 dt can be written
o 0
SV(n) is the spectrum or the power spectral density of the wind velocity
at the frequency n
The analysis of the spectrum of the wind velocity (figure Al.2.)
shows that the wind energy presents some maximum values:
- the first peak at a period of 4 days corresponds to the transit time of
fully developed weather s y s t ~ s (depressions),
- the second peak at a 1/2 day period corresponds to diurnal heating and
cool i ng,
the third peak at a period of 1 minute is due to the atmospheric turbulence
Figure A3.2. Wind spectrum measured by van den Hoven
The energy contained in the frequency band between 1 cycle/2 hours
and 1 cycle/IO minutes is negligible, which allows a distinct separation
of the slow variations of wind speed (of the order of days) from the turbu-
lent fluctuations (of the order of minutes) by expressing the wind speed V
in the form :
where
V is the mean wind speed defined over a period T between 2 hours and
m
10 mi nutes :
V =1.. f T V dt
m T 0
In the present recommendations, T = 10 mn.
V
f
is the fluctuation of the wind speed about its mean value V
m
due to the
turbulence of the atmosphere,
- 112 -
1.2.2.- V
m
t z
The statistical analysis of records shows that the
distribution of the extreme values of the mean speed V
m
obeys a Fisher-Tipett
type I distribution j it can be expressed in two ways ;
- the mean speed at the height Z occuring on an average once during t years
that is of return period t years
The parameters U and a define the statistical distribution of the
speed V
m
' For Europe, one can assume = 0,13
- the mean speed having a probability P of occurring at the height z during
N years:
1
V t =U-1log [-log (l-
p
l]
m, ,Z a e e
For the calculation of the mean speed V of return period t
m, t,z
one starts from the mean speed V 50 of return period t = 50 years and
m, ,,2
applies the relationship V t = k
t
V 50 with k
t
as defined by one of
m, "Z m"z
the following relationships ;
1
k
t
= [1 - 0,13 loge (- loge (1 - pll
As a general rule, the design speed Vm,t,z is determined taking no
account of direction. If the structure is sensitive only to the wind blowing
from a certain well defined direction, a reduction coefficient for the design
speed dependi ng on di rection can be assessed from di rect measurements of the I
wind speed in the site under consideration.
- 113 -
The design speed V t does not take into account some phenomena
m" ,Z
such as the tornadoes which can occur but with a very low probability and
very localized effects and against which it is economically impossible to
design.
1.2.3.- V
f
In order to apply the probabilistic calculation methods of the
present recommendations, it is sufficient to define the fluctuation of the
wind speed V
f
about its mean value V
m
by its variance or its spectrum
Sv (n) :
f
0
2
- 1 f 7' (Vf) 2 dt =f" Sv (n) dn
V
f
- TOO f
The statistical analysis of the anemometer records shows that the
standard deviation 0v of the speed fluctuation is proportional to the mean
velocity V t : f
m" ,2
I is the intensity of the turbulence and is a function of terrain
roughness and of the height above ground, but independent of the long-term
variations of wind speed.
The spectrum of the speed fluctuation can also be defined as a
function of the mean speed v 10' of the variance 02
V
and of the fre-
m,t, f
quency n by the following empirical formula:
where
1800 n
:r:=---
Vm, t,10
v as defined hereafter.
m,t,10
where
vII
m,t,lO
- 114 -
1.3.- Variation in space
In flat or gently undulating terrain, the friction between the air
and the ground surface produces a boundary layer flow which depends on the
terrain roughness.
1.3.1.-
Conventionally,S roughness classes are defined:
I sea or lake shore with more than 5 km of fetch over the water
II flat terrain with some isolated obstacles (trees, buildings, ... )
III rural areas with low buildings, trees, hedges
IV urban, industrial or forest areas
V centres of large citi!s
- 115 -
basic speed, i.e. mean speed of return period t at 10 mabove the
ground in zone II
k, 2
0
, band n parameters depending on the terrain roughness, values of
which are given in the table below :
Roughness class I II III IV V
Logarithmic 4
0
(m) 0,005 0,05 0,3 1 2,5
law k 0,16 0,19 0,23 0,26 0,29
Power law n 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25 0,35
b 1,3 1 0,85 0,67 0,47
empirical
point of
speed V
G
1.3.2.-
The mean wind speed v t increases with height according to some
mJ ,2
laws up to the height of gradient 2
G
where this increase shows a
inflexion. The wind speed at this point is called the gradient
it is independent on the terrain roughness.
In the present recommendations, the calculations are carried out
using the logarithmic law (figure A3.3.).
The gradient height 2
G
defines the thickness of the boundary layer
it varies from 250 to 600 maccording to the terrain roughness.
Below gradient height, the mean wind speed can be defined by one or
other of the two following relationships:
Choice of the level 2 = 0
_ For structures on the sea shore, the ground level 2 =0 is the low tide
1evel.
- In very rough zones (classes IV and V), the level z = 0 may be taken as
that at which the volume of buildings above 2 = 0 equals that of the space
between buildings below 2 = O.
V
m,t,2 _ k 1_ 2
II - IAJg
e
Z
Vm,t,lO 0
(logarithmic law)
or
(power law)
Influence of variation of the terrain roughness
If the roughness class cllanges at a distance d
1
upstream of the structure
and if it is necessary to have a more accurate evaluation than the rules of
first approximation in recommendations, the following method is
applicable:
- 117 -
- 116 -
_I
I
I
_2__[
(power law)
K 10 Cl
1= 10 {a}
k -
. e 2
0
(logarithmic law)
where
1.3.3.-
The variation of the turbulence intensity I with height as defined
in 1.2.3. is given by one of the two following relations depending whether
the logarithmic or power law is employed:
_ d
1
500 m, the speed is calculated
for the roughness class of the zone 1
(that more distant from the building)
_ d
1
5 km, the speed is calculated for
the roughness class of the zone 2
(that nearer to the building)
_ 5 km > d
1
; 500 m, the speed is calcu-
lated for the roughness class of the
zone lover a height h
1
=0,08 d;
below this height, the speed is defined
in figure A3.3. by the straight line
which joins point 2 =h
1
on the straight
line correspondinu to the roughness of
the zonl:" 1;0 po;n-t 2 = 2
0
-on the -
line to the roughness of the
zone 2.
\5
l.' 0.05 i-r-i--t74-t-++--+-t-+--+-+-J-t-L-l.J
/

0.01 1/
z 0,005 _+--.l_L-l-l_.L-l-l
J OS
Figure A3.3 Variation of the wind mean speed with height
K is a parameter dependent on the terrain roughness class, taking values
I II III IV V
I
K 0,16 0,19 0,22 0,23 0,23
- 118 -
- 119 -
The parameters Land L are defined by the empirical relationship
z y
La and L
y
being the scale parameters of the correlation and
Az and A
y
being the distances which separate the two particular points.
The ratio of the inertia forces to the viscous forces is expressed
by the Reynolds number :
v b
Re= _m_
\I
where
V
m
mean speed of the incidental wind (m/s)
b smallest dimension of the solid body perpendicular to the wind (m)
If the terrain slope is greater than 20 %, the boundary layer is
influenced. Related studies are now in progress. Until the results are
available, these recommendations give rough empirical rules to be applied
as a first approximation.
1.4.- Air flow around a solid body
The air flow around a solid body is determined by the balance of
inertia forces in the fluid which res+st changes of flow direction and
viscous forces which control the relative motion-between one air layer and
the next. If the air speed is low and the body is small, the viscous forces
predominate and the flow is relatively undisturbed. If the air speed is high
and the body is large, the inertia forces predominate and the flow is dis-
turbed to a much greater degree.
1.3.6.-
The empirical laws of wind speed variation as a function of height
above the ground are valid only for a flat or slightly uneven terrain.
(z in m)
in the vertical direction
in the horizontal direction
A
_..JL
L
Y
L
a
L = 42 (3-;0> 25
Y 20
P =e
y
1.3.4.- of the seeed
The wind speed V
f
at a given moment varies from one point to
in a vertical as well as in a horizontal direction.
another
This variation can be described by a correlation function p
expressing the simultaneity of OCCUrrence of gusts at two points (1 and 2):
1 IT
' V
f
V
f
d
t
P = a 1 2
v v
f
1
f
2
It is given by the following empirical relationships
A
a
-r;-
P
a
= e a
1.3.5.-
The flow direction also varies with height but this effect has
been neglected in the present recommendations.
\I kinematic viscosity of the air
Hhen the flow is at right angles to the major face of a bluff
body (figure A3.4). a cushion of high pressure is formed on the windward
- 120 -
- 121 -
Wake
..
Schematic representation of the air flow round
a rectangular building
Separation
point
Figure A3.4
The disturbance of the flow produces additional turbulence
Near the ground, in front of the building, an eddy with a horizontal axis
is formed; the flow in this eddy spirals from the centre towards the
edges of the windward face.
The air friction at the body surface creates turbulent shear layer between
the air flow and the wake. The vortices which form this boundary layer
occur at the separation point between the flow and the body surface and
increase as they move downstream. For buildings with rectangular planform,
the separation point is located at the corner of the building, but for
curved surfaces the separation point depends on the Reynolds number Re.
- When the wind is blowing in an oblique direction to a building with a flat
roof (figure A3.5), the flow forms two conical vortices along the roof
edges which exert very high local suctions.
Generally, every obstruction to the flow produces turbulence in
its wake, so that the air flow round a structure depends not only on its
own characteristics (shape, dimensions ... ) but also upon the proximity of
other structures or obstacles which affect the incident flow.
face; the flow is deflected progressively as it approaches the body,
to surround it and joins up again at a certain distance behind the body,
enclosing a relatively stagnant low-pressure region called the wake.
Figure A3.5
Schematic representation air
a flat roof for an oblique lnCldent dlrectlon
- 122 -
2.- WIND ACTION ON THE STRUCTURES
2.1.- Pressure exerted by the wind
The wind exerts a pressure which is variable in time and also
over the surface of the structure; this pressure depends on :
- the speed and the direction of the wind,
- the of the structure (shape and surface details).
The instantaneous pressure W exerted by the wind at a point on
the structure may be expressed in the following form :
-- where
is the mean pressure of the wind over 10 minutes
w
m
w
f
is the pressure fluctuation about its mean value w
m
'
The mean pressure at a point can be a positive pressure or a
suction with respect to the static atmospheric pressure which is exerted
on all the walls of the structure, external as well as internal.
The pressure fluctuation due to turbulence results from the
cumulative effect of :
eddies present in the free-stream incident flow, of the scale of the
atmospheric boundary layer,
_ eddies of the scale of the building which occur at the base of the wind-
ward face and within the wake,
_ vortices of the scale of various turbulent shear layers due to the air
friction on the surface of the body or to the interaction of air layers
with different velocities,
- eddies in the wake of possible neighbouring structures.
- 123 -
The large scale eddies (of dimensions greater than those of the
structure) envelop the whole structure and produce changes of the mean
pressure which act simultaneously upon the whole surface or a great part
of it.
The small eddies of dimensions smaller than those of the structure
produce a small overall effect upon the structure because the increase in
pressure which is produced on one part of the surface is balanced by the
decrease of the pressure simultaneously produced on another part. Never-
theless, these small eddies exert very high local pressures which must be
taken into account.
2.2.- Dynamic effects of the wind
Depending on the mechanical properties of the structure or of one
of its structural members, the fluctuation of the wind pressure can produce
oscillations of the structure or of the structural member at their natural
frequencies.
These oscillations can be important in case of flexible structures
or structural members, i.e. when natural frequencies and damping are low.
For rigid structures and structural members, these phenomena can
be neglected.
Adistinction is made between
2.2.1.-

The pressure fluctuation of the incident wind with a frequency
near to the natural frequency of the structure or of one of its structural
members can produce and maintain oscillation at this frequency in the wind
direction.
These are bending or torsional movements of the structure or of
the structural member about the deflected shape produced by the wind mean
pressure.
- 124 -
- 125 -
2.2.2.-
There are cases where the air flow can produce and maintain oscilla-
tions of the structure in a direction perpendicular to the wind or vibrations
of the walls (ovalling of cylindrical shells) under the effect of von Karman
vortices which form at separation point of the incident flow.
Transversal
oscillations
j=rBe-g-
RO-f:i
- \J
2.2.3.-

When a very slender structure oscillates in bending in a plane
perpendicular to the wind direction, the relative speed of the wind with
respect to the structure is equal to the absolute speed of the incident wind
increased by a perpendicular component equal to the oscillation speed but of
opposite sign. This creates a periodic variation of the pressure on the
lateral sides of the structure.
Time dependent oscillations
of cylindrical shells
Figure A3.7.
Ovalling
These may also occur when the exciting frequency corresponds to a
multiple j of the natural or oval ling frequency, but they are often suffi-
ciently damped to be imperceptible.
- a natural ovalling frequency of the wall of a cylindric shell.
Figure A3.6 : von Karman vortex street
The frequency of the pressure fluctuation depends on the average
speed of the wind as well as on the transverse dimension of the structure.
If this frequency is near to :
- a natural frequency of the rth mode of the structure in bending perpendi-
cular to the wind direction, or
They occur alternately on each side of the structure and create an
alternate fluctuation of the pressure (figure A3.6.) on the sides of the
structure.
the alternate fluctuation of pressure causes and sustains the transverse
oscillations or the ovalling (Figure A3.7).
The oscillation or ovalling may be amplified by the effect of the
turbulent wake of an upstream structure.
Furthermore, the torsional oscillations of a very slender structure
modify the angle of attack of the wind on the structure which creates a
periodic variation of the pressure on its lateral sides.
- 126 -
Above a certain value of the wind speed, these periodic variations
of the pressure can result in amplification of the oscillations of the
structure.
In addition, when the natural torsional frequency approaches a
natural bending frequency perpendicular to the wind direction, the superpo-
sition or coupling of both modes can result in additional amplification of
the oscillations.
This type of across-wind response occurs in very flexible elements
such as cables, flags, etc.
Abso
1
ute spee'!.. l'
'-'
Rel
at
/
ve
SPeed .
- 127 -
2.4.- Influence of the flow on buildins ventihttioll'arTd-slllOke extraction
The pressure distribution over the surface of the structure varies
with the wind direction and has to be taken in consideration in designing
the air and smoke vents.
2.5.- Influence of the flow on the environment of a structure
2.5.1.-
Pedestrians walking around the structure may resent uncomfortable
wind gusts which must be taken into account.
2.5.2.-
In the neighbourhood of high buildings, the undistu"bed wind flow
may be appreciably modified.It should be taken into account when calculating
wind effectson neighbouring structures.
Wind >-
Figure A3.a.
2.3.- Wind effects and occupant comfort
The occupants of a building may feel accelerations due to the
flexural or torsional oscillations of the structure.
Structural members which vibrate under the wind effect nay also
produce annoying sounds.
- 128 -
3.- CALCULATION OF WIND ACTION
3.1.- Calculation principle
In order to simplify the calculation, an eqUivalent static model is
substituted for the actual dynamic wind model, which is a fictitious system
of static actions whose effects are equivalent to the actual maximum effects
of the wi nd.
The maximum effect Q of the wind (local pressure, resultant load,
/{
moment, deflection... ) is taken equal to the sum of the maximum effect Q
m
due to the mean pressure and of the maximum effect Q
r
due to the fluctuations
of pressure about the mean :
". = Q
m
+ Q
f
Davenport has shown that the maximum effect Q
r
due to pressure
fluctuations over a period of 10 mn can be taken as
where
g peak factor; it varies little and can be taken as 3.5.
a standard deviation of the fluctuations of the effect Q.
Q
3.2.- Calculation of local pressures
If the natural frequency of the wall of a structure is greater than
5 Hz, which is generally the case, the vibrations of the wall can be neglected
in the calculation, and the wind pressure can be taken as a static pressure w
given by the relationship:
w=w+w=Cq
m f p g
where
C
p
is the determined coefficient of wind pressure on the wall
of the structure.
- 129 -
In regions where the turbulence locally increases because of the
interaction between the wind and the structure, a local pressure coefficient
C should be applied.
P1.
qg is the peak dynamic pressure of the incident wind; the mean over T of
its extreme values is written:
qg = qm + 3,5 0q
The variance {oq)2 of the dYnamic pressure q is given by
In this expression, when the turbulence is low, which is the general
case (roughness classes I up to IV), one can neglect the term in compa-
rison with the term 2 VmV
f
and write:
1 f
T
r
2
VVf12 (V)2 1 iT (V )2
(Oq) 2 ="f 0 t 1763 j dt = \1, T 0 v/ dt = 4 1, =
Since
q = q + 3,5.2 q I = q [1 + 7IJ
g m m m
and therefore :
w= C q t [1 + 7Ij
P m, ,z
In the case of the 109arithmic law, this can be written
II 2 [ ]
W= C q t 10 1/1 1 + 7I
P m" z
- 130 -
or again
w = C qII a
p m,t,z z
where
a = 1jJ2 +
z z z
and
- 131 -
3.3.1.- 0QS
The external surface of the structure is divided into elementary
areas d4. The instantaneous speed of the wind acting upon these areas is :
The effect Q
W
on a part of the structure is given by
where:
3.3. - Calculation of general wind effects
The maximum overall effect (stress or strain) on the whole structure
is given by the relationship:
variance of the fluctuations of the effect Q ; it is equal to the sum
of the variance due to pressure fluctuations and the variances due to
various modes of oscillation.
One can write
where
standard deviation of the fluctuations of Q due to fluctuations 01
wind pressure over the surface of the structure,
standard deviation of the fluctuations of Q due to oscillations of
the structure at its natural frequencies in the wind direction when
submitted to fluctuations of wind pressure of same frequencies.
-,..
C
p
pressure coefficient acting on the elementary area dA
B influence coefficient giving the value of Q
w
due to a unit force applied
to the elementary area d4.
In the same way as in 3.2., the turbulence intensities are assumed
to be low enough to neglect the terms in Vi and since:
one obtains:
The variance (OQS)2 of the effect Q
w
is given by the relationship
- 132 -
or furthenoore :
- 133 -
Put
The point a
O
is a reference point.
This expression can also be written:
J2 = p2 JJ C (A) C (A') aw MA') V (A) Vm(A') 0v(A) 0y(A')p(A,A')dA dA'
QS ~ A' ppm
where
Since
correl ation coeffi cient of the f1 uctuations
in aA and dA'
this expression can be written:
covariance of the fluctuation
in aA and'dA
'

2 Z Z
~ Ly(z) y(z') p(z,z I) dz dz
----u
z
y(z) d ~ 2
For a structure slender and
verti ca1
elongated and
hori zontal
dA = bra) da
dA'= bra') da'
aA = b(y) dy
aA
'
= b(y') dy'
If the reference point a
O
is taken as the centre of application z of the
c
reduced action f Z it can be written :
y(z) dz
o
f Z y(z) dz ( )
o _ v a
c
i
t y (z) - rr:rzJ = I(zc)
y(a) ~ dz m c
o V
IZI
As a first approximation, the point a
c
is considered as being the centre of
the windward surface.
If we put :
- 135 -
- 134 -
and also
One then obtains:
The determination of B can be further simplified as follows
o,S
0
...9 1 .;
~
I' 5
0
\ !\
\
1\
0 1\
1\
S
1\1\
~ 0
\
2
~
~ \
l\
I
I Y
II
\
~ ~
f
\
I
\
0,1
o
0,2
O,S
6
9
s
8
2
2 3
Figure A3.9. Vertical slender structures B
7
Jvl
-0,8 -Q2 -0,6
nvv
fl1
-0,1., 0.1.,2 -qS2
-Iz - ztl
L
z
p(z,z') = exp
For very slender structures. only the values of r which are small with respect
to the total length ~ are significant to the value of B. which means that B
can be reduced to the asymptotic value :
1st case : y(z) of constant sign
If we put r = Iz - z'l we can write
The value of B is given in figures A3.9 and A.3.10 as a function Of1-/L
z
for various functions y(z).
where L is the scale of vertical correlation; in practice. this is determined
by the ~ p i r i c a l relationship L =1;;-;-
z V-:-
z being the greatest of the heights z or z'.
- 136 -
- 137 -
where
equivalent length of the structure, i.e.
the length of a structure which gives the
same value of B but whose y(z) function is
uniform.
In general, B cannot be reduced to its asymptotic value, but can be determined
with sufficient accuracy at the figure 3.5. of the Recommendations as a func-
tion of Ie' with A=
_ b(y) Cp(y) B(y)
y(y) - b(yo) Cp(Yo) B(yo)'
flfl y(y) y(y') p(y,y') dydy'
B = 0 0 ......"t--- _
-[ y(y) dyT
2nd case : y(z) of variable sign
The function y(z) is divided to i functions by points where the function
changes sign. The contribution of each zone in which the fUAction has the same
sign is separately calculated ; these are eventually combined in order to
-.. '.
obtain B.
The calculation stages are given in 3.3.13.
3.3.12.-
For this case :
O,S o
6
l\
1..3 5 4
.,

\
\
\\
\
1
,
1
1
\
,S
\
,Z
\
"
o
D.: _" )" ,
t7 -z"lJ
10
,0
3 ,
"J 17:
'3U 'O,6Y
5 6
-"y" jZ,7' 0
'\8LJ -1,05
Figure A3.10 Vertical slender structures B
- 138 -
- 139 -
L
y
is the horizontal
relationship :
scale of correlation given by the following
z 0.25
L
y
=42 (2(5)
empirical
Vertical
3.3.13.-
or
Horizonta1
o
..
1) Determination of expressions for
d
i
and Ii i as defi ned hereafter
Example: simply supported cantilever
beam, transverse shear at the end
support
Z}__-r-_ (Zl
for each zone i where y is of constant sign, one has to calculate:
1) Determination of expressions for
d
i
and zi as defined hereafter
Example : guyed mast,
transverse shear at the base
(equivalent length
of the structure)
Z =
e
1st case : r(y) of constant sign
structures and for r(z), one takes for r(y) its asymptotic
L
B= 21-
e
with
In general, B cannot be reduced to its asymptotic value but b d
. . . ' can e eter-
mlned wlth sufflcient accuracy using figure'3 7 of the Rd'
a fun t
f . . ecolll!len atlons as
c lon 0 Z IT.
e' _yO
2nrl case : rry) of variable sign
The calculation stages are given in 3.3.13.
D. =1
2
r(z) dz
1. a
D. = i
2
r(y) dy
1. 0
fZ zy(z) dz
a
z.
1. r(z) dz
i
2
yr(y) dy
a
y.
1. i r(y) dy
a
2) Determination of B
ij
(correlation coefficient of the pressure fluctuations
exerted upon i and j zones)
if
- 140 -
if
- 141 -
3.3.14.-
In this case dA =dy dz, the function y is defined as a function of
two variables y and z as follows:
if i = j , = B , calculated for the i zone.
,--
?z =V
37
zi if zi > Zj
if
2. < z.
3
'l. 3
(
-IY' - y,
..t. B 1. .1
1. r 3, ij =e:r:p L
y
L = 42
Y 20
C (y,z) e(y,z) Vm(z) 0v(z)
y(y,z) = c:(yo>zo) 6(yo'zo) Vm(Zo} ov(zo}
and the factor B is given by :
where
3) Determination of B
B=1:1:d.d.B..
i j 1. 3 1.3
Raznahan has calculated the factor B for the case of prismatic structures
for the most useful functions y(y) and y(z) assuming y(y, z) =y(y) y(z)
(see figures 3.5. of these
3.3.2.- 0QD
Aflexible structure has an infinite number of degrees of freedom to which
corresponds an infinite number of orthogonal modes of oscillation. If the
effects of coupling between modes are neglected, the variance 0; of the
effect due to each mode r can be calculated separately and the variance
OQv of the effect Q
w
due to all the (flexural and torsional) is given
by .
. = 1:
r
- 142 -
3.3.21.-
At every instant, the I'th mode shape of the structure with z axis
can be written :
where
XI'(t) is the generalized displacement, that is the variation in time of
the oscillation mode shape IJ (z) ; if the maximum value of IJ (z) is
I' I'
taken equal to unity, Xr(t) consequently represents the maximum
displacement for mode I'.
The acceleration of the point z is given by
..
Xr(t,z) = IJr(z) XI'(t)
- 143 -
and the generalized forces due to the wind can be determined by simple
integration :
P (t) = It p(z, t) IJI'(Z) dz
I' 0
where p(z,t) is the force exerted at the moment t upon the wall element of
length dz.
The elastic forces m(z) IJI'(z) may also be put in a generalized form
F (t) =f L m(z) IJ (z) tIl
2
X (t) \lr(z) dz
r 0 r I'r
F (t)
and a generalized stiffness KI'!:.x)U can be defined
For the undamped oscillation of mode I', the elastic forces corresponding
to the displacement of the structure balance at every instant the inertia.
forces due to the acceleration applied to unit masses m(z)
where
M =It m(z) dz
r 0
where
The response of the structure in each mode can then be defined by a genera-
lized form of the equation of motion of a one degree of freedom system
If the force due to the wind is divided into a series of generalized forces
Pr(t) representing the variation in time of a force distribution over the
structure proportional to m(z) IJI'(z), every generalized force will produce
its corresponding mode shape.
For two modes of oscillation we can write
[
.. Ii . 2 J
M X + til - X + til X =P (t)
I' r I' 1T r r I' I'
The steady state response to a sinusoidal excitation of frequency n
amplitude P is an oscillation of the same frequency and of amplitude XI'
I'
given by :
if
I' I 5
- 144 -
If the exciting force is expressed in form of its power spectrum Sp (n)
l'
linked to its variance a
2
p
by the expression
l'
= fa> SF. (n) dn
l' 0 l'
- 145 -
t
S of the generalized force p can be obtained in the same
The spec rum Pl'.
way as the of the effect Q
w
determined in 3.3.1. by assumlng that
p is the sum of the elementary forces:
r
the deflection spectrum Sx (n) (linked to its
f
a> l'
0
2
= S (n) dn ) can be written
XI' 0 Xl'
variance by the expression
l'
If we put
b(a) C (a) lJ (a) Y (a) 0y(a)
- 17 'r m
'(l' (a) = __ __'---
b{a ) C (a ) y (a
o
) 0V(a
o
)
o p 0 m
we write
Sp (n) Sv (n)
_l'__ = 4 r 2 B
(P )2 l' l' 0
2
(a)
l' V
Any effect Q on a part of the structure resulting from oscillations of mode
l'
l' can be expressed as a function of the displacement Xl' by the relationship
Q = f Z IHa) m{a) lJ (z) da
l' 0 r
where
where
and
J
\ (a) dz
o r
I
r
= -
y (a) ..!!!.--,.( ) da
o r Ova
6{a) -influence coefficient giving the value of Q
w
due to a unit force at z
m(a) lJr(a) w
2
X elastic force at a.
r r
The spectrum of the effect Qr can therefore be wri tten
da dz'
) l
'S the covariance spectrum of the speed fluctuations at
where Sv (z, z', n
a and a' at frequency n
where
v (z=10)
m
L
r
= --"'-g'-n--
l'
Finally
with
- 146 -
p = rzp(Z) dz
r J
o
'
- 147 -
For lightly damped structures the denominator becomes small in the
neighbourhood of n = n
r
which results in a considerable amplification of
the variance.
As a first approximation, only the part of the spectrum near to the frequency
n
r
is retained, in which case;
d(!l-)
fa" 0- (H;:)'
We know that
is the mean force per unit length due to the wind.
If we put :
so
i
z
1
"2 P Cp(Z) b(z) V
2
(z) (z) dz
o m r
i
z
1
"2 P Cp(z) b(z) f!,(z) v
2
(z) dz
o m
(
'OQ:)2 2n - A I
2
8 8 E r-

this becomes
where II' and B
I'
are calculated in the same way as I and 8 by replacing
y(z) by y (z), i.e. B(z) by 1J (z) and p(z. z') by Sv(z.z'.nI' ) and
r r
L by L : Sr(n
r
)
z r
where
1800 n
r
:s: =
Vm t 10
- 148 - - 149 -
where
To define the difference between a rigid structure and a flexible
one, an error E is chosen which is small enough to be accepted a priori in
applying the simplified method:
3.3.31.-
Many structures are rigid enough to allow the variance aQv in the
general effect Q
w
to be neglected.
f
1. %p b(z) C (z)
o p
o = -=------::-,---------
a n
r
fI. m(z)
where p, b(z), Cp(z), Vm(z), n
r
and Ur(z) as previously defined, and
m(z) - mass per length unit (in kg/m).
The logarithmic decrement 0a due the aerodynamic damping is given by the
general relationship :
Determination of the logarithmic decrement 0
The logarithmic decrement 0 is defined in the chapter 3.1. of these Recommen-
dations.
3.3.l2.-
The method of demonstration is the same, but z is replaced by y
by :
b(y) C (y) (y)
yr(y) = b( j C ( d
y p y
The chosen error is E = 10 and the just coefficient calculated
by the simplified method is corrected by multiplicating by (1 + E).
In determining the damping with the formula which gives E, one
obtains
3.3.23.-
There is the same demonstration with two variables y and z.
B
0= 211 El" H ...!.
r B
(
1 + 1,11\2 - 1
63 I VB )
Raznahan has calculated the factor 8
1
in the case of prismatic
structures located in terrain roughness class A by supposing y(z,y) = y(z) y(y)
for the same functions y(z) and y(y) as 8 (see figures 3.10 of these Recommen-
dations) .
The values of 0 have been calculated for various types of structures.
Figure 3.1. of these Recommendations illustrates the results of these calcu-
lations carried out for buildings. The structures which comprise the greater
part or even the whole of the structure (like chimneys, towers, bridges ... )
are more rigid, for any particular value of the parameters n
1
and 0 and
- ISO -
the limiting curves established for the buildings can therefore be applied
to other types of structures.
By analogy with the local pressures, one can define
Q
z
= f1 + 7 IJIBj
and the general formula given in 3.3.1. for the resultant force becomes
where Q
z
can be put in the following form :
- 151 -
3.3.32 - $z
The factor $z = 7 I defined in 3.2 can be written
$ = 7 k
2
Zog r!-) .
z Zo
It is given in figure A3.fl as a function of the height z ann of the
roughness class of the terrain.
As indicated in the ISO Draft Norm "IJind action on Structures" now in prepa-
ration by the ISO/TC/9B/SC3/WG2, it is appropriate to let the factor $z be
independent from the terrain roughness by using in the calculation the follo-
wing approximative value:
with taking into account the approximation already made in assuming the force
and pressure coefficients as being independent from the terrain roughness.
For rigid structures, the expression .;;;- 0 1
1,1 VB + n
very near to 1.
is usually
Thus a simplification can be made by neglecting the influence of
this expression and by determining Q
z
with the relationship
which is identical to Q
z
as defined in 3.2. for the calculation of the local
pressures.
The resultant effect on a rigid structure is therefore simply the
sum of the forces exerted upon its various walls.
- 152 -
3.4.- Calculation of the effects due :he Katman vortices
3.4.1.-

The safety of a structure should be checked under the effect of a
static pressure Q
s
uniformly distributed on the projected area of the struc-
ture perpendicular to the wind direction, the effects of which are equivalent
to the maximum effects of the fluctuations of wind pressure on the lateral
sides, due to von Karman vortices.
The equivalent static pressure Q
5
is given by the relationship
where
g the peak factor ; it can be taken equal to 4
o the standard deviation of the fluctuations of equivalent pressure on the
Q
5 lateral side of the structure
- 153 -
- the influence of the oscillations on the formation of von Karman vortices
and, as a consequence, on the pressure fluctuations they produce.
3.4.2.-

At a point on the lateral side of a rigid structure, the pressure
fluctuations due to the von Karman vortices can be characterized by their
power spectrum 5 (n) as a function of the frequency n ; as is known, the
spectrum 5
k
(n) related to the variance ok of the pressure fluctuations
by the relationship:
Figure A3.12, which applies to cylinders, shows that the reduced
spectrum
5t = nb
varies as a function of Strouhal number : V
m
The power spectrum of the fluctuations 5
Q
is related to the
variance oQ by the relationship: 5
5
and of Reynolds number
where
Re = OJ 7.10
5
V b
.m
The spectrum 5
Q
depends on :
S
the pressure fluctuations due to von Karman vortices on an element of the
lateral side of the rigid structure.
- the correlation of the pressure fluctuations over the length of the
structure)
- the influence exerted by damping on the amplitude of the oscillations and,
as a consequence, on the equivalent static pressure,
V
m
mean speed of the incident wind
qm the dynamic pressure, and
b the smaller dimension of the structure perpendicular to the wind.
The maximum value of the reduced spectrum is reached at a Strouhal
number 5t= 0,2 for .'?e< 2,10
5
and 5t= 0,2 to 0,3 for a largerRe. As a
consequence, the pressure fluctuations reach their maximum values at a
- 154 -
- 155 -
v
frequency n =St b
m
where St is taken equal to these values.
must be assigned to the spectrum Sk to make it equivalent to the spectrum
of a uniformly distributed pressure. B
S
is given in figure 3.16 of these
Recommendations as a function of the ratio dll, i.e. of the dimension d of
the structure parallel to the wind direction and to its length l.
3.4.4.-
For vertical slender structures, it has been shown in chapter
3.3.21 that the spectrum of generalized displacement Xr(tJ is related to
the spectrum of the generalized exciting force Pr(tJ by this relationship
0,1 0,2 0.3 0.40.5 0,7 1.0
nb
l'm'
power spectrum for cylinders
-'
I.-- Re< 2 )(10
11\
I!
\ i
1
I \ I
J/ '\y
'. Re> 10
7

o
0.D3
0,
Figure A3.12.
0,3
In the present case, the spectrum
If this frequency n coincides with a natural frequency n
r
of an
oscillation mode r of the structure perpendicular to the wind direction,
the pressure fluctuation on the lateral walls creates and maintains oscilla-
tions of maximum amplitude at this frequency. The mean speed of the wind at
which this coincidence occurs is called the critical speed Va ; it is given
by the relationship :
and also
consequently
to which corresponds a critical dynamic pressure
3.4.3. - _QL

Because the pressure fluctuations do not reach their maximum vlue
simultaneously over the whole length of the structure, a reduction factor B
S
and
- 156 -
If one retains only the part of the spectrum Sk(n) near to the
modal frequency of the structure, this can be written
n S ('\.)
The quantity r K is the turbulence intensity Ss of the wake
4 (qc) 2
it is given in figure 3.15. as a function of the Reynolds number.
- 157 -
4.- BIBLIOGRAPHY
Safety calculation method
ECCS : Recommendations for SteeZ Constructions. ECCS-EG-76-IE. 1976.
Definition of the wind
ARMITT J. wind Structure. Von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics. Lecture
Series 89 Wind effects on Buitdings and Structures. Rhode St Genese, 1976.
Then
BI ETRY J. and SACRE C. : Proposition pour rendre compte de Z'infZuence de
Za topographie dans Ze projet de code. June 1977.
BIETRY J., SACRE C. and Sr"1W E. \lean Wind ProfiZes and Change of 2'errain
Roughness.
3.4.5.-

The movements of the structure result in increased pressure
fluctuations, as shown in figure A3.7 which gives empirically the amplifi-
cation factor of the pressure as a function of the reduced frequency
nd/Vm and of the ratio ay/d of the amplitude Q
y
of the displacements about
y of dimension d parallel to the wind direction.
Thus the equivalent static pressure Q
S
can be written for slender
vertical structures as follows:
Commission Electrotechnique Internationale : Comite d'Etudes nO 11 :
Recommandations pour Zes Zignes aeriennes - Projet de Recommandations pour
le calcul des charges dues au vent, Avril 1975.
DELESQUES R. : Statistic ReZations between AnnuaZ Maxima7- Wind Speeds. ECCS,
Committee on Wind Effects, 1977 (unpublished).
HOLLISTER S.C. : The Engineering Interpretation of Weather Bureau Records for
Wind Loading of Structures. National Bureau of Standards. Building Science
series 30 : Wind Loads on Buildings and Structures. Washington nc, 1970.
van KOTEN H. : Note on the Wind Speed in Western 8urope for the CaZcuZat;ions
Of BuiZdings. TNO. Rijswijk (Z.H.), 1976.
SECO : L'Action du Vent sur Zes Constructions. Etude de Synthese preparatoire
a la revision des Normes NBN 460.01,02 et 03. SECO (non publie).
Bruxelles, 1973.
- 158 -
Physical effects of the wind
DAVENPORT A.G. : The Response of Structures to Gusty Wind. Von Karman Institute
for Fluid Dynamics ; lecture series 89 ; Wind Effects on Buildings and
Structures. Rhode St-Genese, 1976.
JOHNS D.J. : Dynamic Response II. Von Karman Institute for Fluid nynamics ;
lecture series 89 : Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures. Rhode St-Genese,
1976.
SFINTESCO D. : Effets du vent sur les ossatures metalliques. AIPC/IABSE,
Vol. 26, Zurich, 1966.
SFINTESCO Q., ZELLER E., S, Effets du vent sur les batiments eleves.
Anpa-les ITBTP n 285, Paris, 1971.
WALSHE D.E.J. : Wind-EXcited Oscillations of Structures: National Physical
Laboratory. HMSO. London, 1972.
Calculation of the wind effects
CIRIA ; The Design of Wind-Sensitive Structures. Proceedings of the
Seminar held on 18 June 1970 at the Institution of Civil Engineers, Construc-
tion Industry Research and Information Association. London, 1971.
DAVENPORT A.G. : Note on the Distribution of the Largest VaZue of a Random
Function with AppZication to Gust Loading. Institution of Civil Engineers
Proceedings. London, 1964. Volume 28.
ECCS - Committee on Wind Effects - WGI
SG1 : WYATT T.A. : Note for discussion at meeting in London. 1974.
SG2 :, WYATT T.A. ; Specification for Effects of Wind on Structures.
SG3 ; WYATT T.A. and RAZNAHAN M. ; Discussion Paper for Meeting in
Amsterdam. 1974.
SG4 : in Amsterdam. 1974.
- 159 -
SG5 RAZNAHAN M. ; Further EValuation of Admittance Functions. 1974.
SG6 WYATT LA. : Proposals for a Draft Specification for Wind
Loading on Structures. 1974.
SG7 RAZNAHAN M. and WYATT T.A. ; Dependence of Risk of Failure on
Dynamic Sensitivity. 1974.
SG8 WYATT LA. ; A note on the Significance of Cross-Modal Correla-
tions on the EValuation of Quasi-Static Response to wind Loads.
1974.
SG9 ; Note on meetin9 held at Puteaux. 1974.
FDRSCHING H.W. ; GrundZagen del' Aeroelastik. Springer Verlag. Berlin, 1974.
van KOTEN H. and BOS C.A.M. : Windbelasting. Toelichting op de T.G.B. 1972.
TNO. Rijswijk (Z.H.), 1974.
SFINTESCO D. and WYATT T.A. ; A proposed EUropean Code of Practice. Current
Work of the ECCS towards Specifications of the Effect of Wind on Structures.
Fourth International Conference on Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures.
London, 1975.
van KOTEN H. Limits for Dynamic Movements. I.B.B.C. - TNO Bl - 67 - 107.
Rijswijk.
van der PUT T.A. Rigidity of Structures Against Aerodynamic Forces. AIPC,
1976.
Pressure and force coefficients
American National Standards Institution : American Standard Building Code
Requirements for Minimum Design Loads in Buildings and other Structures.
AtIS! A-5B-I. New York, 1972.
British Standards Institution: Code of Basic Data for the Design of Buildings.
CP3, Chapter V, Part 2, 1972 : Wind Loads. BSI, London 1972.
Institut Belge de
NBN 460.01
- 160 -
Conseil National de Recherches du Canada. Comite associe sur le Code National
du Batiment : ManueL Canadien de caLcuL des structures. Supplement nO 4 au
Code National du B&timent. Conseil National de Recherches du Canada. Ottawa.
1970.
Groupe de Coordination des Textes Techniques.: R ~ g L e s definissant Les effets
de Za neige et du vent sur Les constructions. Societe de Diffusion des Tech-
niques du B4timent et des Travaux Publics, Document Technique Unifie. Regles
NV 65. Paris. 02/1965.
D'HAVE R. : L'action du vent sur Les batiments. Annales des Travaux Puhlics
de Belgique. N 6. 1965.
Normalisation: Action du vent sur Les constructions :
Instructions generaLes pour Le cnLcuL. IBN. Bruxelles,
07/1960.
NBN 460.02 Pieces Longues pLeines au en treiZZis d aretes vives.
IBN. Bruxelles. 10/1960.
NBN 460.03 Batiments. IBN. Bruxelles.09/1960.
International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (lASS) :
Recommendation for the anaLysis and design of guyed masts. Total draft,
July, 1976.
van KOTEN H. and BOS C.A.M. : WindbeZasting. Toelichting op de 1.G.8.1972.
TNO. - Rijswijk (Z.H.), 1974.
KRAMER C. and GERHARDT H. J. : Windkriifte auf fZachen und wenig geneigten
DachfLachen. DOKumentation zum 2. Kolloquium tiber Industrieaerodynamik.
Aachen. 1976.
LEUTHEUSSER H.J. : InfZuence Of architecturaL features on the static lJind
Loading of buildings. National Bureau of Standards, Building Science Series
30. Washington, 1970.
NEWBERRY C.W. and EATON K.J. Wind Loading Handbook. HMSO, Building
Research Establishment Report. London, 1974.
- 161 -
SACHS P. : Wind Forces in Engineering. Pergamon Press. Oxford, 1972.
SCRUTON C. and NEWBERRY C. : On the Estimation of Wind Loads for Building
and StructuraL Design. Institution Of Civil Engineers. Proceedings.
London. Volume 25. 6/1963.
SFINTESCO D. and ZELLER E. : Prise en compte eks effets du vent sur Les
constructions. CECM/ECCS. 1975.
Societe Suisse des Ingenieurs et Architectes : Normes pour Les charges,
La mise en service et Za surveiLLance eks constructions. SIA N 160,
ZUri ch, 1956.
SOIZE C. : Dynamique stochastique eks structures eZastiques 80umises au:r
charges au vent. These de 3eme cycle. Universite de PARIS VI (Pierre et
Marie Curie), juin 1975.
-@"
SOIZE C. : Gust Loading Factors lJith NOnZiru;ar Pressure Terms. ASCE -
Journal of the Structural Division, ST6, June 1978.
WALKER H.B. : Wind Forces on UncZad TubuZar Structures. CONSTRAOO Publi-
cation 1/75. Croydon, 1975.
- 163 -
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In addition to the mentions made in the "Foreword", thanks are due
to all members of the Committee who by their active participation and the
intervention of their competence have contributed to the result of this
team work.
Thanks are also due, in particular, to :
~ r . R. D'HAVE for his contribution to the determination of the pressure
and force coefficients.
~ r P. SPEHL for the important work of finalization of the Recommendations,
Dr. C. SOIZE for his contribution to the formulation of this document and
its final verification,
Baudirektor HIRTZ for the close contacts kept with the ISO/TC98/SC3/WG2
and the thus ensured good coordination with their work
on the draft of the ISO Standard,
~ r . J. OEYPEYROUX for the liaison with the Euro-lnternational Concrete
Committee (CEB),
~ r s . L . HARNAGEA for the translation-of the French original of these
Recommendations into English,
~ r . J.R. MAYNE for the supervision of the English version,
~ r s . ~ . GERVAIS for the careful typing of both the French and the English
versions.

The photographs figures 1.6 to 1.14 are reproduced by permission of
AEROFILMS Ltd.

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In standard conditions (pure, dry air at a

The opposite table permits the conversion of

a stress (bendinn moment, transverse shear, normal force, torsional moment)

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