Christian-IslamicEncounterson Thirteenth-CenturyAyyubid
Metalwork: Local Culture,Authenticity,and Memorys
EVA R. HOFFMAN Biographies of things can make salient what might otherwise remain
TuftsUniversity what is significant about the adoption of alien objects-as of arien
)r fact that they are adopted, but the way they are culturaily redefined and put to use.
IS
ih
1d
Abstract
ry
sis
xo- This paper explores a multilayered Christian_Islamic en_
0), counter that is inscribed on a group of celebrated and well_
studiedAyyubid silver-inlaid metalwork objects with Christian
themes,made in Syria and Egypt between the late 1230sancl
the 1250s.Studies have demonstrated the possibility of an
extraordinary range of patronage and
functions for t'hese
works.Indeed, the success of these works depended on their
connectionto a variety of Christian and Muslim audiences
andon readingsfrom variousChristianand Muslimperspec_
tjye1..flisarticle explores,further, thesemultiple ieadings,
highlightingthe centralityof local culture in tie production
and reception of objects. A fully shared local visial culture
explainsthe interchangeabitity of Christian and non_Christian
r on these pieces of metalwork, with indigenous Chris_
and Muslims as participants and inhabiraits of the same
culture. The consideration of local identiry for these
'also informs their
Crusaderpatronage ani ieception.
the Crusaders, these works carried tie imprima'tur of
entic.ityand helped to shape the memory oy iheir expen_
in the Holy Land.
objects played a central role in definins and
visual culture in the Mediterraneanworld between
andthirteenthcenturies.The implications of porta_
I the relationshipsforged by portable works were
varied.Portability allowed an obiect to extend well
itself,traveling far and wide through spaceand time,
extendingcultural relationshipsand connections
process, expandingidentitiesand meanings.2At the
, however,the range and frequency of movement
fromtheseencountersand experiences,making it
access the multiple layers of identity and meaning
explores a multilayered Christian-Islamic
involvinga group of celebratedand well-studied
ver-inlaidmetalwork objects made in Syria and
the late 1230sand the 1250s.3Theseeishteen
ising candlesticks,ewers, cylindrical boxes,
trays, a basin, and a canteen,are typical of
, representinga full range of styles and
The International Center of Medieval Art2004
obscure. _- .
ideas-is not the
Igor Kopytoffl
functions. They have been singled out as a distinctive group
becauseof their inclusion of Christological themes.Full nar_
rative scenes,suchas the Virgin and Child Enthroned,the Na_
tivity, Presentationin the Temple, and Entry into Jerusalem,
may be found, for example,on the sphericalside of a canteen,
now in the Freer Gallery of Art, Washington,DC (Figs. 1_4).
Christian scenesalso appear in abbreviatedforms: the An_
nunciation,Adoration, Raising of Lazarus,Entry into Jerusa_
lem, and the Last Supper or Marriage at Canacan be found
in the small medallions on the exterior walls of a basin, also
in the Freer Gallery of Art (Fig. 5). Representationsof saints
framed within arcadesappearon both the interior walls of the
basin and on the back of the canteen(Figs. 2 and6). A number
of closely relatedAyyubid works of enameledglasswith Chris_
tian themes should be included in the considerationof this
group as well.a At least ten of theseglass objects survive,
in_
cluding bottles,canteens,beakers,a horn, and fraqments.that
contain related motifs.5
The visual vocabulary used in thesemetal and glass ob_
jects is clearly rooted in the local Ayyubid milieu.
ihe style
and motifs of vegetal designs,hunting, and astrology nt neaUy
into the body of Islamic Ayyubid metalwork made in Syria
and Egypt during the first half of the thirteenth century.6
Although certain iconographic mistakes and divergenceshave
beennoted in some of the Christian images,for the most part
the models for these scenescan be located solidly in the indig_
enous Eastern Christian sphere.The Nativity, Entry into Jeru-
salem, and Presentationin the Temple sceneson the Freer
Canteen,for example, are closely related to scenesin Syrian
Christian manuscripts,in particular to the British Library Add.
MS 7170, dated 1219-1220, and to the Vatican Librarv. MS
Syr. 559, dating to abott 1220J Furthermore,the format as
well as a number of expandednarrative sceneson the Freer
Canteen find striking comparisons in the rectangular head_
piecesfor eachof the four Gospelsin paris, Institut Catholique.
MS Copte-ArabeL8
Studying theseworks as a group, scholarshave outlined
a variety of possiblecombinationsfor Muslim-christian inter-
section in the making and viewing of these objects. Never_
theless,the identities of the makers, patrons, functions, and
129
 1250,front'sphericalside'washington'DC'FreerGalleryofArt'41'10
FIGURE l.Canteen,brassinlaidwithsilver,syria,ca.
(ohoto: Freer Gallery of Art, by permission)'

DC, Freer Gallery of Art, 41.10

Syrirl,ca. 1250'back, fiat sirle B, Washington'
FIGURE 2. Canteen, brassinlaid with silver,
(ohoto: Freer Gallery of Art, by permission)'

130
FIGURE 3. Canteen, detail of Nativity and Baptism (photo:
Freer Galtery of FIGURE 4. Canteen, detail of presentation in the Temple
Art, by permission). (photo: Freer Gal-
lery of Art, by permission).

gs of many of theseworks remain speculative.Com_

craftsmen.r2The contribution of Christians to the formation
Lgthe matter further is the possibility that in addition
of the local Ayyubid visual arts has been well documented,
local Christians and Muslims, some of ihese works were
particularly in the realm of Christian Syrian and related
for the Crusaders,who establisheda presencein pales_ Cop_
tic manuscriptsand paintings, where specialistshave
andSyria between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. argued
for a less polarized view of the culture.13
ficantly, scholars have reached the conclusion that there
A striking example of the synthesisbetween Christian
probably no single answer to these questions
and that and non-Christian elements from the broader culture
se works speak to a multiplicity of engagemenrsamong is the
illustrated GospelsMS Copte_Arabel. This bilingual
thesepopulations.e Copto_
Arabic work standsas a powerful expressionof Uottr
tinguis_
tic and visual assimilation of the EasternChristians
into the
Culture and ldentity Ayyubid culture at large. It has been suggestedthat
some of
theseChristian manuscripts,MS Copte_AiabeI in particular,
If the material under discussionhere has been resistant
may have been produced in the same workshops as
ral untangling,it is becausethe visual vocabularywas the con_
temporary celebrated,.secular,'Arabic manuscripts,
intended to be segregated into Christian and non_ notably
the Maqamat MS B.N. arabe6094,andthe Kalitawas
categoriesin the first place. The polarization between Dimna
MS B.N. nabe 3465, both in the Bibliothbque Nationale
and Islamic themesis the result of conditionine bv in
Paris.laConvincing as they are, however, these observations
rians rather than by thirteenth-century Ayyubia art_
of the naturalization of Christian and non_Christian
, and viewers.r0It is futile to attempt to deconstruct elements
into.anintegrated Ayyubid visual system have occurred
into their Christian and Muslim constituentparts pri_
marily in the context of the study of Christian manuscripts
for any single Christian-Muslim encounter.The within the sphereof Christian use and ritual.
of visual culture between the indigenous Syrian and
Ayyubid metalwork with Christian themes provides
n Christians and the Muslims went far beyond the a
neutral territory where christian and non-christian users
of particular motifs or elements of style; rather, it alike
could partake of a fluid and interchangeable vocabulary.
I deeply into the fabric of a fully inregrated Ayyu_ The
treatment of the scene of the Virgin and Child on
culture.The local Christian populations of Syria the Freer
Canteen,for example,may be comparednot only
weresubstantial,comprising diverse sects,inciud_ to the rep_
resentationin the Christian manuscriptsbut also to
of Orthodox Christianity (Melkites, Greeks,and scenesof
enthronedrulers in other non_ChristianSyrian and
ites),Armenians, Copts, and Abyssinian Chris_ Mesopo_
tamian metalwork objects and Arabic manuscripts.lrln
with the Jewish minority, the Christians were anothe,
example, on the lid of a circular inlaid brass container
varioussocial and religious restrictions under the in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Virgin wears a headdress
Nevertheless,they participated significantly in the
and pants, which were likely modeled on a turban
ving as administrators,merchants,physicians,and and sar_
ments for an enthroned (male) ruler in a non_Christian
scerie.t6

131
Stylistically, the group of inlaid metalwork with Christian
,."n"r, as a whole, fits into the larger Ayyubid metalwork
production,as mentioned above' The metalwork artist, Ahmad
ut-ltruti al-Mawsili, as well as other artists who used the
nisba al-Mawslli (denoting origin from or associationwith
the city Mosul), created metalwork both with and without
Christian themes, while the name of the Ayyubid sultan, al-
Malik al-Salil.r, appears on two works with, and two works
without, Christian themes.17For the most part, the inscrip-
tions on theseworks sharerepeatedformulas of good wishes
to anonymousowners. Even some of the luxury works, such
as the Freer Canteen and a tray at the State Hermitage Mu-
seum in St. Petersburg,are inscribed with lengthy and elab-
orate blessings and wishes of triumph and glory but do not
name the owners, leaving the question of patronageentirely
open.18 The high-quality box in the Metropolitan Museum of
Art is not inscribed at all.
The naturalization of Christian motifs on objects used
by Muslims may be the most surprising notion for us in the
twenty-first century to reconcile. This is largely due to our
assumptionof an inherent Christian-Muslim incompatibility
and also to lingering misconceptionsabout prohibitions of
representationalimagery in Islamic art. To be sure,Christian-
Muslim polarization found expressionin the context of the
Crusadeireception of the metalwork, discussedbelow' but it
did not define the visual discoursebetween the local Chris-
tians and Muslims. The use of metalwork objectswith Chris-
tian themes would not have been at all shocking to thirteenth-
by
century Muslim viewers. After all, Jesuswas also revered
the Muslims as a prophet.reThe Christian scenesrepresented ioyal
those
on these works were carefully chosen to include only
episodesacceptableto Muslims, specificallyfrom the infancy
and
unOtit" of Jesus,omitting episodesdealing with his death
divinity. The inclusion of Christian subjectswithin a wider
repertoire of Islamic figural representations on these metal-
work pieces elucidates an expanded overriding iconographic
systemof a sharedvisual culture, with indigenousChristians
and Muslims as participants and inhabitants of the samevisual
universe.The coexistenceof thesechristian and non-christian
themeson the metalwork representsthe fullest expression of
cultural interchange in this thirteenth-century pluralistic
society.
Does this seamlessvisual integration imply a homoge-
neous undifferentiated society? On the contrary, the metal-
work pieces with Christian themesvaried in quality and served
u.ung" of audiencesand functions,from everydayworks with
primarily Christian scenesmade for local Christian use, such
as the utilitarian incenseburner used in liturgical practice, now
in the Cleveland Museum of Art (31.26)' to luxury works
with Christian and Islamic themes made for either or for both
the Crusaderand Muslim aristocracy (Figs' 1-6)'20Inscrip-
tions may sometimesclarify context and patronage'Two luxury
works, the basin at the Freer Gallery and a tray in the Louvre,
are inscribed with name of the Ayyubid sultan al-Sdlih Najm
132
ad-Din, who ruled in Diyarbakr (1232-1239), in Egypt (1240-
1249\. and in Damascus (1245-1249). The references in the
inscriptions to al-Sdlih as a holy warrior (murdbit) and the
defender of the frontierc (muthagir) are particularly poignant
for al-Sdlih,becausehe died fighting the Crusadeof St' Louis
"friend
in1249.The appearanceof al-Sdlih's investituretitle,
of the Commanderof the Faithful" (khalll amlr al- mu' minin),
on the interior of the Freer Basin may further specify the pe-
riod of his rule over Syria and Egypt, following his formal
caliphal investiture \n 124'7'2r Distinctions between Christians
and Muslims certainly existed, but they cannot be deciphered
"Christian" and "Islamic"
by separating and parsing out the
visual themes. These differences were folded into the broader
distinctions of patronage,function, and reception'
From such arange in patronage and function it follows
that while these works may have shared a similar vocabulary,
they did not convey any single shared meaning, because
meaning was tied to reception and circumstancesof use' The
imagery on the same works was perceived and interpreted
differently by the different users and viewers' As suggested
by Ranee Katzenstein and Glenn Lowry, a Muslim viewer
and owner would read these Christian themes in direct rela-
tionship and as a visual complement to the typical Islamic
non-Christian themes. Hence, Jesus may be a reference
'Just and divine k\ng."zzPerhaps,in the
the ruler as the
text of Ayyubid court work, as Eva Baer has suggestedln
analysisof the FreerBasin, an Islamic readingwould view
Christian themeswithin the overarching context of royalty
power. The Christian figures would function like the ot
and astral figures surrounding the prince' They, like
the other figures in his universe, pay homage to the prince
cause he is positioned as the cosmic center
"the king who rules
the epithets inscribed on the basin,
"the sultan of the Arab and non-Arab people,"
nations,"
"slayer of the infidels."23Alternatively, Nuha Khoury
the
suggestedthat the Muslim readermight view this in tern
a counterclaimto the Crusaders'possessionof the holyci
subsuming the prophet Jesus into the Muslim traditi
contemporary Islamic literature, the tables were turned
Christiansas Jesuscondemnsthe Christian desecrators
holy sites.2a
The flexibility and range of function and
observed here for the silver-inlaid metalwork with
themes is also perfectly consistent with the overall
production and demand for Ayyubid silver-inlaid meta
Inlaid metalwork enjoyed enormous popularity and'
throughout every strata of Ayyubid culture. It has
for example, that the quality and decoration of works
middle class and aristocracy are often so similar that
ficult to tell these works apart without the specifici
tion given in inscriPtions.
Thus far, the Christian-Muslim encounter
these works definesa local exchangebetweenthe
Christian and Muslim populations,suggestinga mu
).-
he
he
nt
ris
nd
n),
)e-
ral
MS

ed
ic"
ler

WS
ry,
rse
lhe
ted
ted
wer
:la-
mic FIGURE 5' Basin' brass inlaidwith
silver' syria' ca' 1247-1249,
)to washington, DC, Freer Garery
of Art, 55.10(photo: Freer Garery
of Art, by permission).
ron-
her ment with a flexible vocabulary
within an integrated
the :aphic system and with the potential
fo, *uftip1" ."ua_
and also suggests a definition of ,.the
.It l;;;i;";" which
im-Christian distinctions existed
but were expressed
in the broaderspectrum^ofdistinctiorm
in purrorrug",
lion,-andreceptionin reterenceto
classas well as re_
Lousaffrliations.The specific circumstanc"s
ano networks
connectionsand meaningscan
best U" "^pto."O one rela_
l at a time. This local Christian_Musiim
intersection
multipteexchanges
affordeJby the
llll""Y,,l"^It.of
ions of portability. A second conlext of Christian_
engagementinvolved the Crusaders.
For them the
ilities offered in the expanded iconograpf,l"
,vri"rn unO
ngnizable tocal producrion just d";.i;"J;Je
these
not only highly desirable but crucial
to promoiing ttreir
gical agenda.
U:"in, detailof interior,sieleview(photo:
llGj-l*l
oy !.
permission). FreerGatteryof Art,
Encounterand ldentity
le metalworkpiecesof this indigenous
production that vivendi.25_yet,throughout their
vailableto the Crusaderswere purchased various campaignsand con_
on the open quests in the Levant betweenthe eleventh
ormadeascommissions, eitheito bekeptUyifr" C*_ and thirteenthcen_
ls souvenirsor exchangedas gifts turies, the mission of the Crusaders
wittr ineir counrer_ centered on ."_"i""0 constant and
ongthe Muslim aristocracy.But reclaiming the Holy Land for
what did theseworks Christianity. The
theCrusaders?What role did visual goals of this mission were to
l_ug"ffiArn"t_ rid the Holy Land of Muslim
in shapingideology, memory, ana idols and of the Muslim idolarers rvfro
iOenilty for them? f,uAlf-_ rhe Christian
Crusader point of view, desecratedthe
experiencein the Holy I-anA,us holy sites;; restorethese
noi_ono- sitesto Christian use.26The opposition
rerr relations with the Muslims of tiri, iot"nt imagery
ranged f.o_-up"n of idols and idolaters,on the one
to negotiatedtruces that supported t una, unJ-frJly images and
a delicatemodus monuments, on the other, remained
the centerpieceof the

r33
 thev
idoraters, n"1:: :l^1lT:;tlliiffi TTi::[:
simplv
ofdesrrucrion
rheroric ::ffi1",1f,)'l:;:'lJiT::ll:f'"".
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,1:fH":::l'["fiH[r#:j:*'"',',:",'"'*:11il"
;'#:;:i"ffi:T;:111""i:+;":::ltllli"H HJ?f;.
r""l#1il*1t,ffi
;-xxry:r.' '3'#liJ"':
$ilrTft..'* "JJjlruffi ; ur: :,:::fil.Tilffi::
i:fi;l; ;Jillfi:: i;
geration'
mar
agglration
the
g*tiutiott'
-accusation
be.r-1;f;
t;;ilil
ass-o-clill:i".i*"
the.ass-o"cl1ll::.
Musltm-
Muhammad andthe
the
fueled de-
irl0l worshipers fueled
\r,efe tu"i-orshipers
the de-

''llffiJ
that ..theorher''andthe equa-
maximum,tnTt'
leashing
il:l ll
t':1::1.",."""i,tt.infidelenemy

;
ac

ffi
il Tt'ill ltl,:':"llmm -

*t','"1'lf
i:H;f##*ffi don of this enemy
Idols
wltn tIItr ntrtrvur^"-
idolaters*"':;;;';i;;"Gestamakes
andidolaters.wer:
tdols and
the Passage,the
chronrc
:""T1.1T:'-;j ":n this clear:
thisclear:
'
ontinuation of

tT$r$i'll$l* .'r" tu"" ..-[t*;;:'k

',l,.lli ?llIi;';;-"$t1:liT: For shamel God,s
house is possessed
by the inhabitant

l',lt';# ; ioo y.il :i',f,: 31fl;1 -$rtivl':r:i::,ff',li*J;J,:fi

rilJl""Jll"*"'
:l',i::'h::"*i!T'iil:lrl"r*1"i**
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i","i""' -**
llTIJJ.T,|il";:[i':;'
Let him fall down
qurcKry''":'1'"^':^";,-tefierl
us.

r;#mli*ru"wffrrh'krtJ*,"J""*1
fought over but
also constrtuLsu
t.v ""-r
ScarcelYhad the
orcer

this ordermorewillinglv
executing
than
*"4l:,*toric or "il1
*Jli"r.ttXt
any other'
dragged' torn to
pleces'

the holy image'

tu: ffii;[T"1Xt"TlTlH?ffi1",
tt'"ii:]
;";i" monuments:the Dome
The statueis snatcned'
beheaded'3s

It:t'ffi!TT#.#Tj[T"]*ffi #:tYffiTrhedestructtg"-:t;1;"u:il$Jli""ffi
asthe TemplumSalomonit.,-'l'^'ji-i"i"re the comingstorm'
':i.n:T[:::,,x:
:'.""HHtlli:*";,5;;r";i*l;
?iHr#l'""'#"fl from the Mounl :lrr**;;ii[":'rlfnllifrlil;;:;
"; ; ; "' it
'ilof the idolater, and
Muslrmt "l::::"';:t;i.,''"".
u tt"*an mas-

cred,admiresJerusalem
qlr+i*i,l:#f
;ffi
:i:t'i",T#TnH'lfi
:?ffi
;;
'"lJ:""$r3Ti"i}"::if':;'-T .?l-r',h:':l::':
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:::::il"[ti,H:li#.;i#*JT:1"ffi'""#:::ffi
q;;;;t";nletr andthe
soromon gffi?;;;,iiin ,t" o"-
theidols/idol:l:t'..1?"n*;;;it
their decoratt*' *li:"ni,
unscathed'
co'mptetety
the idols
t""n"'i"" betw.een
In-
and

jliql'"f:**ri"-n',':*:t
Itr.1n,TJJ.".il"* large silver gilt
tt1:u"'
Ji'li1.!;;""ii*H:'i1T;#*
ffi'1,J."':li':"fi idolaters. after t he
banned f r o m t h e
t'rus au;r;",
c r L yo I . ' : ' : : ; ,;i;;.
; The H aram monuments
'ior ,A.soldencrosswas
;t"t a redeun"::]l^tJil;h3L"*'t
anct
thr{l*ffi;#i,;"';fl
.'.;;; Domini,
?:#'Jrs"*""'ffi
;;;t"
;;ror" The
ft t';;r'il"',ffi
:**;*";'*"*'*m:'#:"'"
chronicler specutates
The chronicler
or urv -*---
sPeculatesu'
wereconsecrated

Latin inscrrpuo'b
*tlt'lt,.o
wvr" "
inside.37 lnstalled
andchristianimages
n__:I
theirmission.By
srarue: had
The Crusaders
t u l l
. t^.L- Temnlum
erngy
this
Maybe o'.oPdl,^-,"
isorMars .n tlL"ttililll'il';*l*tnX,-tl': T:fr::]ili':T;
Ihe cioss, the
crown of thorns' *.::"r;;1:Slil*,'T#'-#:;:l*i;
TJ:iliiil.':*i:,1;::"::T;.'ff::il:'ransnxed
LIE 'o'r' '---
image wltn a uurJ
vr^-' -- .n
the Latin inscripttons

;1:"l ***:,1t::^"'sn:,n"'J:'*"
trn"tlll* ffi;'il;- *ry1 trfjj**$ilffJ
1iillil"t"{#;i
ff:?'ff:'ii,'{:iti*t*,'Hn:,:il'ilH
rij:*:l'*t;:"*iT*ffi'
ffi:H:Jepraved-:"
Muhammad' ;"""".'"'i,,:j"'T:1ft,i:*,:i::t*ruiH.;[
-::":-"appear estabrishedth
visuarrv
rheonerocome.
. .^:^re.
associate' the
should his associate,
wvr'v' -'r I
onc tu wvr'v' ment that tour oet*urr""
;:l?lluotli::il1ffi:";ffilF Here was
Islam. Here
j -^ri^;^rrc nresenceor Islam.
the Unnsl
was'Ot.:li:
fh should
Oh .
presentlv! t,'Jli:1,::l;*i','?rTnu:q:.il:'i*u
t"n" t"t"-s3venttrl1f
lestroy
destroy tIItr Antichrist.32
rhen'rrv'^""
Vtuy my feet instantly

;;,': "i'r" , :^ :-.^rintions in the Dome of the

Rock.den:l1tl*,

;""
T "::", t" *
t**;n:xlffiTJf'l$fi#ffi;i*
:,":"1:,.y,,:?:Tf;H;m
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the crusaderscame

134
of the Rock constituted the pinnacle of accomplishmentfor the
Crusaders,the glorious final chapterof the historical and sacred
epoch, from the Jewish Temple of Solomon to the Islamic
Dome of the Rock, to the Crusader Templum Domini.
I would like to suggest that Crusader reception of the
silver-inlaid metalwork with Christian scenes similarly was
part of the discourseof restoration.By the time thesepieces
were made in the thirteenth century, the fire of Crusader rhet-
oric had died down and the Crusaders were reconciled to a
permanentMuslim presencein Jerusalem.The Muslims had
recapturedJerusalemin 1187 under Saladin, and, while the
Crusadersregained Jerusalembriefly between 1229 and,1244
(from L229 to 1239 and again in 1243) through diplomatic
meansunder Frederick II, the Muslim holy sites were left
underMuslim control, except for a time in I243.a0The Chris-
images in the Dome of the Rock had long been removed
the Crusaders could no longer install Christian images in
places. The portable arts, however, could still serve as
al sitesfor the display of claims of the truth and success
the Crusader mission, as well as wishful claims over the
ments. It is possible that the program representedon the
Canteen(Figs. 1-4), for example, referred to a particu-
Dome of the Rock, interior view, 691
lar narrative program in one of the churches restored by the
Crusaders.The themes on the canteen, for example, were all
representedin the twelfth-century mosaic cycle at the Church
of the Nativity in Bethlehem: the Virgin and Child flanked by
the biblical prophets David and Abraham appearedin the center
of the choir apse, the Presentation in the Temple appearedon
the south side of the sanctuary; and the Nativity and Entry
into Jerusalem were representedin the south transept.al The
Christian imagery installed in the Dome of the Rock may
have included a painting of the Virgin and Child; the Nativity
(the child with ox and ass) and saints.a2The layout of the
sceneson the Freer Canteen mirrors the format for compara-
ble decoration on the drum and dome here or in another re-
stored church (Fig. 7). For the Crusaders, the representation
of Christian imagery on the metalwork would signify and cel-
ebrate the restoration of the Holy Land, just as the installation
of the Christian paintings and inscription in the restored Tem-
plum Domini did. The possessionof such an object as the Freer
Canteen may have served as a substitute for and a commem-
oration of a monumental program. But whereas the Christian
programs had been pulled down from the Islamic monuments
when the Muslims reclaimed the holy sites,the portable objects
could continue to carry the messageof the Crusadermission,
expressing the rhetoric of restoration, long after the return to
Islamic rule.
Historical Memory and Authenticity
For the Crusaders,above all, objects like the Freer Can-
teen preserved a tangible link to the sacred topography of the
Holy Land. As has been duly pointed out, the themes of the
Nativity (Fig. 3), the Presentation in the Temple (Fig. 4), and
the Entry into Jerusalem that are recorded on the Freer Can-
teen are all associatedwith loca sancta, holy sites, in Beth-
lehem and Jerusalem.a3The scene of the presentation in the
Temple is representedas taking place in a structurethat is prob-
ably meant to be the Dome of the Rock/Templum Domini.
The Dome of the Rock, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre,
and the AnastasisRotunda have been specifically identified
in loca sancta representations on related Ayyubid enameled
glass.a The specificity of architecturalrepresentationson these
works may indicate that they were commissioned expressly
for Crusader patrons in the context of pilgrimage. The Freer
Canteen,in both its form and decoration, is a magnificent ver-
sion of the traditional pilgrim ampullae, containers for holy
earth, water, or sanctified oil that were souvenirs or ..bless-
ings" carried back by pilgrims from the Holy Land from
Early Christian times on (Figs. 8 and 9). Often decoratedwith
representationsof loca sancta, the ampullae served as com-
memorative objects for the spiritual journey of the pilgrim-
age. The ampullae preserved contact with the sacredsites and
with the events representedon them and were brought home
for personal memory of the experience as well as to provide
direct contact with holiness for those who could not personally
r35

FIGURE 8. Pewter pilgrim ampullafrom Palestine, ca. 600, Adoration ofthe
Magi, Monza Cathedral Treasury Qthoto: after Graliar, Ampoules).
make the pilgrimage.a5As receptaclesfor secondaryrelics of
earth,water, or oil of the loca sancta, holiness was transferred
to the ampullae, which were then considered apotropaic'46
While the shapeand function of the Freer Canteen have been
noted as unusual, other thirteenth-century enameledglass can-
teensand flasks that have survived are similarly stylistically
related to Ayyubid metalwork and glass production and may
also be associatedwith Crusaderuse. One of these is a can-
teen with Ayyubid vegetal designs and representationsof
Crusaderridersjuxtaposedwith merrymakersand musicians,
now in the British Museum in London (Fig. 10).47Another
enameledand gilded flask, now in the Cathedral and Dio-
cesanMuseum in Vienna, is decoratedwith representations
of riders and merrymakers in medallions on the body of the
flask, while standingfigures (saints)circle the neck (Fig. 11).
This work was probably brought to Europe by the Crusaders
in the second half of the thirteenth century. It later became
part of the collection of the HapsburgDuke Rudolf IV (1339-
1365),where it was recordedto contain earth mixed with the
blood of the Holy Innocentswho were massacredby Herod.as
t36
FI(
ca.
Bri
an
Su
FIGURE 9. Lead pilgrim ampulla from Acre, ca. 1200, Israel A
Authority, 99-53 (photo: Rozenberg, Knights of the Holy Land, ll0,
permission).
These commemorativevesselsgain meaning within I
context of the Crusader worldview and the creation of i
sader historical memory. This was a medieval worldview d
which the Bible lay the foundation and master plan for the
folding of all future events, linking past, present, and
in a continuum.aeWith their conquestof the Holy Land,
Crusadersfound their place in this schemeas the s
to the biblical conquerors who purified the Holy Land
the direct and legitimate heirs to the biblical heritage.
Crusaders,their conquestsignaledthe fulfillment of the
lical promise. It should come as no surprisethat the ft
description by Raymond of Aguilers of the Crusaders'
conquestof Jerusalemwas modeled closely on the
tions of the destruction of Jerusalemin Revelation(
and in Josephus' The Jewish War, documenting the
destruction of the Jewish Temple during the first
Following closely in the footsteps of history as well
promise of prophecy, the Crusadersidentified with
biblical heroes,like Joshuaand the Maccabees,who
tured carying out their heroic efforts in Crusader
URE 10. Canteen, glasspainted with
enamel and gitdect, Egypt or Syria,
1275,London, British Museum, OA
69.I_20.3 l"plroro,,irurrr"s oJ.the
Museum, by permission)

illustratedmanuscripts, sometimes
in Crusader garb.5l
t blurring of boundaries and links
between past and
t are clearly expressedby the Crusaders,
naming their ll. Ftask,gtass
rmthe "Kingdom of Jerusalem." ilgylt pai.nte.d
withenamel
andgold,probablySyria,ca.
In a seriesof twelfth_ 1275,Vienna, Cathedral
and.DiocesanMuseum,,'
Cru-sader maps, the Crusaderworldview is omereO ,liiio"r, Cathedral
and
DiocesanMuseum, bypermission).
ln
sm.52 The cenrerof rhis familiar typotogl"uiu;iu"rr"
edin Jerusalem, whereit waspossibteIo movewittr
biblical pastandpresent.rf"r" ii. George
31y..","_,1"
sed sentationof the Nativity on the
in the armor of a Templar Knight and defeats the walls of the grotto as if he
Muslim; Crusadermonumentsof the were seeinga reenactmentof the
Templum Domini, event.54The biblical narra_
tive of the scripture merged with
of theHoly Sepulchre,and the citadel the "rtunt rroty sitesof sacred
of OavlCt fowe, topographyand with the pilgrims,
alongwith sites identified by their biblical experiencesof thesesites.
nurn"r, ,u"f,
Biblical history was perceived as
hlehemof Judah" and ,.Sodomand coritinuousliving history.
Gomorrah.,, It is within this realm of Crusader
thisseamless universe,the description, Uy pifg.i_, historical memory that
of
we understandthe receptionof silver_inlaid
:s.9ft9nblend scriptural accountswith metalwork by the
the extant monu_Crusaders and their engagement
tuilt from early Christian times with Islamic art more gen_
through tfr" CruraOer erally. Naturally, the Crusade.,
Some pilgrims relied on ScriptJre uppr""iut"d the splendid
,frif" otfr"r,
aestheticand material value of inlaij
y"iqhl ro whar rhey saw. This did not matrer metalwork, glass, and
other preciousIslamic media. But
validatedtheaurhenticiry of rheottrer.Wtratpiinrim instead of classifying these
Lnotbeseparated works as 'Ayyubid" or ,,Islamic,,
from Scripture.andtheirdeJcrip_ as we do today, tfre Crusad_
ers valued theseworks, aboveall,
:1ed_
an immediacy of experience,as if for their distinct local Holy
they were Land origin and identity. This does
theholy eventsthemselves.In an l lg5 not mean that the Cru_
accountof saderswere ignorant of the reality
thegrotroof the Churchof the Nariviry of the coniemporary pro_
l" e"ih_ duction of these works_.These
Cretanpilgrim Johnphocasprovides tblecrr, furit".rnore, may
an affective have been commissionedand exchang"J;,
account:"I am in the Holy Cave and ;;, betweenthe
I see all the Crusadersand Muslims during the
:esof the Lord,s birth.',53He describes l*2:0s uli nqOr,a time
the repre_ of good relations between the two
groups ana precisety the

137
 inlaid metalwork with Chris-
period to whichthe production of
metalwork pro-
i#il;;;;as limited' Exchange of fancv-
both cultures to pursue
"il"l'" *tt for aristocrats from posses-
each other with wonderful
diplomacy and impress the Muslims
vivendi reached by
sions. The practical moau'
i"t ttt" unavoidable intersection and
and Crusadersallowed could
fnit reality of the present
accommodationof cuttwes'il These works'
devotion to the past'
coexistwith the Crusader
primarill t9 tl: Crusader-Muslim
however, did not speatt
un Isiamic identity'The lslamic
presentand certainlynotio
crusaderview'
ffi;"-i; in" HotvLund'a""o'dingto the
in the master plan of re-
was just a temporary rnterruption
the deepestvalue of these works
demption.For the C'o'uJ"tt'
with the sacredtopog-
;fi-;;;t ahistorical, truer association
distance
ili;.T;it *"ua"'.ui"* alsoclosesthehistoricalthe sixth
ampullae.during
betweenthe substantra, iroJo.,ion of
"u'ty wave of Christian pilgrimage'
and seventh centuries, un twelfth
J"ting Crusadertimes in the
andits renewedproOuction
-.u"{
9;.s6trough separated.bv
;;;;1ttr lltt:ti"1T.::
the contrn-
were linked within
turies, objects and monrinenti
biblical history and could move fluidly between
** "ffi"itt
historical boundaries and realities'
time periods anOtranscend
Crusadersknew that the Dome
It is also probaUtettrat the
structure' but they nevertheless
of the Rock was an ftiu-i" iden-
restored biblical Temple' an
chose to identify it ut ttt" of
into the popular imagination
tity that would be u"i-ifut"O was at the
to come'57if Jerusalem
Europe fbr many """""i"'
biblical history' the Templum
center of this view "iii"itg at
tf,e ma3or Crusader landmarks
Domini emerged ^ on"of on the
it prominently showcased
the heart of this "itvl "t
rnupr.rt The popularity and authen-
twelfth-centu.y c.ur'ua"r
u' u Chtittiun site are dem-
ticity of the Templum Oomini o'f
pitgti-t' carving awav Piec3s FIGURE12.HistoireUniversel]le'frontisp.iece,London,-TheBritish
';;;dr.-lslaa,
onstrated uy tit" ptu"ii""-oi site back pt' lv (photo: B'ritish Librarv' bv
permission)'
ii,""t"ily taking the holy
rhe rock u, ,oou"nirr:qrii"
home with them.se
local/Islamic visual culture Canteen' it is the
Crusader engagement with artic- occur. Similarly, on the Freer
Crusader worldview is fully identify the rid^ersI
and its integration l"to ttre (Jniverselle, -"J* "tO milieu that help to
of theHist.oire figuresin
ulated in the Crusader-uno,",ipt ;;; ;*". as Crusadersand to locate these
from the biblical creation to t1"^?1
r-"J ipig 2). By picturingthemselves.ol
world
a vernacular history of the dating about
or l,,ti"i Caesar' produced
*.
f:t"' thus implicat" ti"-'"lu"t within the full
;;;A;
(MSAdd 1s768,fol. 1v).60 Crusaders past and present'R"f"::":*l
1285,nowin thesritis;;;ffit rrdrolrYv'conflating
narrative,
ftundation image for this view to the row of saintsthat
The frontispi""" "ho'e" us the circle and visuallY Parallel
motif of Christological scenes their claim as sucr
of history comprises a central itt"-, irt" Crusadliriders assert
distinct style of the Acre work- carryon the misst
of the Creation painted-initre it "r" ruino, asholy warriorswho
local/Islamic motif of revelers' nghtingior the reclamati".'.":l
restorati
shop surroundedby u Ai'tin"tty ;;;;;'it
tZ and.13)' These two separate other side'62
U^"t'qt"i"rt, and animals Figs' the ""'' t,,* ,""pr.,.nt"d on the
tt"lt
foily unified messagewithin bY,the
modes on the page '"p'"'"n'"u the local/ il; majority of objects acauired
Crusaders' the use of did not c
Crusader worldview' f"t ift"
an exotic visual ele- frofviuJund tate" back to Europe
introduced
Islamic vocabulary noio"fy
and identity connected
iin", ot t"pt"sentationsof theholy thrislialff wr
ment but atso Oen"ei u" u"o"iution as it il.;;;;; in the local/Islamicstvleand
the central biblical theme' ^ '' obviousandauthentic
to biblical history, f'*ing ""f Moreover' the precisely because ot.tn eir . .: -,- __.:+L
were, in an authentic ""t"
the Holy Land'61 with +rra
themamnl
mem
the work it,n" fflfy Land andassociation
would have also labeled [t is no coincidence that
contemporary IslamiJstyle it -tf "t"*" "i,a Crusades'
t;;;kr";
East' thus demonstrating that ;tsociatedwith crusader rulers'T
as one connected to ttt" i-atl" would
the biblical continuum
was through tfte Crusaaersthat

138
 FIGURE 13 Histoire Universelle, detail of
frontispiece.

basinscome to mind. One was commissionedfor

Hugh IV of Conclusion
king of Cyprus and titular king of Jerusalem (1324_
Itlgll",
13591.42 The basin, bearing French ani Arabic inscriptions
The complex Christian_Muslimrelationship
referring specifically to this ruler, depicts shields inscribedon
with the arms the Syrian-Egyptianinlaid metalwork with
of Jerusalemand a Maltese cross. The second Christian themes
basin, the so_ defies any singular definition. Indeed, the celebrity
calledBaptistbrede St. Louis, probably dateslater and suc_
(ca. 1260_ cessof theseworks dependedon their flexible
1279or ca. 1325-1360) than the crusader St. Louis andintegrated
after whom visual vocabulary, which served an extraordinary
it was named.64The name later given to this rarige of
work has con_ patrons, functions, and readings from various
structedan identity and value within Crusader christian and
memory by Muslim perspectives.Here, I have focusedon
connectingit both to the Holy Land and to the pious the interactions
Crusader of three major local cultural groups_Eastern
King Louis. By the eighteenthcentury, tf,e use Christians, Mus_
of this basin lims, and Crusaders-and on two key relationships.
asa royal baptismal font_connectsit to the practice While both
of using of theserelationshipstrave highlighted ..the
objectsprocured in the Holy Land for holy Christian iocal,,,they have
rituals been defined very differently in each contexr.
oncethey were taken to Europe.
The first relationshipbetween the indigenous
Many precious objects of rock crystal, glass, Christians
and ivory and Muslims involved the creation of a geriuine
the Holy Land were depositedinto Europeanchurch sharedlocal
treas_ Syrian-Egyptian visual culture. This cul]ure
s, where they enriched the church coffers and was marked by
were put to an assimilation and interchangeability of
asholy liturgical vesselsand reliquaries (e.g., visual vocabulary
Fig. I l).6 that included Christian and non_Christianthemes
: works enjoyed a special statusin part because and styles,
of their where the circulation of portable objects promoted
value. Moreover, they served as vesselsfor connec_
historical tions and linked theseindigenou, populatiorrs.
, connectingthe living holy ritual in the churchesof The secondre_
lationship centeredon Crusader"uttur" in
to the sacredtopography of the Holy Land. They Syria and palestine
also during the thirteenth century.while the definiiion
the memory of the Crusaderadventureand of locar iden_
discourse tity for theseworks was equally significant for
restoration. In many casesthe objects were refit with elab_ the Crusaders,
their engagementwith theseworks did not primarily
mounts,enamels, and jewels, changing their point to
original a sharedculture with their Muslim counterp^arts.
rance.66 These additions,however, OiOnot compromise For the Cru_
saders,above all, these works represented
holinessor authenticity of the objects; rather, more than anything
they natu_ else a direct link to their biblical legacy
zedthe works into the treasuries, where they and claims to the
would now Holy Land. A discourseof portability, where
like the other treasury objects, following in the movement
the long tra_ of objects over considerabledistancesoffered
n and continuum of Christian holy objects.6T opportunities
As the for cultural exchange,was tied here to the
nt of the restorationof the Holy Land, the vessels controlledjourney
of pilgrimage and crusade that forged the
x were now similarly rescued,purified, and temporal and geo_
fully graphic connection between the sacred
During the conquestof Jerusalemin \}92,after topography unJth"
the ultimate destinationof the work, whether ii
destroyedon the Haram, the chroniclertells us: ..The was in the Latin
Kingdom or in Europe.
en its shapeis lost is changedback from vile
to pre_ In both cases,the definition of the local has
In other words, materials and objects were highlighted
mere re_ the limitations of classification.Given our underlying
s that had to be activated through their usage, ur*rnp_
either tions of the separationbetween Christian
vesselsor as unholy vessels,that is to say,-as and Muslim cul-
idols. tures,the label ,Ayyubid', has inhibited our
in the restorationof the Haram -onurn"nir, understandingof
the holy the truly integrated local culrure in Syria
ts of these objects also justified any violence and Egypt Auing
and the first half of the thirteenth century. At the
thatwereinvolved in acquiring them. Like the sametime, it has
inlaid obscuredthe local meaning definei by the
with Christian scenes,these objects in church Crusaders.Ulti_
mately,,therelationshipsuncoveredin these
representedthe mediation between the sacred encounters,both
to_ past and present,force us to adjust and reevaluate
andthe believer and expressedthe mission of the categories
the in which we classify these works. In the
rid the Holy Land of idols and to restoreit for end, the catelories
must be as mobile as the works themselves,
and the relation_
ships establishedbetween the works will be
our best suides.

t39
 ,",T":"1::T:i^l'jiii,:,ill,l;
graritude
*.':":#l:*'*:*::l':::i'fl'"'::i$l"lJ"J'"';1;'"od";"
my
NOTES
"lii:i:!,-,"!'m';iriirrr;rfi
7. J. Leroy,Les syriaquesd neinl'ur1's
'2iirl,:;:i,l;r:;;,r;;ii{i;;ii:iryf[Ti#ix*l*t.l
manuscrrts 'colsends
dansles bi'

rwourd roexpress
rike r': ffr!#t'.q"1;;'
"nr,ioriqo''LXIY11",'^;,';^;;,;;r;,idMeratwork..24-3e:andKatz-

*tltq,:#fr*"+**q.*!'+T.iffi#i **f-+lq*til*r*rntl
0,"**i*"r*"q1t:','$it*ll1=',1*^llL,
:i{i.1]f*'*ru'*"ru#*j'ffiH6o-,utiiu,u,o,oi
" FreerCanteen"'| 4l - | 4 /" b.^er': vv
";ili"-;;;;*rv'
"christian :::" :'t" tii.
h#;;iti"J
Metalwork"' 54-62'
thatthe""""0"'- J"ii'n"i
orove
*nrtt-C"ntury
rhemes lli1::ltl
"* peculiaritiesin iconography
**i* "ir'i'11i1er ofsvr-
contoxt
I slamic
to

ilTtl"ll
iunu.dEgvptian""Loi";"(';;-wnilevariatio-ns;;;r;lf
" *: "T'::l:::::ffi;;
fi'il1':3TJlffi"'il:";::i;J;,*lflq1,"',f
il; ry:'._"::x#llhi:;:,:J
HHtTlHi'}i:*t:l*l'"1*l'ffi;"hi;##'"; bemini'
:ilt;;t;;';'*een
metalworkand Eu':tn'
the -t-l
p,rotographs
' iffi*;."',n ", '#i#il i|l
:ilI""j1| it'"
li"iiTllli;;"' lllx**t",m
sliila.not
11:#;;;;'* cuuure
,llT,i*,H'li ;*iJ*"""
":.":":
;i*i f*krur#inn*f*#;ii%-r:r
+***r*,,'"x*':fii+;:'Txi':x:ii:: ::TfJTil'1"#1Tll":""T:il
alsoin other
gutt"* ct'lJ*
takesdo not seri"ru,
.""*n "'#r" trr" ht"grity
o, *l***
t"'i1|"l^ti"ty't"'ut "ttutu"terizes
ot
them$-
manuscripts''an.t-l-^o*"'cases scenes'
the
Syrian-Egypttan

, T#iJ*v,il',T:'il*il
k;hlffi
?Jili"Ti.T;:Jrry,il","",ii;e;",:,"ffil"
The variations'n"o

'*h:**lr::'*i*r*+g*gln*
i""*,rl^", ,i1-'so
*,u,i'r'r*i

fu+#f;F-:T*
8. ..\,_*^+i.,es Land
Hoiy
orthe

'i,\ii"lii.","::,Y:lj,ilr:iilil;,],il3i;[,iiffi.ii""i'"c'
l1;{:"$l;fiil"4;nTL'Jr1"i;l,:Xl;;:filil:il#'#*:
rrr-rJu
(Ieu))' AvvubidMetal
e
work with Christian
Lowrv.
1
"Christian Themes tn
Baer'
63-68;
and,"

studies [*rililr*'."'tijllitj""*l---;::",
xi:Tr":;,\"?:11;;;1:'1illii,#,.ij,fd**t'tffi
earlier
toimportant
iT;}"l;,lt#lt3i;j;*i;i"'"n""' or*"::lr-lll;;#i lffi?t":i"il"J,"il:
,0. l*.,o,.,Narratives
mavbe
,1ruy io"na in
u" round these *::::,"
in these works'
one
"receptive to different memor.nulou. "oii"ntalismano
"orientalism crust
andr.
-r:l^- \rlrecrm
Museum il;ooorou,
4i;?Tl"Jl;'iiff:ff:l'"1.X-"1::i,:[l'fliEi'*#f
Newyork,rhe Metropolitan :fi."'il'Jlt:;li$Ti:::

fft;dtj:1*"lli:U:;#*fut,lt*ijit:
l"l'T;",5;i;*ljl1u1nxl'f'-11,;-1":*#jif*
i:r*:'.:r,,.'r,rit*:u':*hl**u'*
[ili*#:tJll,ii;.iLlJJ"tld.l$ti,+;;;{*:*
F:'i. (1e83)'2'
Lxv
"{i*r;:*il$;:l*,::::1;'ixiii;
,fJfi:l'h'i%i:;;;;;"ries'AB
;;*?:''ru'#;::;'fj#:;{:^,'*xi;i7i;*n:1
".:*il.-';#
|!,'i,6triii!,, " ?,,",',"j;;;ffit1fi*:{llltfillT;"q5t1{
i:iffi"'1"'.|::i'*"li:fiffim*::;T:'il':i:f,ffiil:
T:::y::::1nTffi:i::',ffiil:
!r'"-JiT;l*i."ii:b0""'*'*irl,ff'l,Ti1
work.For the relatlonsnrp
::-;";ffi#*.n*
rr:il;i#;#;;:#:::
H.j,lFH-iftr*ffi*1y,,l}:{[*l.':*;ts#"i}' i
K T;;,ilil;;"dBrass:
parallelsandPuz-
rhe Metropoittan*:"*":::.""j

and w' u'

;; :' i. o.'sqi J zat
(New York,
ture of the Midd':^u^'::,'':';:;r*, ios-lr', R. M. Haddad,
slighrlytaterperiod'see -1,-, .r-". ro-3+. ed. H. C. Evans (Princeton'
, t,-.^-^-.tntinn (prrnceton,
' Interpretaion 19

;1'"'$#ffi5']. ;"ili;';;;;-abss'3o-34' tr},:,,i;,","i';'r:l yl":: t ^;iva".Historv of Eastern chris

v1do1't:''i?'Hl;::;l'Tl;
ArtsFoundation:
attheFurussiva
'5 A bottre *d (NotreDam:'.'lL,i]"^,
xTfJil;*r$il;;;;1
London' A
;* ;;"il;;,i,i,n Mu"o*'
e'r'12,",Fo'
: ,n"*.1::i:-'i:::;t: ;::
' *" n"'j'*l':T;t Tfi,i'i"**,,itiesoftheArab
t,"":T:i.r,'j-?r:.'**::lgl ,J?:,ttii. l3'l
Museum,
Diocesan ,, wortd
seeS.D.Goitern'
-'.",,," curtures. '
*mrx;q;,it';ry'i"li:':ffi'fl":il;;i;';";;'ine
rr;irffiffi;i:;,:;,,-i:y^
iff.*,,s'5##ffi;i;it ;,,Jffi *:;w,i:'}&::i*1i"ti:::
tottt."rn:n:*1utT :"tti1:ffiH'u)i^hi,o'Ettr,"., ::",;i;:ff
c*'ud"'
:i';J;;;;';'
undstrin-
LLt; r' r 1q|\""
1e60-200u)' ) thecrusades
ontheNear
o,,,'1.:Ti,r;iiil# l5)T."ii'l""hl3:Trill
l;":n,,
i:Hh:':n*':),'^
schnittarbeiten aus-dem
*.t!:';;;;
liir;;i*-
Museum in St Peters-
N' P' '
tnt,tl--
v) (Madison'
"
t;*mirage setton,
i.u'l""*i a.' ^n:": pl. 17.r;a tragment uirt " vi"- -,,..,' art,seeHunr,
?L.llroGrass, christian
burg, in Gitded and
EnametL
"r"'qH.ln:*:t)lilllll;,1::X
Museum
Arbert r3 il1"::;'ll^l''*:,iiill*p;'l
;r;t#***x#;g|^!"#',li:,i^:i:i::Lr)ri-;iit;
and
to,ia
ili"tl:"*,:r:*.,:**-*t,:**
LTil*-iff"'JJ'il

*t**rX**t*,y*',xvi#*q3**X;*
Du
*f#J-'ffffii':'ii:::::.verre:
la seine-Maritime,
A travers
' '"
age
moven
lu Louvre, Pafls' ln i"""""-",)"r"rre: $t.mt*ri**is*tW;tt't,
fi?;ii,illlll,T;,;';);;:;;;,;:::":::::!
^;:"T;i:;:';r;;;"i,1'"".1'
Du moyen age d la
i';::l;;:;;
:'^':-:-:^,,,-"
renaissance
y111;;ffii'"'#;ilili
No 12g. and also repro'

xn",****i{uUi;=ii*:TT",fli#f
*:*1*::],:i"''i:tl*:^i:rilx'E;'il#i'll:iii#'^, inEarrvlsram
' #lli!'ffi****r1*'r*ti:L"J'il'::ffi'; irr;1*\i;f"ff1;fvlll-"'
al-I\
oi Attmed al-Dhaki

140
 Hunt, "Christian-Muslim Re
j'li,:i't:1*;,T:,#l:
:T]:.H'::I Muratova, ,.Western Chronicles,,,
t-
)-
:::lti'-,':-;::-*'if 33.
34. Ibid., 49-53, and discussion
52_55.

3t
;;Tt";J::T:.iitzs_.rti;.anacu,y"innr",,i"_,'i,7'Lrriilt_
thea"uo^.",i,ioi,l,1ui";r:it,ri;i'i^!ik perpetuation of the idea_that
in Camille, Gothic ldot,142_146.For
the
Xi?;"1::"-:ttionof Muslims *"." iOotut"r*, see
of Fulcher of Chartres (1I20_1127):.aff the chronicle
:,TT:::":t:,,fgrgre-eltens;;;';;;;":il';!T;1,# ,i"i".""""s held the Temple
z-
lc
i:'I:\7,::":X"3.il-".':::::l;'^:':;:;;i;;;;;;:';";;;i::;:
t";t):!1,::n".::,:'-q:"ht^,;ti;;;:,";;;';;';:;h:;::'^il:
!.'!"{::::::.?,,!t::1":":.atth.e.Redsear*"*i*:"i,'r[{3|1!#
of the Lord in great veneration.
to say the prayers of their faith
Here rather than elsewhere they
althougf, ,uJ p*|".s were
prefened
to cause offered to an idor set wasted be_
at-Habashi: up in the n.ameor rvroi-rn"a,,,in
r- A studyin Medievat
pari"i,"iiiii,iiiiri.!;:;;{ii of chartres,
A Historvof thez"p"airn*it Fulcher
B aer, Al,yubid M etalw ork, 32.
iirii-,rr^r.E
R.Ryan,
ed. H. S. Fink (Knoxville, tSOg),
ttA.
AI Accession number MMA lgj 35. As translatedin Muratova, .,Westem
1.3g, in B aer,Ayyub i d M et a lw Chronicles,,,4g.
KS PL. 44; and Gtory of ByTantium,No. o rk, 3 I and
ZSS,qZ'i_ii."'"'" 36' For a study of the curtural
ll- mechanismsinvolved in the
For Ahmad al-Dhaki, see rmages, see D. Freedberg, Th.epower destructionof
nd Rice, "Inlaid Brasses," 311-316. of Imag"r, st)di", in the History
works of al-Sa[h, see Katz_enstein For the and Theory of Response,(Chicago,
is- and Lowry,-;Chiirriun fl"_",
ln
,n8"nl.;i;lrr*r study of the con_
Thirteenth-Century Islamic fusion between marerial thingsind
3S. Metalwork,,, 66. #;;;l;;;;nd
between acts of violen, rhe connection
For the inscription on the Fr
an
7r; for tharon thesr. ,"r".lii,l"-']L'::
sDurg tray,
o:it' Art.oftheArabwortd, rnterpretation.i;:,;:::i';i;;;?:';:,ili,r#,r';;:k:W
see Baer, Ayyubid Metalwork, Prejudice, and Violence
l0 and note 2g. ,,"0i". ,rr O_.ncan Literature
Le- Culture) (Cambridge, 1986);^(Cambridge and
See Khoury, "Narratives of the and iee ";;;;';;"nt casesrudiesin
es: Holy Land,,, 6j-69,for a full M. Caviness, .,Iconoclasm
eration of this issue; also, Katzenstein consid_ and Iconophobia: F*, iirto.r"ut
the Case Stud_
and Lowry, .,Christian Themes ies," D io g enes, L/ 3 (2003), gg_l
L4.
II
T lllleenth-Cenrury IslamicMetalwork,,,
Or_ii, r", "t"rrrian figures ,t
m court poetry; and see now T,Khalidi, of crusaders,2sr_2s3,with
theinscriptions
fne Uurtim l"sur,
"'" Sayings antl l::11#: .the andscrip_
Stories in Islamic Literature (Cambridge,
tal- Ue, ZOOii.
20. Baer,Ayyubid Meralwork, pl.9.
38. Katzir, .,Conquestsof Jerusatem,,,
ith- l0g.
39. The Dome of the Rock,
21, For inscriptions with the name of al_Salih, see in both its architectural form
and decoration, was
"Christian Katzenstein and Lowry, a major source of inspiration
Themes in Thirteenth_Century Jo, tt " Cru.ua". ,"rtoiatron
Islamic l{",lflr"r*,,, Holy Land. For the retati^onship efforts in the
O:_OO. and .";;;;r;;;"
Ibid., 65. programs in the Church of restored mosaic
the Nativity to tf," "u.ti".
Umayyad mosaic
Baer, Ayyubid M et a I work, 42. t#::T: coroni *o_*r, ;;?ffi;
aiism,,,
Khoury, "Narratives of the Holy
:::,yT1_1.,^*o
sader Art of the Twelfth centurr.sq,
59 ; ,"i-o^i'l"
"J' ;;:Lru-
Land,,, 6g. and Folda, Art+qtw.\uilnet,
of the Crusaders,
34,7anrt) Alrn- +L^-^r-_:r::,ury,
See,among others, J. prawer,
The^LotinKingdom of Jerusalem(London, i[^I?"^].!:,.therebu'drng#'*'dil'i'i';?":::,:::;:,i":,
clear' however, whether these
responseswere in emulation
s'sru'' lr ls nol
1972); idem, The Wortd of the hcr*i^n rJ,:+L ]L^ r-,
p e t i t i o nw i t h t h e I s l a m i c of or in com_
(it"* y";k, 1;rr, ,. ao,ou, m o s a i cp r o g r a m s .
* ',, Crusaderi.Crusades
in theHotyr""i, t,tii-iiiiiNe, -'
lfr]" vo.r, Istamicperspecrives
(Newyork,2000),
ii:::{:;!'!:R. S. Humphrey
217-228; !::::!":: zuuo),
". p-- t1':!:!
.s,i)),i.'::to the
,::'::" :",* The
-rorK'
On the discourse of idolatrv. see
and Image-Making in Meiiev
M. Camille, The Gothic ldol:
Ideology
"J,?,,::r'::::":!,2:'
ju!(!y:"v,Di;;t,;;;-;;;"fr;:;:::::
of Damatc,," t t oz r r.n , ^li:* Mongol: Ayvubids

..Rebui,din awubiis-.;
"d"ffi '::1::'Jir
*;,^i;;"o;:,?il1 uv.the
BHami,ton, iii:"::',,':ff East
g#1ilJil iH;l1??.-11,:::i:" Rfj,:::l,,l,""Xin inihe
dil"'tr' ;,##ilf ;I#;
ffil1liin
(Studies
ond
S"lf:: i Historv.
I:"::::,y::,
e v i e w ,I I ( 1 9 9 8 ) , 1 _ 1 8 .
^n"n".at rn-,iii,,,", History
Church XrV)(oxford, t ii _i r'i: ; ;;:,, Ti,
tsit 1,,' -t
'*:!,;f g f:1",'Das Ausschmiickung
ill:.#' ;::;t"lt:::1t:'"Ti-:1
f :::::'?o2lj'_!:l,n,r-:o+'si<u-h'"i',;;";;";,Artorthe fiff11:i""i l:.T.j:'":l* inBethrehem:
"r"-,1"j.oilili#;
lftn!n1i.ru: A Geographicat,an Historicat,'
,r.ri"rrii,1r,'Jll, j"i\:':Tj''?:,i::;;;;;;;;;;';:;:*I",:,";::
ior(Berlin.1994t.47_60ifor
and
thechurchoi;; *.ffi;;""
Colonialism, 72_g I. uunt,
i:5iTg:?:i
us.ader s, 2_5
2_253: rohn of wiirzburg, in J.
. Keaaan-Kedar,..The Figurative i:]* J;e"i,:: :{ e^:, *'"'n _
wilkin
Western Lintel of the Church
of the
son, r usat m p: it:s ri mag e: 10gg_ I I 85 (L"";"r,
oly Sepulchrein Jerusalern,,, ;;;;;:' ;;;..
in The Meeting of Two Worlds: 43. Schneider,.,FreerCanteen,,,
hangebetweenEast and Westdu-ring period Cultural 147.
the "f rr" ,rlitTlrt,
V P.GossandC. V Bornstein(Kalamazoo, * toca.sanctaon
noi, ,6S;j, irr_rrr. ,.Bal_
rhegtass,seeCarsweu,
Gothic ldot,I2B.
"-:11:T
*:::"i1."L:l::,:f:' :l l "j'.-ifr. ,rtt ;;
; ardGeorgopout""-,
"'j::"^ ^l!;az
"": themappinj allo ;,"1i-
Lru_
a, "Western Chronicles of the 1T,"":j:,-::1.^ll,-" "r ururi""i,t,", onu ,".i", or
First Crusade as Sources for
in the Holy Land.,,,Crusader
Art in the ritii-&"_ of Jerusalem,"in Jerusatem. tff ":T;j
"t'T*:,Ht:,:',*::1":*M:i"yi-R"b"'.:ff ';:. LrusaoerMaps
:f.1"
ed,J. Folda (Oxford, 1982),41. ."ff
Land(Ientsct.^ looo\ ^r
fi,.i"*"iii,,"-:::
The IsraelMuseum,Knightsof the
nily
i,,;ffi"ftji:*
J??".oi.*"-,:li**l;i;;;:";i.":":;:{
:::"r'n",H"iv
ii';;;;il "1.''i'?'Jllll
ond of Aguilers, Historia Franc,o,rum
J. H. Hill and L. L. Hill (philadelphia,
eui Ceperunt lherusalem, tri); ) H|j:'"
'ir.'2:!":::,!i?lf
quotedpassage,
1968), 127_128.For this
seeFolda,Art of the Crusa'ders, N. Rosovsky(Cambridge,MA, :"r,_t::",ot"*vo^'o)',ii,i"ii"rlili"iti
1996),"353_362..
rj, nO"#"*,
a7, ..conques
ts"i i** "i".,,, i, -t
:#tBomstein, i ; .and
S::::.,:' Meetingof! r.Kat7ir,
rwo S;j*',_'Loca Sancra
Souvenirs: thepit_
Searing
**a,, idi,*"i,i" "."Jjlil;,jl *;H:*::lll
passageparaphrasesRevelation :fiT"i."ir.,""::::"":i:!"Btess_ingsxrilg,;";),"ff;i#,#;
l4:20 andJosephus.
:lli::'f
ir,T::"^i:1,':;,l^1y.*:;";:;;;:,;|';; ^i l
T#],i,*,:: :' I:!-':, : "* eno,_
Tanoedi, cap. CXXIX, 695:
,T_49:ll*r,"
translation here follows Muratova, Eo,th,,A",, i ir"' i'),,"ri,
48, wirh-ful Larm rexr and ranslarion.
ArtoftheCrusaders,
43-44;Camitte,
C*n,,
Also see
iii,"l'q2_iil.
?;::;::;i';,i;i-1'1,:ly-''11"i13'*,.^,1';r;;:'"
';!::'?:::,:,:"1Y":1':si""'oc,issD''^'i';'6;;;;:'
Terre Sainte (paris, l95g).

141
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a,ion:l:";*:li::;i;T:s.';i"
circu
46Fo.he {^:;il:ilJ'.lili:,i: ix":l}''':t#
*i4n,iil*"*5il14ff;i"'#fi l

L
5eSee ,mada'Din sd:::':t*i{fu1;pti',}T:1i;T;:; P
flilr*f#HtT.',;'i.;ffi*tll;;.::lu:il:'::,^*247-24e'
123'
Gtassof thesuttans,No'
or the
For.theinterpretation
and
4?. carboni
,
whitenouse K:l *J;:i'r*T;l Lir,,'iii-i;i.
'I:
o*ll,l,;,)l;,
),T,'::,:;l;"1*:qf ;lili:x:';:::{:l ;1F*ilq-1:i"^i:ij.i,rInu::i;ll'.::'i:tT o*h'
;;;;;N"6,.and,woceramrcillil:,1':il#'i.'.""',l,"1Y:l*-
;*f;x;;*i't #:il,fiti:n;*ru'v"rh's'on"'
uv
- \':I:T;::
;::#;i' and
Framing
c'ver:
;:i'i#lJt:'*"1ffk
'*Trn*,[*#;X;'**[";'i'r"t-+i;:euc
*t*r#t**1""q*1'113t:**i"i:l.#1kk#
it*","p,"u"u1v,,:r,*-",",:il"1i:i;rffin$*i:y
n:ml
6ea''d'71'
Gtass'
zili '"aEnametted
ffii:rj#,,$:ll"'ru; ,, 1il,.ff,,*J:$:T..#.
f,*'L',,"#""lll],.lffi**j,;l5};lji
oso:#:I::;',7"#tlii; X;;alql:Jfi:x:i;Ttxt
-:'p$ ;tr#ff:il#i;'";;
t"j*;n:t:il
.'"r""."in^,"tt"t1 1e82)'
(seattre, many nt:'"1t'"i:,1:-*l:i.:il![i
":"*:,^"t crusader
are
X]frii,lfi;;^ory 62. rhere
Yetushalmi' Zakhor:
5-s2 ffia?:$T'*j*x*ml:;:2:';:I::;:{:;':,:ri
,"finnshiobetweenthe
50Ka'zir,,.c*.qr:,:::lx;l'""fi,:i.fjg;s'',"{,^.!'ll".'i5n::!
Crusader and Roman
c<
Metaphorsi'
" ' il*iiT;.":il;..1..**runffii;"1nililxil.,
in cossand or i"'"0.. *t' *{t1":i-":',":l*ri "The
,. *.Jiil"'or., Mooar^u, R.^Ward' iuTi-r"r,slu^:l.l
of rheCrusades
;;;,"*;;" *, 'ri*""w"'t':'ti].-lll:.".t" 103- g:l:il.1::'l""tt::'lii"Ti'i'y'i*:,:,I;:H::T,'Til".il
orrerusalem,,,
" T["]:!':ji..:.;HHi;:#:H:Lq
trhf;q]l";# i'ffi--"'t$tt,ry;xk?lillJi"';'ll
'"'",.-
"j:,::,^:#,f:,;?11'n'n"''
iZ-::iii;,!ii"#,,11-*,n*o^
'#i:';:;i',#li;,;i':;;*asoioz')'.',,'Ll Aru;ruy*;*i{t:*lii:;;;:X:::::;;:'::;:
'r'3e0-402
::iliili."J;:'ii'o,'
,^,
- Forthetwosussestedu"::''":,.w.:lt:3"*'.','.1'i.1e,:illl
: ri;**il:::':#:::,::;,:::"::)ll''u-'u'
.Artand
Hunt,
See
73.:ll-'1;tllllia,lx#,"1"J:l#:
coronialism,"
ir..'"t*";;'*jff#r,ufr",,T,;':.
,s for an earlier reference
to
desaintLo,is I
(Paris'
Reinrerpretatron.
Reinterpretation
lli:-11ff.T; s.'{.'tt"?,'Ii)ii,sti'rte
I' lslamic ^'
lslutn'L^'.
bYD' S' Rice'ii)iiUr,r"
- --.,-,".. to LouLS(Pais,
SaintLouis
de.\o.int \Pais,
54
'. ot btouca withdrawings
,t;il;i;s' beliefrhattherepresentationotbrbtlca
therepresentalion
ducedhistoricalract. 65. Forthepilgrim,ru::u*-lI;til;:TK::1TiJ!ltlJ;ffi:l
exllansr:1,:l,Tll
55For il'#i:'Jry;i:'*",..:1#J.1Y.';*;Jf1fi
:il":l#:1#"J,:'X?ii,f:Jli^l;i1
t:'^:iT;'..;-.
vivendi has beennoted it i i" ltio.' 1-5,46-49" and Colorpl' K' Seethe *^lv :Ylo;""] )l i"-,i.L U"atevat Church
worksbetween
works ct"i'tiun' undr''tot-t]lt"l",lOfn,*eenth-Centurv
betweent*""{il;;;';i..r3- 'slamicPornble,'?bt'::'::!: y;:;:r:^:^;"'*
t"!^.':':::i;krirlL
,^,,*,""i,:;:'""!;:;;,::&:;*;";i;;Main, andEE.R.
rhese
these Christianized:
iili'"i'i'i"O' 1ee6);
oo^", 1ee6); and
"rhe 'J[1i.in"u.",gence
1.11;ieenth-centurv
suriesof the Latin
West lltr-e
l."t i" Manuscrtpts:Cli
o*,ustrdl*::**T,-T::ii
," '-'-tation,
.: -- :-
ffiffi'['1"ili,i,::'i:r;T:':*::ff1'*J;:B:\:'i.:t1,:T'fi
;t,l-*:L',..t-"*"uar' man' "rhe or
Emergence rlrusuauuu
"'""HarvardUnj
fli;i,T':iffiiir';*-';,nJ""J;i#;,
i;i!'i:T:,Ti';,:I:i Hr';;TlT;il
i'"il;ffil
il?il:T33J$-iT: "
$i:J:Ti"
J5;illil2e-35'
''{il:'iij******tn***
',iliil#t*;;,i;tffiHlj",'"#ili'"r*:t
r.Roots colonialism,"
orMedieval - .u^u^,.,r anrl: ,, :::,:4*"U:T:l-:il'J"rffiH:liltffiJ:'"T'"o,
&:i

f;?it'Jltrf#***',"'*ii:*U*T#t#
sixth-century local
moocrs
::r'#f;
;;*fr ?i*;:*;"nr:**i*'"-"r:l;lh:l
Jerusalem"' lsraet
zxptu'"
IsraelExplorationSociety, tenth-fifteenth centunes;
4rDUlrv'
Venetian metal mount'
l*rrrt*'or, * t*elfth-century,irr,^i"r.,r"to;' ,r. ";;""n-century
;xiiiirsl:r' 223-229'
orthis *: n? \tr/eiqs.,HecBstDomusDo-
issue yijl;-l?,llll"llli:l; "6?. Medievalchristianholv:9j"*:l:::i:1t:,:T:i:il:#l
\j For discussion
aruil Y;i?:i:iJflTl;:l#'Jii''o'^ii"'^i'**e^]'i:*,lt
See:Tllt::,':":;,ff,il1,H[
ii" r*ug':l:5t:T:,'l;,:X
Edincata:
miniFirmiter and Arr:
lft::lt;;;;;;i"e creations
Istamic
T;2'i:;::;:i;:::';,i:iiX::;;1::',,,,*r,:,:!yltii
';i:;i;;i{-Ti.tfl#jHl1[*tltl,:1,:lg:liilJ:t ff;l#lJ#,$,.,,:,H,n""'"*-*i""ebra(
incami'te'
48quo,ed
' :.:e:T*T:Tl':i;$"i#$I
u'
.-
[x:
Chronic,es
;'"1:,"".wes,ern
#htJ#fiJffiTi&,
il*" JJi#"il'ff
$$$$$:ll$ #:':' 5-'e5;
"' xL(1e84)'1'7
;;7;';

142