EGYPTIAN LITERATURE Official Name: Arab Republic of Egypt Capital: Cairo Currency: Egyptian pound Official Language: Arabic

Ancient Egyptian literature is characterized by a wide diversity of types and subject matter. It dates from the Old Kingdom (c. 2755- 2255 B. C.) into the Greco- Roman period (after 332 B. C. ) Such literary devices as simile, metaphor, alliteration, and punning are found. So much of the literature perished under the rule of the Hyksos that it is not surprising to find no survival of the texts until the 18th dynasty. Few of the early spells occur in that interesting compilation to which the misleading title of Book of Dead was given by early Egyptologists. Earliest in the world Survived largely in the form of priestly texts on papyrus, or school copies written on tablets and astraca. Papyrus- a form of writing materials taken from reed which grew in the Nile. Astraca- pieces of broken pottery of flakes and limestone.

3 FORMS OF EGYPTIAN WRITINGS: 1. Hieroglyphics- the oldest form which used line drawings, representing characters that depict objects and ideas. 2. Hieratic Symbol- simpler and more conventionalized in form than hieroglyphics, used by priests 3. Demotic Symbols- used in commercial documents at about the 17th century B.C. Greek was used in Egyptian literature since the conquest of Alexander the Great. RANGE OF LITERARY FORMS: The religious literature of ancient Egypt includes: a. hymns to the gods b. mythological and magical texts c. extensive collection of mortuary texts. - The range of secular literature includes stories: a. instructive literature known as wisdom text b. poems c. biographical and medical texts. - Notable also are the many legal, administrative, and economic texts and private documents such as letters, although not actually literature. - The individual authors of several compositions dating from the Old Kingdom and the Middle Kingdom (213- 1784 B. C.) were revered in later periods. - These individual authors came from the educated class of upper- level government officials, and their audience was largely educated people like themselves. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OLD KINGDOM - very few literary texts survived - Among the important works of the period were: a. Pyramid Texts- include nonliterary and highly poetic spells b. Cannibal Texts- vivid bits of poetry representing the dead kings attaining power in the afterlife by devouring the gods c. Proverbs of Ptahotep- a book of sound but worldly advice MIDDLE KINGDOM - the classic age of Egyptian literature which saw the flourishing of works which became popular for hundreds of years. - Among these are: a. Tale of Sinuhe- relates the flight of a refugee courtier, Sinuhe from Egypt to Syria for political reasons, his life exile and his homecoming. b. Shipwrecked Sailor- a simple folktale of a sailor who meets an old fatherly serpent on an island c. King Cheops and the Magicians- several folk tales given in a frame work story. NEW KINGDOM - the style of writing changed and the language of the day was used, which brought forth a more natural manner of writing, replacing the artificialities of the Middle Kingdom. - Among the famous writings of this period were: a. The story of King Apohis and Sekenere- concerns war expelling the Hykos b. Voyage of Wenamon- a tale of an official sent to Lebanon for cedar wood c. The tale of the two brothers d. The Enchanted Price

e. Hymn to the Sun f. Contending of Horus and Seth, (etc.) saw increased concern over the dangers after death and many spells and rituals were composed for use of the dead.

LATE PERIOD - literature is differs greatly from that of the earlier times because it was written in demotic, the simplified Egyptian language of the time. - Among the popular works are: a. The Lamentations of Isis and Nephtys and Setna b. The Magic Book TYPES OF EGYPTIAN LITERATURE: 1. RELIGIOUS LITERATURE - religious lit. predominates in Egypt. This is always the case when the priests are the only persons who can write and make records and it is rare that any secular literature survives from an early period. Pyramid Texts: - the earliest body of texts that can be called literature is entirely religious and comprises a series of hymns and spells sculptured on the walls of the burial chambers in the pyramid of the five kings of the sixth dynasty - have clearly been copied and recopied so many times that often the language is too corrupt to be comprehensible. It is, however, possible to translate the greater part of the inscription though many of the allusions are baffling. -consist of hymns and spells for the benefit of the dead, and as they are the earliest literary liturgy and exposition of religion in the world, they throw a great light on the primitive beliefs and official creeds. Coffin Texts: - The knowledge of the people in Pyramid Texts was handed down undoubtly by word of mouth till the time of the 12th dynasty when many of the texts appear on the printed and sculptured coffins of that period. Book of Dead- is a series of chapters (literary divisions written on papyrus and often illustrated with miniature paintings, found in graves. - chapters are not necessarily connected with one another or they are not consecutive and there is no reason why they should be regarded as part of a book. - for convenience sake. The name is retained and also the numbering of the so-called chapters. - intended for the exercise of magic for private individuals in the life hereafter. - this is what the Old Kingdom had hoped to derived from carving the Pyramid texts in their burial monuments. Hymns to the Sun- God - prepared by Amenhotep IV who later called himself Akhenaton because he believed he was the manifestation of the great Egyptian ruler who tried to make his people believe in one god, the Sun- god Ra, the powerful, and the king creator. Hymn to Osiris A characteristic piece of devotional literature - begins as a hymn and ends as a prayer. Amonehat - an example of a religious literature where in you can find good wishes of the relatives, which when recited in th correct chant and with the correct gestures, were believed to secure the happiness of the dead man. - tomb of the scribe - lived in the reign of Thutmose III. 2. TALES - most of the tales arose from the Middle Kingdom a. Tale of Sinuhe- most famous b. The Story of the Doomed Prince c. Misadventures of Wen- Amon d. The Story of King Khufu and the Magicians- tells a lively story of a miraculous happening at the court of the monarch as a prelude to the no less miraculous birth of triplets to the priestess, destined by prophecy to become future kings. - probably political propaganda but it contains the essential ingredients of a fairy story. e. The Tale of Two Brothers- similar to the Biblical story of Joseph and his brother

f. The Shipwrecked Sailor- fine example which relates how a sailor was thrown on a desert island where he conversed with a gigantic serpent. g. The Story of the Eloquent Peasant- tells the bad and the tedious complaints of a peasant who had been robbed of his merchandise. 3. WISDOM LITERATURE - so- called maxims and Instructions belong to the genre of didactic - a popular form of expression throughout ancient Egypt. - advice is put into the mouth of an old man admonishing a younger man of the rules of good behavior, or a king who gives advice on wise rule. The Teaching of Amenomopet- may be learned by heart as part of a young mans education. widely quoted in conversation, and contain many parallels of Hebrew literature. 4. PESSIMISTIC LITERATURE - one of the many forms of literature that blossomed during the Middle Kingdom Dialogue of a Pessimist with His Soul- interesting specimen of Pessimistic Literature - it is a dialogue of a disappointed man with his soul Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage- describes a topsy-turvy world in which everything is awry, the poor usurping the land and place of the rich, the foreigners invading the land, no respect and no virtue anywhere, yet a redeemer is at hand. - this is poor stuff from the literary point of view but it is interesting early evidence of their cyclic recurrence of revolutionary reversals of fortunes. 5. LOVE SONGS -love poems of ancient Egypt are in many ways like those of any other country, and therefore run easily into English verse. - the lover likens the maiden to all the flowers in the garden. - the lover who falls ill with the longing to see his beloved. - bridal songs were sung as they still are in village of Egypt. - Princess Mutardis where one of the most charming bridal songs are found. - it has a refrain which may have been the theme of many poets in all countries but the Egyptian poem is perhaps the earliest of its kind. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARABIAN LITERATURE Jazirat al-Arab- the island of the Arabs * The Arabian peninsula was occupied by the wealthy Sabean civilization, then by Babylonians and Egyptians. * It was eventually united under the caliphs of Muhammad and became the cradle of Islam * MECCA and MEDINA- holiest cities of Islam * ARABS- people from Saudi Arabia - descendants of indigenous tribes and still tribally affiliated. * ARABIC- official language *RIYADH and JIDDA- oil producing areas - Riyadh- capital of Saudi Arabia * Saudi Arabia is a monarchy and the laws of Islam (sharia) form the constitution *MAJALIS- citizens can submit their grievances and requests for aid directly to the king at a regular audiences. HISTORICAL PERIODS MINEAN KINGDOM- existed in southwestern Arabian during the 12th century B.C. SABEAN AND HIMGYARITE KINGDOMS- were loose federations of city-states that lasted until the 6th century A.D. IBAN SAUD (1902)- (IBN- on of) - a follower of the strict Wahhabi sect of Islam, conquered and unified the Nejd, Hasa, and Hejaz regions. KSA (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia)- created in 1932 with SAUD as King

FAIZAL- replaced the Saud family and began modernizing the country. -assassinated by a nephew KHALID- successor of Faizal, rejected the 1979 Egyptian- Israeli peace treaty but followed a moderate policy the Arab- Israeli dispute. CROWN PRINCE FAHN- assumed the throne after Khalids death. LITERATURE began to be known with the collection of the Koran in the 7th century A.D. with the spread of the Islamic faith into Asia, Africa and Europe, the Arabian language soon became a major world language. Arabs possessed a highly developed poetry, composed of recitation and transmitted orally from generation to generation. The most famous examples are: a. elaborated odes, or qasidahs, of the Muallagat ( the suspended ones) beginning with those Imru Alqais. - these poems reflected and praised the customs and values of the desert environment in which they arose. Arabic literature divided into periods marking the dynastic changes and divisions that took place within the Islamic world Umayyad Period ( A.D. 661-750) Arabic prose literature was limited primarily to grammatical treatises, commentaries on the Koran and the compiling of stories about Muhammad and his companions. Umayyad Poets- chief of whom were al- Akhtal and al-Farazdaq, favored new poetic forms such as: a. love lyrics ( called ghazals) b. wine songs c. hunting poems - these forms reflected the conditions of life and manners found in the territories conquered by Islam. Abbasid Empire ( 750- 1258) in its early years, many forms were invented for Arabic literature, which then entered what is generally regarded its greatest period of development and achievement. - Persian influences contributed significantly, (e.g. translation from the Persian) e.g. Ibn al-Muqaffa led to a new refinement in Arabic prose adab Great masters of adab: Jahiz and al-Hariri The Thousand and One Nights-popularly known as The Arabian Nights - drew upon the recitations of wandering storytellers called- rawis. Abu Nuwas (d.c. 810) was acknowledged as foremost among the new poets who used the Arabic language with greater freedom and imagination. Al-Maarri and al-Mutanabi regarded as the greatest among poets that excelled in experimental tradition and classical traditions. -In Spain an independent poetic tradition culminated in the exquisitive lyrics of Ibn Zaydun and Ibn Quzman The Romance of Antar- the closest work to an epic in Arabic MODERN PERIOD - during the centuries of Ottoman Turkish domination, Arabic literature fell into decline. -nahdah- reawakening - intellectual movement in mid 19th century where Arabic literature was revived. - originated in Syria and spread to Egypt Outstanding Arabic Novelist, dramatists and essayists are: a. Tawfig al-Hakim b. Nobelist Naguib Mahfouz c. Taha Husayn Among the poets: a. Ihiya Abu Madi d. Abu Shadi b. Adonis e. Abbas al Aqqad c. Ahmad Shawqi

ARABIC PROSE Saj rhymed prose is the most striking characteristic feature of Arabic prose it consist of a succession of pairs of short rhyming expression where there is a rhetorical and antithetical balance of sense between the pairs of expressions with a certain loose rhythmical balance not bound by strict metre. Khutbah- formal written in rhymed prose style is of great antiquity. - it turned to religious verses in the earliest time of islam. - Ibn Nubatah at- Farigi- one of the most famous later exponents of the Khutbah Kalila wa Dimna- the most celebrated work of Ibn Muqaffa - a translation from a Pahlavi version of the Indian fable, the Panchantra. Writers, Essayists, Critics during the golden age of Arabic prose (17th -19th ) 1. al- Jahiz 2. Abu Hayyan al- Tawhidi 3. Ibn Qucaybah 4. Abual- alaal- Maarri- popular with his letters in saj 5. Risalat al-Ghufran- pictures a visit to the other world Mora- instructive and assuring anecdotes Tanukhi- the most outstanding compiler of anecdotes - who was responsible for 3 compilations: a. Niswar al- Muhadarah (The table of a Mesopotamian Judge) b. Mustajad (Anecdotes of Generosity) c. Faraj Bad al Shiddah (Deliverance after Anguish) Maqamat (Assemblies)- initiated by al- Hamadhani (a collection of short stories, mainly picaresque, woven round the names of two fictitious protagonists)

ARABIC POETRY Most outstanding in artistry and sensuousness of feelings: a. Oral traditions b. the poetry of the North Arabs c. Bedouin Tribes of the 5th and 6th centuries All verses are divided into two types: 1. Occasional poems- consisting of 2-20 lines whose themes are usually war and revenge and praise of ones own tribe. Various genre fall under this: 1. Elegies- the most famous of this type was kansa 2. The Ode or Quasida- was an elaborate ode usually of 60-100 lines - theme is usually about the exploits of the narrator, his old passion, and descriptions of camp life in honor of his patron. - oral transmission of these poems by professional reciters (favris) lasted for almost 350 yrs. 2. Collections or Anthologies- Al-Muallgqat, a group of pre- Islamic odes Al- Mu- Allkat- suspended - these poems were supposed to have been displayed by the Arabs on the Kaaba at Mecca. - these collections are ascribed to Hammed al Ravisya in the 8th century A.D. Amru- ul- Kais- one of the earliest poets - most illustrious of Arabian poets Mu allakat- representative of every type of Arabic poetry, its merits and demerits, and projects faithfully the Bedoins nomadic life, their views, their philosophy, their vision, and their dreams arising from such conditions. Al- Hamasa- an anthology compiled by the poet ABRETAMMAN about 836 A.D. - derives its name from the poems at the beginning of the book. Themes of the poems were: 1. constancy and valor in battle 2. patience when confronted with reality

3. steadfastness in seeking vengeance 4. fortitude under adverse circumstances 5. temptations 6. attributes of a treasure house of ancient mythology 7. detailed instructions of pagan rituals and the customs and traditions of Arab race Mujaddiyat- collection of poems named after MUFADDALIBN YALA (compiled them for the future caliph MAHDT bet. 762-784). - it projects the ancient traits of the Arabs, especially hospitality, charity, valor, faithfulness, lavish entertainment, and love for wine, and for games of chance. MOST OUTSTANDING LITERARY MEN: 1. IBN ISHAQ- author of the life of Mohammed 2. RABJA- from Bastra 3. ABU NUEVAS- Sufi poetess and the greatest Arab lyricist IBN KHALIKAN- made the first biographical dictionary IBN BATUTA- traveler and biorgrapher wrote about his travels in the Gift for Observers and the Marvels of Countries THE KORAN - Quran (the reading) - The Sacred Scripture of Islam - Muslims acknowledge it as the actual words of God revealed to the Prophet, MUHAMMAD and his death - Contains 114 chapters (suras) arranged according to length beginning with the longer chapters.