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MODULE 4
DATA COLLECTION
DATA Means Facts, information or premises, systematically collected and formally presented for the purpose of drawing inferences Collection : data collection is the process of obtaining valuable and reliable information for purpose of research
Primary Data:
The data directly collected by the researcher, with respect to the problem under study , is known as primary data. Primary data is also the first-hand data collected by the researcher for the immediate purpose of the study Secondary data Secondary data are statistics that already exit , They have been gathered not for immediate use. This may be described as those data that have been compiled by some agency other than the user.
Internal sources of secondary data Secondary data can be obtained internally i e within the firm
Internal sources of secondary data
Accounting Records
Internal Experts
Misce reports
2.Books and Periodicals 3.Non-govt Associations Indian cotton mills Federation publisher statistics on the cotton textile industry The American Statistics Index etc 4. Directories Yellow pages 5. Industry Experts 7. Special collection 8. Internet 9.Database format
SYNDICATED DATA Syndicated services are provided by certain organizations, which collect and tabulate marketing information on a continuing basis. Reports abased on the marketing information collected by such organizations are sent periodically ( weekly, monthly, or quarterly) to clients who are subscribers. syndicated services may be regarded as an intermediate source falling between the primary and secondary sources
Shared surveys Shared surveys conducted by a research firm use questionnaires that contain a pool of questions which are of interest to different clients. Hence, these are known as multi-clients surveys ands are sometimes called omnibus surveys.
Secondary data is used by managers as it is cheaper, and takes less time to gather, thus saving them lot of money and time Secondary data can help identify , clarity and redefine the research problem secondary data might also hold a solution to the problem Secondary data may provide alternatives methods that can be used for primary research Secondary data generates requisite information for better creativity
Characteristics of observations
It is selective. The research selects the range of things to be observed on the basis of nature, scope and objectives of the study Observation is always purposeful It captures the natural social context in which persons behavior occurs
Methods of observation
Structured unstructured observation
Structured observation is used when the research problem has been formulated precisely and the observers have been told specifically what is to be observed. They may be given a simple form to record their observations Unstructured observation : observers are free to observe whatever they think is relevant and important
Disguised- undisguised observation In disguised observation, the respondents do not know that they are being observed In non-disguised observation, the respondents are well aware that they are being observed Ex; observers often pose as shoppers Direct- Indirect observation In direct observation, the event or the behaviour of a person is observed as it occurs. Indirect observation implies that some record of past behaviour is observed
Observation under natural settinglaboratory setting Observation in a laboratory setting, on the other hand , enables the observer to control extraneous variables which influence the behaviour of people.
The original data can be collected at the time of occurrence of the event Observation is done in natural surroundings. Sometimes, the respondents may not like to part with some of the information, such information can be obtained by the researcher through observation ex ;- small children it is easier to conduct disguised observation studies than disguised questioning There is no element of artificialness in observational studies, especially when the observed person are unaware of their behavior being observed
Disadvantages of observation
The observer might wait for longer period at the point of observation extensive training of observers is required This is an expensive method It is very difficult to gather information on (1) opinions (2) intentions
Questionnaire Objectives
It must translate the information needed into a set of specific questions that the respondents can and will answer. A questionnaire must uplift, motivate, and encourage the respondent to become involved in the interview, to cooperate, and to complete the interview. A questionnaire should minimize response error.
Question content Researcher has to find answers to 5 major questions while deciding the question content they are 1. what is the utility of the data collected? 2. How effective is a question in producing the required data? 3. Can the respondent answer the question accurately? 4 what is the chance of the responses being influenced by external events? 5. Is the respondent willing to answer the question accurately?
Characteristics of questionnaire
It must be simple, the respondents should be able to understand the questions It must generate relies that can be easily be recorded by the interviewer It should be specific , so as to allow the interviewer to keep the interview to the point It should be well arranged, to facilitate analysis and interpretation It must keep the respondent interested throughout
a) The utility of data b) Effectiveness in producing data c) The participants Ability to Answer Accurately d) The Respondents willingness to answer accurately e) Effect of external events
Types of questions
1. open-ended questions; Participants to respond in his /her own words without being restricted to pre-defined response choices is known as an open-ended question What do you think of the performance of the Indian hockey team in the recent Olympics? Which brand of soft drink do you like ? Coke or Pepsi?
1) OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS: Respondents are given complete freedom to answer in their own words. Advantage a) eliminates "forced choice" bias b) unlimited response varieties Disadvantage a) promotes investigator bias b) responses difficult to code and analyze Best Use a) small scale exploration b) establishing rapport c) as final question d) to collect facts: e.g., age
Close-ended questions 1.Binary These are also known as dichotomous questions as they permit only two possible answers. The respondent has to choose one of the two permissible answers . These questions have the response options yes or No or True or False Agree or Disagree
CLOSED-ENDED QUESTIONS: A) Yes No Questions: Respondents are limited to a positive or negative position. Advantage a) minimizes investigator bias b) responses obtained quickly c) coding is simple and inexpensive Disadvantage a) Best Use simplistic / limits range of commitment b) wording can cause biases a) telephone interview b) self-administered questionnaire when topic permits
Ranking questions These questions require the participant to rank the response options listed on a continuum basis in order of preference Ranking questions are used to get information that reveals participants attitudes and opinions The factors that influence your decision to buy from a particular supermarket are listed below please rank them from the most important (1) to the least important ( 7) Conveniently located .. Helpful sales staff .. Recommended by a friends or relative .. Regular discounts offered .. Instant home delivery .. Availability of everything I need. Competitive pricing.......................
Average 3
Fair 2
Poor 1
Multiple-choice question
These questions cover all significant degrees of response, the respondent has to select an option that best describes their feelings. These are mostly a variation of binary questions Multiple Choice Questions: Respondents are limited to choice of more than two positions. Advantage a) minimizes investigator bias b) responses obtained quickly c) coding is simple and inexpensive d) permits greater range of commitment than yes-no questions Disadvantage a) good questions are difficult to write b) wording can cause biases Best Use a) personal interview b) self-administered questionnaire c) telephone interview if item is not too complicated
Checklist questions These are questions where the participant has the freedom to choose one or more of the response options available Q. Which premium brand of shirts do you possess? ( tick as many of the following as apply) Allen Solly Louise Phillippe Van Heusen Color Plus Zodiac
Questionnaire Design Preliminary Concerns Consider the data collection method. Consider the measurement scale and statistical analysis to be used. Wording Use correct grammar and sentence structure. Avoid slang and colloquialisms. Wording should be as simple as possible without being condescending to respondent. Use a conversational tone. Wording should be as closely as possible to the manner in which people would talk to each other. Wording should be neutral and clearly communicate the intent of question.
Types of Interview
Interview
Structured/ formal interview Unstructured interview Stress interview Group interview method Panel interview In- depth interview Decision- Making interview
Merits of interview
The interview method of data collection is often fast and cheap This method brings the respondent who supplies information and client who use it, closer. This method is quite flexible, because different questions are asked according to the respondents attitude and participation The findings emerge in a form which is fully understandable to the clients
Demerits of interview
It does not indicate how extensive the attitudes expressed by the participants are: The data is not at all projectable This method of data collection cannot cover large areas Mush of the results depend on the moderator
Scales of measurement Criteria for good measurement: measurement 1.Reliability Reliable measuring scales provide stable measures at different times under different conditions. Ex; coffees vending machine gives the same quality of coffee every time then it can be concluded that the measurement of the coffee vending machine is reliable .
2.Validity The ability of a scale or a measuring instrument to measure what it is intended to measure can be termed as the validity of the measurement . 3. Objectivity 4. Simplicity 5. Accuracy 6. Economy
One-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the characteristics being measured. The rules for assigning numbers should be standardized and applied uniformly. Rules must not change over objects or time.
Scale Characteristics
Description By description, we mean the unique labels or descriptors that are used to designate each value of the scale. All scales possess description. Order By order, we mean the relative sizes or positions of the descriptors. Order is denoted by descriptors such as greater than, less than, and equal to.
Scale Characteristics
Distance The characteristic of distance means that absolute differences between the scale descriptors are known and may be expressed in units. Origin The origin characteristic means that the scale has a unique or fixed beginning or true zero point.
Scale Nominal
Ordinal
Finish
Interval
Ratio
15.2
14.1
13.4
Nominal
Numbers identify & Social Security nos., classify objects numbering of football players
Ordinal
Nos. indicate the Quality rankings, Preference relative positions of rankings of teams in a rankings, market objects but not the tournament position, social magnitude of class differences between them Differences between objects can be compared, zero point is arbitrary Zero point is fixed, ratios of scale values can be compared Temperature (Fahrenheit) Celsius)
Interval
Ratio
Length, weight
Coefficient of variation
Scaling Techniques
Comparative Scales
Noncomparative Scales
Paired Comparison
Rank Order
Constant Sum
Likert
Semantic Differential
Stapel
Recording Form:
Jhirmack Finesse Vidal Sassoon Head & Shoulders Pert
a
Number of 3 2 0 4 1 A 1 in a particular box means that the brand in that column was preferred over the brand in the corresponding row. A 0 means that the row brand was preferred over the column brand. bThe number of times a brand was preferred is obtained by summing the 1s in each column.
Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes Using a Constant Sum Scale Form Average Responses of Three Segments
Attribute 1. Mildness 2. Lather 3. Shrinkage 4. Price 5. Fragrance 6. Packaging 7. Moisturizing 8. Cleaning Power
Sum
Segment I
8 2 3 53 9 7 5 13 100
Segment II
2 4 9 17 0 5 3 60 100
Segment III
4 17 7 9 19 9 20 15 100
Perception Analyzer
A relatively new research tool, the perception analyzer, provides continuous measurement of gut reaction. A group of up to 400 respondents is presented with TV or radio spots or advertising copy. The measuring device consists of a dial that contains a 100-point range. Each participant is given a dial and instructed to continuously record his or her reaction to the material being tested.
As the respondents turn the dials, the information is fed to a computer, which tabulates second-by-second response profiles. As the results are recorded by the computer, they are superimposed on a video screen, enabling the researcher to view the respondents' scores immediately. The responses are also stored in a permanent data file for use in further analysis. The response scores can be broken down by categories, such as age, income, sex, or product usage.
Likert Scale
The Likert scale requires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement or disagreement with each of a series of statements about the stimulus objects.
Strongly Disagree Neither Agree disagree agree nor agree disagree 1. Big-Bazzar sells high-quality merchandise. 2. Big-Bazzar has poor in-store service. 3. I like to shop at Big-Bazzar 1 1 1 2X 2 2X 3 3X 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 Strongly
The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis (profile analysis), or a total (summated) score can be calculated. When arriving at a total score, the categories assigned to the negative statements by the respondents should be scored by reversing the scale.
Big bazzar Sells high quality merchandise (2) Big bazzar has a poor instore service (2) I like to shop at big bazzar (3) Big bazzar do not offer a good mix of different brands within a product category(4) The credit policies at big bazzar is terrible (3) I do not like the advertising done by the big bazzar (3) Big bazzar sells a wide variety of merchandise (4) Big bazzar is the best place to shop (4)
--:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: Reliable
Modern --:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left side of the scale and sometimes at the right. This controls the tendency of some respondents, particularly those with very positive or very negative attitudes, to mark the right- or left-hand sides without reading the labels. Individual items on a semantic differential scale may be scored on either a -3 to +3 or a 1 to 7 scale.
A Semantic Differential Scale for Measuring SelfConcepts, Person Concepts, and Product Concepts
1) Rugged 2) Excitable 3) Uncomfortable 4) Dominating 5) Thrifty 6) Pleasant 7) Contemporary 8) Organized 9) Rational 10) Youthful 11) Formal 12) Orthodox 13) Complex 14) Colorless 15) Modest :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Delicate :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Calm :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Comfortable :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Submissive :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Indulgent :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unpleasant :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Obsolete :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unorganized :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Emotional :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Mature :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Informal :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Liberal :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Simple :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Colorful :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Vain
Stapel Scale
The Stapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten categories numbered from -5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero). This scale is usually presented vertically.
SEARS +5 +4 +3 +2 +1 HIGH QUALITY -1 -2 -3 -4X -5 +5 +4 +3 +2X +1 POOR SERVICE -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed in the same way as semantic differential data.
Examples
Reaction to TV commercials
Advantages
Easy to construct
Disadvantages
Scoring can be cumbersome unless computerized
Likert Scale
Degrees of agreement on a 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) scale Seven - point scale with bipolar labels
Measurement of attitudes
Semantic Differential
Versatile
Stapel Scale
scale
5) Verbal description
An argument can be made for labeling all or many scale categories. The category descriptions should be located as close to the response categories as possible A number of options should be tried and the best selected
6) Physical form
3) . Very harsh . . Tide . Neither harsh nor gentle . . . Very gentle 4) ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Very Harsh Somewhat Neither harsh Somewhat harsh harsh nor gentle gentle
-3
5) Very harsh
-2
-1
Neither harsh nor gentle
+1
Very
+2
gentle
+3
100 75 50 25 0
Smiling Face Scale Instructions: Please point to the face that shows how much you like the Barbie Doll. If you do not like the Barbie Doll at all, you would point to Face 1. If you liked it very much, you would point to Face 5.
Very Good Very Important Very Satisfied Definitely Will Buy Very Often
Probably Will Definitely will Not Not Buy Buy Never Rarely
Neither Dissat. Nor Probably Satisfied Will Buy Might or Might Not Buy Sometimes Often
Perceptions
Preferences
Aqua-Fresh Aqua-Fresh Crest Colgate Aim Gleem Macleans Ultra Brite Close-Up 5 6 4 2 3 2 2
Crest
Colgate
Aim
Gleem
Macleans
Ultra Brite
Close-Up
Pepsodent
7 6 3 3 2 2
6 4 4 2 2
5 4 3 2
5 5 6
5 5
Perception Data: Derived Approaches. Derived approaches to collecting perception data are attribute-based approaches requiring the respondents to rate the brands or stimuli on the identified attributes using semantic differential or Likert scales.
whiten teeth
Whitens Does not teeth ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Prevents tooth Does not prevent decay ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ tooth decay . . . . Pleasant Unpleasant tasting ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ tasting
If attribute ratings are obtained, a similarity measure (such as Euclidean distance) is derived for each pair of brands.
-1.0 -0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Cleans Stains -2.0 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
2.0
Advantages of MDS
Does not require assumptions of linearity, metricity, or multivariate normality. Can be used to model nonlinear relationships. Dimensionality solution can be obtained from individuals; gives insight into how individuals differ from aggregate data. Reveals dimensions without the need for defined attributes. Dimensions that emerge from MDS can be incorporated into regression analysis to assess their relationship with other variables.
Thurstone scale
Thurstone scale was the first formal technique for measuring an attitude. It was developed by Louis Leon Thurstone in 1928, as a means of measuring attitudes towards religion. It is made up of statements about a particular issue, and each statement has a numerical value indicating how favorable or unfavorable it is judged to be. People check each of the statements to which they agree, and a mean score is computed, indicating their attitude.
Thurstone scale
In an attempt to approximate an interval level of measurement, psychologist Robert Thurstone developed the method of equal-appearing intervals. This technique, for developing an attitude scale compensates for the limitation of the Likert scale in that the strength of the individual items is taken into account in computing the attitude score. It also can accommodate neutral statements.