Deutero-lsaiah: Major Transitions in the Prophet's Theology and in Contemporary Scholarship

CARROLL STUHLMUELLER, CP.

Catholic Theological Union Chicago, IL 60615

study2 on Deutero-lsaiah (Dt-Isa) throws new light on the structure, formation and theology of Isaiah 40-55.3 Yet we are left just as much confused, or in some cases all the more entrenched in our conviction, that there is no way of arriving at any agreement about the number of units or poems in Dt-Isa, about the integral relationship of these units, about the interconnection of the 'ebed yahweh songs with the Book of Consolation, about the person who edited the final work, be that Dt-Isa or a disciple. This study proposes not only a summary of critical scholarship over the past few years but also its own solution as compared with the scholarship.
EACH MAJOR
1 Presidential address, revised for publication, delivered at the forty-second general meeting of the Catholic Biblical Association held at Boston College, August 20, 1979. 2 The major works, usually of the last seven years, to be cited hereafter by the author's last name are: D. Baltzer, Ezechiel und Deuterojesaja (BZAW 121; Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1971); P. -E. Bonnard, Le Second Isae (EBib; Paris: Gablada, 1972); K. Elliger, Jesaja //(BKAT 12/1; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1970-78); R. Lack, La Symbolique de Livre d'hae (AnBib 59; Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1973); R. F. Melugin, The Formation of Isaiah 40-55 (BZAW 141; Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1976); A. Schoors, I Am God Your Savior (VTSup 24; Leiden: Brill, 1973); H. C. Spykerboer, The Structure and Composition of Deutero-lsaiah (Rijksuniversiteit te Groningen; Franeker; Netherlands, T. Wever, 1976); C. Stuhlmueller, Creative Redemption in Deutero-lsaiah (AnBib 43; Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1970). Fora summary of latest research see Spykerboer 1-29, and Schoors 1-31 with excellent tables, delineating units within Dt-Isa according to various scholars (30-31). 3 This study does not investigate chaps. 1-39 and 56-66.

2 THE CATHOLIC BIBLICAL QUARTERLY | 42, 1980 Five important pieces of research have appeared since 1972 and a sixth by Karl Elliger is still in progress, though now entrusted to H.-J. Hermisson. No consensus is in sight. 1. P.-E. Bonnard, who wrote in 1972 in the Etudes Bibliques series, refuses to separate the 'ebed yahweh songs from the body of chaps. 40-55,4 considers chaps. 40-48 addressed to the people Israel before the fall of Babylon and chaps. 49-55 to a remnant of Dt-Isa's disciples after the fall. Bonnard tends to neglect literary genre and hopes to have discovered the master plan by which Dt-Isa himself arranged the poems in chaps. 40-55 into 18 interrelated units.5 2. Antoon Schoors capped a decade or more of research and publication on Dt-Isa by his book, lam God Your Saviour: A Form-Critical Study of the Main Genres in Is. XL-LV (\91r3).6 He states bluntly: "I am convinced that the collection of pericopes in Dt.-Is. is secondary, and does not show any structure. The units have been collected according to purely external standards (catchwords, similarity of subject)."7 It is interesting to note that Muilenburg8 had used some of these same principles: catchwords and other stylistic patterns like repetitions, triads, interrogatives, etc., to arrive at a position, diametrically different from Schoors'. Muilenburg completely understressed literary genre, by far the main strength of Schoors' investigation. 3. Ren Lack9 in 1973 turned to structuralism to understand the formation of Dt-Isa, with much emphasis upon vocabulary, especially the final use of words. Various schemes, axes and comparisons emerge within chaps. 40-55 and are to be traced to Dt-Isa the writer. Yet language is perceived in its direct relation to actionthe continuous use of the participle sees God always performing his great deeds, the many imperatives summon the people to full participation. Lack is very concerned to see Dt-Isa as a human being and therefore is preoccupied more with the Sitz im Mensch than the Sitz im Leben. Lack considers himself closest to Luis Alonso Schkel and M. Harn.10
Cf., the text of this article associated with n. 78. Most of these 18 units consist of a rib and an announcement of salvation: i.e., 41:1-20, rib against the gods and salvation (vv 8-20); 41:21-42:17; rib against the gods, servant song and canticle (vv 10-17); 42:18-43:8, rib against Israel and salvation (43:1-8). 6 Cf., my review, CBQ 37 (1975) 292-3. 7 Schoors, I Am God, 297 n. 2. 8 J. Muilenburg, "Isaiah 40-66," (Nashville: Abingdon, 1956) 5:381-773. 9 Another example of structuralism in examining Dt-Isa is given by Kiyoshi Kinoshita Sacon, "Isaiah 40:1-11A Rhetorical-Critical Study," Rhetorical Criticism (Pittsburgh Theological Monograph Series 1; Pittsburgh: Pickwick Press, 1974) 99-116. 10 M. Haran, "The Literary Structure and Chronological Framework of the Prophecies in
5 4

DEUTERO-ISAIAH 3 4. In 1976 Roy F. Melugin published his work,11 based upon a significantly revised 1968 doctoral dissertation. Like Schoors, Melugin first investigates the literary genre of Dt-Isa's poems. Then unlike Schoors he proceeds to reconstruct the larger units of poems, partly along Muilenburg's method of rhetorical features, but different in stressing genre rather than strophe.12 The arrangement, he claims, is basically kerygmatic.13 Although "chapters 40-55 underwent several stages of growth, . . . it is impossible to reconstruct them."14 5. H. C. Spykerboer's work (1976)15 is the most innovative. He carefully organizes chaps. 40-55 around four polemics against the nations and other poems dealing with foreigners (40:18-20; 41:5-7; 42:1-9; 44:9-20; 44:24-45:7; 46:5-7; chap. 47). He rejects any special attention to the Servant Songs and any hiatus between chap. 48 and chap. 49. He maintains that Dt-Isa wrote in Babylon, to addressees already in Jerusalem, so that the main theme is not the "new exodus" of the exiles out of Babylon but the Lord's introitus into Jerusalem.16 6. Finally, Karl Elliger's commentary is still in progress.17 It exemplifies and expands the principles of his earlier work of 1933,18 that TritoIsaiah carefully edited chaps. 40-55. He searches for the theological message of larger units and relies heavily on rhythm, introductory formulas and the interaction of an earlier more general presentation with a later

Is XL-XLVIII," Congress Volume Bonn (VTSup 9, Leiden Brill, 1963) 127-155, L Alonso Schokel, De Secundo xodo, course at the Pontifical Biblical Institute, Rome 1970, id, "Die Stilistische Analyse beiden Propheten" Congress Volume Oxford (VTSup 7, Leiden Brill, 1960) 154-164, id, "Posie hbraque," DBSup 42 (Pans Leotouzey & An, 1967) 47-90 1 ' Melugm's book originated as a doctoral dissertation under Brevard S Childs (1968) and was significantly revised before publication I find this work of Melugin and the earlier one of Schoors to be the most lasting and helpful, although I differ with Melugm's large editorial units 12 Melugin, Formation, 88 M cannot accept Westermann's position that "lengthy poems [are] made up of a complex interweaving of elements of several genres" (p 175) 13 Melugin, Formation, 175 Although Melugin states the importance of the kerygmatic purpose of Dt-Isa in the arrangement of his poems, M seldom delays over this aspect in the second part of his book Westermann gives considerably more attention to the religious message of Dt-Isa 14 Melugin, Formation, 175 15 A docto ral dissertation written under the supervision of J Schoneveld and A S van der Woude 16 A clear summary is provided by Spykerboer, Structure, 185-190 17 Fascicle 6 marks the end of Elliger's contribution H -J Hermisson will complete the commentary, cut short by the latter's death 18 Eiliger, Deuterojesaja in seinem Verhltnis zu Tritojesaja (Stuttgart Kohlhammer, 1933), cf summary in Paul Hanson, The Dawn of Apocalyptic (Philadelphia Fortress Press, 1975) 37-8

THE CATHOLIC BIBLICAL QUARTERLY | 42, 1980

more specific identification to form the units. Elliger pays more attention to literary form in his commentary than in his previous study. He does not recognize an overall structure to chaps. 40-55, only a series of well ordered units. To summarize the various positions of these six scholars, we find: 1. a carefully arranged structure throughout chaps. 40-55 is recognized by Bonnard, Lack and Spykerboer, yet with notable variations in each one's arrangements.19 This overall structure is denied by Schoors who works only with individual poems; Melugin and Elliger identify larger, interpretive units. 2. the Servant Songs are left intact within chaps. 40-5520 by Bonnard, Lack, Melugin and Spykerboer, yet are identified and integrated differently.21 They are treated separately by Schoors and Elliger. 3. all attend to literary forms except Lack; Elliger and especially Bonnard only to a limited degree. For my part I propose that our initial study of Dt-Isa attend to religious themes within chaps. 41-48, 49-55 and the Servant Songs.22 I appreciate Melugin's stress on the "kerygmatic" and Schoors' on the "theological." Yet, each treats chaps. 40-55 too statically. Bonnard is closer to the truth in detecting a noticeable development in Dt-Isa's reaction from chapsL 41-48 to chaps. 49-55. In order to appreciate this evolution, I am suggesting that we attend not only to the way in which major motifs are either developed or dropped, but also to the presence of peripheral or minor themes which can move to the center in a succeeding stage of the prophet's career. Because ideas control form, and not vice versa, this study will delay over the theological motifs. From this research, we will see three major moments in the career of Dt-Isa, plus a fourth stage of final redaction probably by the prophet or else by a disciple.
Bonnard recognizes 18 major units; Melugin, 8 major units; Spykerboer, 7 major units + prologue (40:1-11) & epilogue (55:6-13). 20 This tendency is recognized by Colen G. Kruse, "The Servant Songs: Interpretative Trends Since C. R. North," Studia Biblica et Theologica 8 (Fuller Theological Seminary; April 1978) 3-27. 21 As an instance of this diversity, Lack, 92-93, treats 41:21-42:9 as a unit; Muilenburg, 464, sees the unit in 41:1-42:4; Bonnard, 119, in 41:41-42:17; and Spykerboer, 77, in 42:1-44:5. Still other differences are evident, whether vv 1 -9 are a single unit (Kaiser; Steinmann); or vv 5-7 & 8-9 are two units (Fohrer; Hermann); vv 1-7 are a unit and vv 8-9 are joined with 41:21-29 (Ziegler; Penna; Cazelles in RSR 53 [1955] 5-55; Tournay in RB 75 [1968] 590, n5) - cf. Elliger, 224. 22 Preliminary investigation of literary genre, rhetorical criticism and redaction are presumed. Melugin divides his work between literary genre and redactional formation. I prefer to place a full-scale study of religious themes between these two sections.
19

DEUTERO-ISAIAH 5 Chaps. 41-48, before the fall of Babylon, with an integral theology of new exodus, election, Yahweh as g'el and savior, fulfillment of prophecy, rejection of foreign gods and their worshippers, privileged role of Cyrus in Israel's deliverance. The literary genre of trial speech and disputation against foreigners plus an exalted use of hymnic participles sustain great confidence. Chaps. 49-55, after the fall of Babylon and the initial return. Disillusionment and discouragement fall somewhat heavily over these poems, composed by the prophet in Babylon. A new role is given to ZionJerusalem, leading to a new vision of life. Unlike chaps. 41-48 these chapters do not exhibit any theological synthesis. The literary forms of lament and of oracle/proclamation of salvation sustain Israel's morale. Servant Songs, especially in their initial fragmentary attempts, glimpse the salvation of the nations and move from lament and call narrative in the first three to a thanksgiving psalm in the fourth. Chap. 40, an overture to the entire chaps. 40-55, placed here before the Servant Songs were incorporated into the larger work. Major Theological Themes Over the years I have found that the preceding division of chaps. 40-55 enables the raw data about Dt-Isa to be most adequately assembled and the least number of questions or problems stirred up. I propose to test this division anew according to subject matter, literary form and historical criticism. I draw attention to Table I, outlining the major theological ideas in Dt-Isa. Almost all the references rely upon vocabulary, a system hopefully broad enough to cover all the bases.23 For instance, a topic like "Yahweh Redeemer/ Savior of Israel" could have included many more places than those involving the words g'l and ys', yet these other passages can usually be picked up under such rubrics as "Elect One," "New Exodus," or "ZionJerusalem." Other words like yaga* and y'ap ("to be weary" and "to be tired"), important as they may be to structuralism, have been left aside. As we glance at the first column of Table I, chap. 40 appears to contain almost all the major ideas of both chaps. 41-48 and chaps. 49-55.24 The motifs, however, which move to the center in the final column on the Servant Songs, like the salvation of the gentiles and the Lord's good pleasure with the 'ebed yahweh, are missing from chap. 40. We suggest that this grand overture was prepared before the Servant Songs were spliced into the text of chaps. 41-55.
23

For the largest lexicon of principal theological words in Dt-Isa, cf. Bonnard, 497-551. Elliger, 45-47, considers the entire chap. 40 as a long introduction, against Muilenburg, McKenzie and Westermann.
24

Chap 40 I Yahweh 1 Holy One of Israel 2 Redeemer/Savior of Israel 3 Creator or Lord a of Israel b of cosmos 4 First and Last a Fulfillment of prophecy b through Cyrus 5 Justifier (mnpat, sedeq 6 King 4025

Chaps 41-48

Chaps 49-55

Servant

Songs

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3 Warned Against Idolatry

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III. Zion-Jerusalem

402.9

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4914-18(21) 5Q1?, 3 5111 5116,17-23521-6,7-1254

IV. The Nations 1. World attention 2. Rejection

405, 28 4015-20

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3. Salvation

514-5*553-5

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V. Servant 1. reprimanded 2. divine good plea sure & mission

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(**) Part of the Book of Consolation (49:7)

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8 THE CATHOLIC BIBLICAL QUARTERLY | 42, 1980 We are led to a further conclusion that the poems in chaps. 41-48 were written over a longer and more secure span of time. They manifest a close interaction as well as an exceptional versatility in style and content, and so qualify as a theological synthesis. The next section,chaps. 49-55, is much more limited in its topics, in fact almost exclusively taken up with ZionJerusalem. Dt-Isa's attitude here swivels between discouragement (see later in this study) and an urgent command to "Awake! Awake!" (51:9; 51:17; 52:1). This section does not pursue its topics as persistently as, for instance, the poems on "First and Last" in chaps. 41-48, and so does not qualify as "theology." About the same time that chaps. 49-55 were added to the major theological work of chaps. 41-48, the prophet composed the solemn introduction of chap. 40. Not too long afterwards he wrote the Servant Songs and incorporated them within the larger complex. The synthesis, achieved by Dt-Isa in chaps. 41-48, is significant enough to merit the name theology. It qualifies as a synthesis, not because of logical arrangement but because of harmonious reenforcement of major iceas. Again we refer the reader to Table I, the third column under chaps. 41-48. Yahweh the "holy One of Israel" (1,1), always faithful and just (1,5), is about to summon his elect people (11,1), his servants, the object of his special concern (V,2), on a new exodus to the promised land (11,2) and re-creator (1,3). He is their "First and Last" who will fulfill this new prophecy, just as he had previous ones (I,4a), this time through his extraordinary mediator, Cyrus (I,4b). As the gentile people stand in wonder (IV, 1), they are either rejected or at best ignored (IV,2). This announcement of Israel's forthcoming salvation does not sound convincing to the Israelites and so Dt-Isa must argue against their temptations to idolatry (11,3). We also spot peripheral ideas of minor importance in chaps. 41-48. Yahweh is emerging as cosmic creator (I,3b), but only towards the end of this stage of Dt-Isa's career.25 The reference to Zion (III) also appears late in this period,26 except for 41:27, a "crux interpretum." 27 The salvation of the nations (IV,3) occurs only in two disputed passages (44:5; 45:14).28 The theme
25 The four citations here (44:24; 45:12; 45:18; 48:13) are either plagued with difficulties or else belong late in the first stage of Dt-Isa's career. The third is probably inauthentic (cf. Stuhlmueller, 153; Mulugin, 130, concludes that vv 14-17 and vv 18-21, 22-25 were originally unconnected). The first is closely associated with the climactic speech of Yahweh about Cyrus and the second with the antagonistic reaction of the Israelite people to the choice of Cyrus. The fourth reference (48:13) belongs to the final summary of chaps. 41-48. 26 44:26,28 are part of the climactic poem about Cyrus (either a disputation according to Schoors, 273, or a hymnic introduction to the Cyrus oracle according to Westermann, Isaiah 40-66 [Philadelphia: Westermann, 1969] 153-4) and is late in the first stage of Dt-Isa's career. 27 Schoors, 220. 28 Cf. C. Stuhlmueller, "Self-Determination as a Biblical Theme: Prophetic Vision on

DEUTERO-ISAIAH 9 about the "Servant reprimanded" (V,l) contains an unusual poem in which Yahweh is the servant burdened by Israel's sins (h'ebadtani bhatt'tka). Some of these marginal motifs will soon move to the center of Dt-Isa's thinking and trigger an important development. As we turn to the second, major stage of Dt-Isa's career, represented by chaps. 49-55, we find a notable decline in the richness and versatility of motifs. Several major ideas carry over: Yahweh, the Holy One of Israel (1,1) and the Redeemer/ Savior of the people(I,2). Even though the new exodus is still stressed (11,2), the prophet focuses for the first time upon Zion-Jerusalem (III). This fact provides the chronological Sitz im Leben of chaps. 49-55. Cyrus has issued the decree permitting captive peoples to return to their homeland.29 Prophecies about "First and Last," after reaching a climactic statement in chap. 48, are silenced altogether; neither does Dt-Isa warn any more about idolatry. The prophet, and here I follow the suggestion of Bonnard,30 may now be addressing only a small, elite remnant. These, like the prophet, may even be despised by the larger number of Israelites who have become thoroughly disillusioned with Dt-Isa over the insignificant fulfillment of his grandiose prophecies and angry over the role bestowed by the prophet upon Cyrus.31 Dt-Isa is ready to begin the Servant Songs. We leave that development for a later place in our study.

Particularism Versus Universahsm" Christian Spirituality in the United States, (Proceedings of the Theology Institute of Villano va University, Villanova 1978) 116-7 29 Despite the important place assigned to Zion-Jerusalem in chaps 49-55, again as m chaps 41-48 the temple remains shrouded in silence, except for an indirect reference in 52 11 to "the vessels of the Lord " We are in agreement with Westermann, 252-3, and against Bonnard, 262-3, that the point of concern is not the temple cult but rather the purity or holiness of the people In this regard it is informative to compare Dt-Isa with Ezra 1 2-4 30 Bonnard, 26-27, 44 Another scholar, J W Miller, "Prophetic Conflict in Second Isaiah The Servant Songs m the Light of the Context," Wort-Gebot-Glaube (ATANT 59, Zurich Zwingh, 1970) 77-85, and Spykerboer maintain that chaps 49-55 reveal Dt-Isa's conflict with Babylonian authorities rather than with his own people The rejection of the gentiles continues in chaps 49-55 (see Table I, IV,2) but not with the same intensity as in chaps 41-48 Moreover, it is difficult to see how the prophet's words, very traditional m their use of Israelite motifs (see Table 1-1, 1, 2, 5, 11,2), show any signs of adaptation to non-Israelites Arguments against idol worship cease in chaps 49-55, a theme which one would expect to receive much attention when arguing against pagans The prophet's favorable regard towards Cyrus ought to win sympathy, not persecution, from the gentiles, now the victorious Persians 31 Spykerboer, 188, contends that the entire book of Dt-Isa, exactly as we possess it, was written by Dt-Isa in "the form of a letter sent from Babylon to Jerusalem shortly before the fall of Babylon " That Dt-Isa directed his words to Zion/ Jerusalem rather than spoke about the holy city, is argued by Robert W Fisher, "The Herald of Good News in Second Isaiah," Rhetorical Criticism (Pittsburgh Pickwick, 1974) 117-132 Fisher's study is confined for the most part to 40 1-11, and supported by 41 27 &, 52 7, it shows how another major idea of the Book of Consolation, that of Zion/Jerusalem, is absorbed into the opening overture, chap 40

10 THE CATHOLIC BIBLICAL QUARTERLY | 42, 1980 Major Developments Within Chaps. 41-48 Central to the discussion in this study is our position that a serious development can be detected within the poems of Dt-Isa, particularly as we move from chaps. 41-48 to chaps. 49-55 and finally to the Servant Songs. This evolution comes to our attention by motifs important in one section and dropped in the next or by themes moving from the periphery in one stage to the center in the following one. Another key to such development is provided by the intuitions in a given section; these are like a time bomb slowly and silently ticking away till they will explode upon the surface. The poems on First and Last, confined to chaps. 41-48,32 are crucial to Dt-Isa's development of thought in this first major period of his career. Ernst Vogt identified these poems as the first extended theological discourse in the Bible, in which a major religious topic is argued and reasoned repeatedly to an ever clearer conclusion, focusing here on the Lord's instrument Cyrus (44:2445:7) and the Lord's personal claim as Israel's one and only Savior against all other gods.33 Many Israelites were tempted to abandon Yahweh in favor of Babylonian deities and to find in the Babylonian cult a means of achieving the peaceful, secure life. These are the "crypto-Israelites" who pass themselves off as "gentiles" and are addressed at times as "the nations" by Dt-Isa.34 Dt-Isa based his trial against the pagan gods on Yahweh's power to fulfill prophecy.35 First addressing the Babylonian gods and then speaking about them, the Lord declares: Present your case. . . . Let them come near and foretell to us
32 Except for a passing reference in 40 21,23, where standard vocabulary for these poems occurs, like mr's, ngd, Mma' 33 E Vogt, "Einige hebrische Wortbedeutungen I 'Voraussagen' in Is 40-48," Bib 48 (1967) 57-63 S H Blank, "Studies m Deutero-lsaiah," HUCA 15 (1940) 1-46 and J Morgenstern, "Deutero-Isaiah's Terminology for Universal God," JBL 62 ( 1943) 269-280, provide much valuable information, linking Dt-Isa's phrases, especially 'ant hu" with the divine name Yahweh and with Exod 3 Nonetheless, I prefer to see the point of the discussion less in Yahweh's position as universal God and more properly in the Lord's role of being Israel's unique savior Cf C Stuhlmueller, "'First and Last' and 'Yahweh-Creator' in Deutero-lsaiah," CBQ 29 (1967) 189-205 3 *Cf D E Hollenberg, "Nationalism and 'The Nations'in Isaiah XL-LV," VT 19 (1969) 23-36, who distinguishes very convincingly under the title of "nations" between those persons definitely foreigners by birth and the "crypto-Israelites" who pass themselves off as foreigners yet at heart remain Israelites 35 For a bibliography on First and Last, up to 1968, see Stuhlmueller, 135-6, 453, 458 The clear boundaries of what is meant by First and Last cannot be determined I agree with Schoors, 221, that Cyrus' initial victories are included m "First Things" along with earlier prophecies on the fall of Jerusalem, the "New Thing" is also to be associated with Cyrus and more particularly with his edict for the exiles to return home Yet, as Dt-Isa makes clear in 48 3,6-7, fulfillment always exceeds the human understanding of prophecy

DEUTERO-ISAIAH 11 what it is that shall happen! What are the things of long ago? . . . Foretell the things that shall come afterward, that we may know that you are gods! (Is 48:21-23) In these trial scenes Dt-Isa refers to Cyrus (41:2; 41:25; 44:24-45:7; 48:14), the new exodus (43:16-21), and most of all to the person of Yahweh who is the "First" and the "Last" (41:4; 44:6; 48:12). I fully agree with Schoors that "the [main] point of the prophecy [in First and Last] is not Cyrus" but the Lord's "lasting creative presence in history."36 Within these principal aspects of First and Last, other developments take place which provide signals for the future. First, Israel's theology is interlocked with the nations, yet not with their role of punishing Israel and then their downfall as once was the case of Egypt and Assyria in the preaching of First Isaiah. The foreigner Cyrus37 will positively further the Lord's plans. This gentile king is even cast in the role of Moses as the responsible agent in the new exodus.38 Second, as Schoors points out, the title bestowed upon Cyrus in 44:28 of r% "my shepherd," "is never given directly to the king reigning" in the Old Testament. Through texts like 2 Sam 5:2; Jer 3:15; 23:5;

Schoors, 210, 212. Sidney Smith, Isaiah Chaps XL-LV: Literary Criticism and History (London: Oxford University, 1944) seriously advanced the opinion, associating the fate of Dt-Isa with Cyrus. The prophet, according to S., so enthusiasticaly endorsed the role of Cyrus in God's providence, that he was rejected and possibly killed by his angry fellow Israelites. A position, directly against that of S. - and, in fact, of most exegetes - is advanced by James D. Smart, History and Theology in Second Isaiah (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1965) 115-8; he suggests that the importance of Cyrus was read into the passages by the early repatriates in postexilic Jerusalem. Smart maintains that Dt-Isa wrote all of chaps. 35 + 40-66. 38 The association of First and Last, Cyrus and new exodus is seen not only by comparing Isa 41:1-5 with 43:16-21, but also by studying the strong exodus motifs in 44:24-28, esp. 27, where Cyrus is mentioned by name for the first time (cf. Schoors, 272). The comparison is argued still more extensively by Graham S. Ogden, "Moses and Cyrus. Literary Affinities between the Priestly Presentation of Moses in Exodus vi-viii and the Cyrus Song of Isaiah xliv 24 - xlv 13," VT 28 (1978) 195-203. The dependence of Dt-Isa upon the Priestly Tradition of the Pentateuch, as sustained by Ogden, needs to be checked out from other texts of the prophet which seem to modify or lessen such interaction: i.e. Isa 45:18-19 which separates God's creative act from th while Gen 1:1-2 unites th wbh with God's creation; again in Isa 45:7 Yahweh is said to create hSek while in Gen 1:1-2 he overcomes it; Dt-Isa associates rqa' with the formation of the earth, while "F' and Ezek link it with the firmament (cf. Stuhlmueller, 224-5). For similar reasons I disagree with the position of A. S. Kapelrud, "The Date of the Priestly Code (P)," ASTI 3 (Leiden: Brill, 1964) 58-64, who claims that Dt-Isa is so dependent upon "P" that the latter had to be completed before the exile, or at least no later than 550 B.C. Yet, as Schoors, 138, remarks, we cannot rule out some interaction of Dt-Isa with "a protosacerdotal version" through other passages as Isa 54:9. (infra, n. 45)
37

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Ezek 34:23 "the epithet has a salvific and even a messianic sense."39 Third, this subtle relation of Cyrus with God's mysterious plans becomes more intriguing when we notice how Cyrus is described with mythological language. In 41:5 and 45:6 he is compared to a victorious hero who from the rising to the setting of the sun sweeps across the universe without even touching the earth. His wondrous course or 'dreh is like the sun's (or God's himself) in Ps 19:6-7.40 Cyrus is present at dead center where Yahweh reduces all other gods to nothing: . . . hin kullm 'wen 'epes ma'ashem mah wth niskhem (41:29) We note in passing that Dt-Isa so completely neutralized the power of gentile gods to offer salvation and security to Israel, that these gods were equally helpless for the gentiles, particularly the Babylonians. It is helpful to recall the contrast with Deuteronomy which leaves the gods alive and intact for the foreign nations: . . . the sun or the moon or any star among the heavenly hosts . . . These the Lord, your God, has led fall to the lot of all other nations under the heavens; but you he has taken and led out of that iron foundry, Egypt, that you might be his very own people, as you are today. (Deut 4:19-20; cf. 29:25; 32:8-9). On the contrary, Dt-Isa reduces all the gods except Yahweh to 'wen. . . mah wth. Although Dt-Isa explicitly sees Yahweh as savior only of Israel, still the signal is given that Yahweh will sometime have to claim his entire domain, the universe and its multitude of people.41 To recognize the crucial importance of this polemic and of the defeat of the gods within chaps. 40-55 is one of the main values of Spykerboer's book,

Schoors, 269-270 This reinterpretation of Ps 19 6-7 in terms of Cyrus is carefully reasoned by Klaus Koch, "Die Stellung des Kyros im Geschichtsbild Deutero-jesajas und ihre uberheferungsgeschichthche Verankerung," ZAWS4 (1972) 352-6 41 Hans Wildberger, "Der Monotheismus Deuterojesaja," Beitrage zur Alttestamenthchen Theologie Festschrift W Zimmer li (Gottingen Vanderhoeck& Ruprecht, 1977) 506-530, nuances the monotheism of Dt-Isa exceptionally well It was not so much a matter of denying other gods as it was of insisting upon Yahweh's power to save and his mcomparabihty Dt-Isa is not the first witness to monotheism, but in no other work are these statements so frequent and so specific A much wider approach was taken by Denis Baly, "The Geography of Monotheism," Translating and Understanding the Old Testament (Festschrift H G. May, Nashville Abingdon, 1970) 253-278 Important distinctions are made by H Orhnsky, "Nationahsm-Universahsm and Internationalism in Ancient Israel," Translating and Understanding the Old Testament, 206-236
40

39

DEUTERO-ISAIAH 13 the latest full scale investigation into Dt-Isa.42 For our purposes we are alerted to the possibility that while Dt-Isa was announcing that Cyrus would be God's agent for setting his people on a new exodus away from the gentile world, the prophet is also being prepared to turn around and announce God's salvation to that same non-Israelite world. Yahweh and the nations are that closely intertwined. In Cyrus, the foreigner is no longer just an instrument to punish Israel but an agent of salvation. We turn to another important theme within Isaiah 41-48the recreation of the people Israel. This topic also conditioned Dt-Isa for a dramatic leap forward. The material is more difficult to work with, because we are not dealing with a definite set of poems with their own consistent topic and literary genre like those about First and Last but with the scattered verses, usually at the beginning or end of a poem, often hymnic participles modifying an introductory hh 'amar yahweh. These verses tend to spread a hymnic quality over all of Dt-Isa's poems.43 Within chaps. 41-48 (as I,lb of Table I points out) the strongest statements about Yahweh, Creator of the universe,44 occur either in the solemn enthronement poem honoring Cyrus (44:24-45:7) or in the decisive confrontation between Dt-Isa and the people Israel (45:9-13) or in the concluding summary, chap. 48. Therefore, they appear late in the first period of Dt-Isa's career. We are assisted in our interpretation of 44:24 by recognizing the strong inclusion between 44:24 and 45:7. We find the repetition of the hymnic participle ysr and also the phrase: 44:24 'nk yahweh 'seh kl 45:7 'ni yah weh 'seh kl- Weh This inclusion leads us to interpret kl or kol-'lleh as referring to all those events within the poem. The poem begins with Jerusalem's destruction and leads to Cyrus' part in the reconstitution of Israel. Chaos and re-creation, precisely in that order, epitomize the international scene so far as Israel is involved. Yahweh's motive for acting is not be be found in his power to create but in his position as g'lek wey$erk mibbten (44:24) who acts lma'an

42 I do not agree, however, that Spykerboer has proven his main thesis, summaried at the beginning of this study. 43 There are, however, very few independent hymns as such in chaps. 40-55. Cf. Stuhlmueller, 18, 33-39, 267. 44 Is 44:24; 45:12; 48:13. We consider 45:18-19 to be inauthentic, i.e., a later addition after the editing of chaps. 41-55, because of a rough transition to vv 20-25 and because of a seeming contradiction between 18 (where Yahweh does not create the heaven and the earth as th) and 19 (where gentile lands and gods are described as th). Cf. Stuhlmueller, 152-6.

14

THE CATHOLIC BIBLICAL QUARTERLY | 42, 1980

'abdya'qb wyisra'lbhr (45:4). Compassion and kinship prompted the Lord to re-create his chosen people Israel. Moreover, we note that the creative act is presented with participial forms, i.e., nteh smayim . . . rqa' h'res, so that even these divine acts consider God as creating now. The participles touch upon the memory of Israel's liturgical worship where redemptive acts were relived.45 Participles, moreover, direct emphasis personally upon Yahweh as Creator and not upon creation, the thing done by Yahweh.46 Even if the momentum of Dt-Isa's mind converges upon Israel's separation from the gentile nations, still the passages which sing hymnically of Yahweh as Creator of the cosmos contain hints and allusions that reach beyond Israel to the world. The fact that participial phrases like rqa*h'res, ysed 'eres and 'seh 'eres became fixed formulas in postexilic liturgy shows the mighty potential of Dt-Isa's language.47 In order to appreciate the implicit or intuitive way that Dt-Isa was being moved to think beyond Israel and to include the nations, I draw attention to his use of 'eres and compare it with Ezekiel's. In 198 occurrences of 'eres, Ezek and his redactors restricted the word to the land of Israel. At the same time, as Dieter Baltzer has pointed out, Ezekiel usually clothed 'eres with theological or sotenological significance.48 In Ezek 36:25 the once desolate 'eres yisr'el is
Cf Norman C Habel, "He Who Stretches Out the Heavens," CBQ (Oct 1972) 417-430 Some basic positions of Habel can be further discussed e , did Dt-Isa make use of existing titles or epithets for Yahweh9 Nonetheless, too many liturgical forms converge m chaps 40-55 to deny a close interaction with Israel's ancient liturgy Another study, linking Dt-Isa with earlier cultic forms, was prepared by Theodore M Ludwig, "The Traditions of the Establishing the Earth m Deutero-lsaiah," JBL 92 (1973) 345-357 On 346 he differs from my own position which denies Dt-Isa's incorporating earlier divine epithets about Yahweh Creator Ludwig, moreover, works on the assumption that the formula rqa4 h'res, found in the relatively late Psalm 136 and twice in Dt-Isa (Isa 42 4, 4 24) was drawn from earlier cultic traditions It could have been invented by Dt-Isa One can argue further that m the ancient pro to-sacerdotal tradition and in Ezek, rqa' is never used of the earth, only of the heavens (cf supra 38) Ludwig's other formulas can also be further discussed ysed 'eres depends upon a disputed passage (Isa 51 12-16), 'seh 'eres is found only in late or disputed texts (Jer 10 12 5 51 15, authentic9, Jer 27 5 lacks the participle, Ps 146 6 is postexilic with Aramaisms) 46 CI Westermann, "Das Reden von Schopfer und Schpfung im Alten Testament," Das Ferne und Nahe Wort (BZAW 105, New York/ Berlin Walter de Gruyter, 1967) 238-244, writes effectively of the importance of speaking of Yahweh as creator rather than of creation, so that the emphasis remains with the person of Yahweh, acting in the present moment out of compassion for a future goal, rather than with the work of creation, a past event, performed out of power 47 Cf Ludwig, art cit, for biblical references As mentioned already, I differ from Ludwig in my inability to recognize these epithets as strong in pre-exihc liturgy 48 Baltzer, 162 "Der bei Ezechiel theologisch schwer befrachtete Begriff *des Landes' (/i'r$)" Also pp 151-2 Cf my review, TB 3 (1973) 100-2 This position of Baltzer is accepted by H G May, "Aspects of the Imagery of World Dominion and the World State m the New Testament," Essays in Old Testament Ethics (Festschrift J Philip Hyatt, New York Ktav, 1974) 57-76 I myself will also differ from R J Coggms, Samaritans and Jews ( Atlanta Knox, 1975)37, who claims that Dt-Isa confined himself to the exiles while Ezek considered a revival of all Israel
45

DEUTERO-ISAIAH 15 "made into a garden of Eden," or in Ezek 47:1-2 it is transformed by miraculous water. By contrast, Dt-Isa expanded the meaning of 'eres to embrace the universe.49 It is no longer to be translated "land" but "earth." Even when Dt-Isa may have used 'eres for a specific geographical area, the term remained vague, as in 45:19, "a dark place of the earth."50 When Dt-Isa enlarged the meaning of 'eres, Dieter Baltzer thinks that he was diluting its theological significance as compared with Ezekiel. I myself prefer to think that Dt-Isa was emphasizing a different religious meaning in 'eres, namely that Yahweh was putting to Israel's advantage the universal 'eres, the earth. This expanded vision of 'eres in Dt-Isa surprises us, as we would expect his view to be more limited than EzekieFs. After all, Ezekiel was not faced with the dismal reality of the actual return. In still another way a subtle transition was underway in chaps. 41-48 which would contribute to an eventual, radical change in Dt-Isa. We detect a disagreement with the people, Israel, which tends to become ever more open and serious. This growing conflict could be overlooked because of the otherwise enthusiastic bounce about the prophet's style in chaps. 41-48. J. W. Miller51 calls our attention to such passages as: 40:27 "My ways are hidden from the Lord;"52 42:18-25, about the deaf and blind servant;53 45:9-13, here the rejection of the prophet and his stern reply are evident; 46:8, 12, where Israel is called "fainthearted" and "you rebels," in Hebrew the very strongps'm 'al-lb; 48:l-2, 54 which condemns Israel for acting "without sincerity or justice."
49 Cf. E. J. Hamlin, God and the World ofNations (Association of Theological Schools in South East Asia: 1972) 35-6, "The word erets appears no less than 40 times in Isa.40-55. This frequency itself indicates an intensity of interest. What is more remarkable is that in none of these instances does the word refer unequivocally to the land of Palestine." 50 Is 40:9 and 49:19 are not about the land but "the cities of Judah" and the city Zion; 49:9 belongs to the controversial series after the second Servant Song. 51 Cf. J. W. Miller, art.cit. (n 30) 77-85. In his list of conflict texts, I am surprised that Miller overlooked Isa 43:22-28, particularly because of the use of the verb 'abad very effectively in contrasting Yahweh and Israel. Miller, moreover, retains the Servants Songs in their present context, against the position taken in this study. 52 I place the entire chap. 40 almost at the end of the prophet's career, but before the Servant Songs were incorporated into chaps. 41-55. 53 Some, including myself, hesitate about the authenticity of 42:18-25. Cf. Stuhlmueller, 14, 42. Melugin, 41-43, accepts authenticity but recognizes serious form-critical problems; Schoors, 201-2, proceeds cautiously except to state "that the whole pericope must be preserved, except perhaps vss. 19b and 24b, which are very dubious." Spykerboer, 97, writes that "an awareness of this major motif [of Yahweh Warrior] makes the difficult vss. 18-25 better under standable." Spykerboer, 99-100, is conscious of the growing antagonism against Dt-Isa within chaps. 40-48 and how "in the following chapters DI's words against his disobedient people become more harsh (cf. 48:1-11)." 54 For the difficulties connected with 48:1-11, cf. Stuhlmueller, 266-7, n. 6.

16 THE CATHOLIC BIBLICAL QUARTERLY | 42, 1980 Dt-Isa's clash with his own people broke out intensely in 45:9-13 and here the editor may be respecting a chronological sequence. When the people objected strongly to the royal oracle and the enthronement of Cyrus as Yahweh's "Shepherd" and "Anointed King," to lead Israel on her new exodus, 45:9-13 could have been the prophet's response.55 Dt-Isa's sarcasm surprises us: Foolish56 that one who contends with his maker, a potsherd among earthen potsherds. . . . Foolish is that one who says to a father: what are you begetting?57 In acknowledging the crucial importance of Cyrus' action, Dt-Isa, according to John L. McKenzie, "shows an astonishing insight into the meaning of history."58 After this head-on collision between Dt-Isa and the Israelites, chaps. 41-48 come quickly to an end. 45:14-25 has many textual problems.59 Chaps. 46 and 47 deal with Babylon, its gods and city; chap. 48 is a summary conclusion with its own heated opposition between Dt-Isa and the people. We conclude then that in chaps. 41-48 Dt-Isa directed all his energy to the return of his people to their promised land. Yet, in his polemic against the gods, in his use of words like 'eres, and in the smoldering conflict with his own people, he was being prepared for a revolutionary move. Major Developments Within chaps. 49-55 A new stage is represented by chaps. 49-55, excluding the Servant Songs. This transition can be appreciated by attending to the shift of topics from chaps. 41-48 and from the pervading attitude in this new section. Again as in chaps. 41-48, we will detect hints of a future universal scope. From a glance at the topical outline with Table I, we see that we are dealing with a transition, not a radical break. Threads of continuity continue from chaps. 41-48: Yahweh as the Holy One of Israel (1,1); Yahweh as Redeemer or Savior (1,2); Yahweh as Justifier (1,5); and finally the new exodus (11,2). Other threads or ideas, quite visible in chaps. 41-48, have been submerged or completely severed: Yahweh as First and Last in the fulfillment
55 Cf Stuhlmueller, 200-5

Cf, R J Clifford, "The Use ohy by the Prophets," CBQ 28 (1966) 458-464, translating hy in this instance as "foolish " W Janzen, Mourning Cry and Woe Oracle (BZA W 125, Berlin/New York Walter de Gruyter, 1972) is very close to Clifford on this point 57 J L McKenzie, Second Isaiah (AB 20, Garden City, NY Doubleday, 1968) 79, caught Dt-Isa's sarcastic thrust in the remark "These are creative acts of men, and men do not question each other at the moment of creation Neither should they question Yahweh 58 J L McKenzie, op cit 79 59 For a discussion of some of these difficulties, cf Stuhlmueller, 152-7

56

DEUTERO-ISAIAH 17 of prophecy (I,4a & b); Israel as the elect one (11,1); the warnings against idolatry (11,3); the nations either in distant admiration or in rejection (IV); and Israel as the Lord's servant (V,2). The total silencing of the warning against idolatry (11,3) and of the fulfillment of prophecy through Cyrus (1,4a & b) seriously effect our conclusions about the Sitz im Leben for chaps. 49-55.60 Dt-Isa is no longer arguing against fellow Israelites who were becoming more and more antagonistic to him or who had "passed" into the ranks of the Babylonians, "cryptoIsraelites" in Hollenberg's terminology.61 Now in chaps. 49-55 Dt-Isa speaks within a small circle of disciples, loyal yet quite discouraged because the first return to Jerusalem thoroughly disappointed them.62 Still, they would remain true to the prophet. 63 This perception will be corroborated by the tone and attitude of Dt-Isa within chaps. 49-55. According to my reading, chaps. 41-48 possess a more continuous, exalted and confident hymnic style, compared to the more sober and sorrowful tone in chaps. 49-55. We meet a greater use of lament or consolation genres. The emphasis has shifted! To quote some of the sad lines: 49:14 But Zion said, "The Lord has forsaken me." 49:19 Though you were waste and desolate . . 49:20 The children whom you had lost. . . 50:1 Thus says the Lord: Where is the bill of divorce with which I divorced your mother? 51:9 Awake! Awake! 51:12 It is I who comfort you. Can you then fear mortal people?
60 The discontinuance of this theme, warning against idolatry, troubles the position of Spykerboer who bases the entire editorial structure of chaps. 40-55 upon the polemic against idolatry. 61 Cf. supra, n. 34. 62 One of the main contributions of Bonnard lies in his convincing endeavor to establish this position. 63 We see another group of Israelites of the school of Ezekiel and the Priestly tradition, who returned to Jerusalem and became the dominant spirit in the whole postexilic period. Their first influence shows up in Haggai, Zechariah 1-8 and Joel. Dt-Isa lived within a different group responsible for the revision of Deuteronomy, whose influence in the postexilic age would be less forceful than the former. For this reason among others, Baltzer overstresses the similarity between the two exilic prophets. The tension between the disciples of Dt-Isa and of Ezekiel is developed in all its consequences by Paul Hanson, op.cit. (n. 18). 64 J. W. Miller, art.cit. (n. 30), 81. M. also calls this group "a remnant Israel." M., 82, states that Dt-Isa's "conflict in this phase . . is not that between himself and his stubborn fellow Israelites, but between himself, his disciples and the Babylonian authorities." I myself would prefer here the position of U. Simon, Smart and Orlinsky that the persecution continued to be from Israelites.

18 THE CATHOLIC BIBLICAL QUARTERLY | 42, 1980 51:13 All the day you are in constant dread . . . 51:17 Awake! Awake! . . . You who drank at the Lord's hand the cup of his wrath, (see vv 17-20) 51:1,2 Awake! Awake! . . . Shake off the dust. 54:1 Raise a glad cry, you barren one. 54:11 O afflicted, storm-battered and unconsoled! 55:7 Let the scoundrel forsake their way. Within chaps. 49-55 Dt-Isa has either been isolated by the large number of Israelites or else he deliberately restricted himself to a small group of remnant-disciples. "With this audience," according to J. W. Miller, "he is not in conflict but in the closest rapport."64 Before we take up the results of the persecution endured by Dt-Isa and this small group of disciples - the burden of the Servant Songs - we want to look at chaps. 49-55 first for the way the spotlight is focused on Zion-Jerusalem and then for signals or hints of universal salvation within these poems. As we glance through the Zion-Jerusalem passages, we note a modula tion in emphasis from lament to salvation. Chaps. 41-48 had evolved in the opposite direction from enthusiasm to conflict. We interpret this new devel opment as a reflection of an ever stronger interior conviction. Despite the disappointing return to Zion-Jerusalem, maybe because of it, a new glorious age would emerge. The Zion poems appear this way: 49:14-18(21) Proclamation or Oracle of Salvation, the tone of 19-21 is particularly sombre. 50:1-3 A trial speech against Zion 51:9-11(16) A lament (v 9-11 ) followed by a Song of Consolation65 51:17-23 A lament and oracle of salvation 52:1-6 A call to praise (vv 1-3) and a song of consolation66 52:7-12 Very exalted poem: messenger speech within a context of a vision (vv 7-8), hymnic reply (vv 9-10), and a call to praise (vv 11-12)
65 Here we follow the suggestion of Eva Hessler, Gott der Schopfer Ein Beitrag Zur Komposition und Theologie Deuter oje sajas (unpubl dissertation, Greifswaid, 1961) This work, unfortunately still unpublished, has had a strong influence upon writers like Westermann (see Spykerboer, 14-15) I find its form criticism of high quality but its elaborate explanation of metaphors m Dt-Isa too difficult to accept Cf her article, "Die Struktur der Bilder bei Deuterojesaja," 25 (1965) 349-369 66 Isa 52 3 (4)-6 seem to be an addition Westermann, 248, "a marginal gloss in prose " Likewise, Helmer Ringgren, "Zur Komposition von Jesaja 49-55," Beitrage zur Alttestamenthchen Theologie {ci 41)371-6

DEUTERO-ISAIAH

19

An exquisite but elaborate poem: call to praise (vv 1-3); salvation oracle ( w 4-6); disputation-like announcement (vv 7-10); announcement of salvation (vv 11-17).67 Vv 1-6 are spoken by the prophet; w 7-17, by the Lord.68 The Jerusalem poems, then, bear witness to an ever deepening attitude of faith in Dt-Isa. Instead of becoming bitter, either with God for the collapse of his promises in chaps. 41-48 of a glorious new exodus, or with the people for rejecting him, Dt-Isa keeps his eyes on Zion. He did not allow himself to be dragged down despondently by the problems of the straggly returnees in Zion, with all the small-mindedness that surfaces in Ezra-Nehemiah, Haggai, and Zechariah 1-8. Dt-Isa continued to gaze upon the Holy City in a spirit of faith that overcame the shame and the pain of his own rejection and disillusion.69 Within chaps. 49-55 Dt-Isa projected hopes for the gentile world beyond and even against his own words and conscious attitudes. These hopes must have lain very anxiously beneath the explicit, rational statements of the prophet, as these chapters contain some exceptionally harsh judgments against the gentiles: i.e., the Lord says to Zion: I will make your oppressors eat their own flesh, and they shall be drunk with their own blood as with the juice of the grape. All humankind shall know that I, the Lord, am your savior. (49:26; cf., 51:22-23; 52:1 -2) While writing these devastating words against foreigners, Dt-Isa was preparing for radical change. Here we note his references to the covenants with Noah (54:7-10), Abraham (51:1-3) and David (55:3-5). Because Dt-Isa normally thinks and writes within a northern tradition and close to such traditions as those in Deuteronomy, Hosea and Jeremiah, we would expect him to refer, instead, to the Mosaic covenant. These three passages about covenants with Noah, Abraham and David are extremely significant for detecting the slow ticking away of the time bomb, soon to explode in favor of universal salvation. In 54:9-10 Dt-Isa wrote: This is for me like the days of Noah,
This identification of literary genre in chap. 54 follows Melugin, 169-172. W. A. M. Beuken, "Isaiah liv: The Multiple Identity of the Person Addressed," Language and Meaning (OTS 9; Leiden: Brill, 1974) 32. 69 Because of the fixed concern of Dt-Isa upon Zion within chaps. 49-55, we must seriously consider the thesis that the Servant in the 'ebedyahweh songs, at least partially, is Zion: cf. L. E. Wilshire, "The Servant-City: A New Interpretation of the 'Servant of the Lord' in the Servant Songs of Deutero-lsaiah," JBL 94 (1975) 356-367.
68 67

eh 54

20 THE CATHOLIC BIBLICAL QUARTERLY | 42, 1980 when I swore that the waters of Noah should never again deluge the earth; . . . My love shall never leave you nor my covenant of peace be shaken. . . . Unlike the Mosaic covenant, the Noachic one stipulates no laws except the prohibition against consuming "flesh with its lifeblood" (Gen 9:4). Dt-Isa, therefore, places much less stress upon the observance of laws; he attached mispt and sedq much more closely with God's redemptive activity rather than with Israel's obedience.70 Frederick Holmgren correctly stresses the unilateral nature of this Noachic covenant and is perceptive in seeing in Dt-Isa a "kinship with . . . 'popular theology.'"71 Thus, Dt-Isa is tending towards a democratization of religion and to an opening of doors to wider participation. In 51:1-3 Dt-Isa hears the Lord addressing the Israelites: Look to Abraham, your father, and to Sarah, who gave you birth; When he was but one I called him, I blessed him and made him many. . . . Again the immediate context, as 3 clearly states, refers to "Zion . . . [in] all her ruins." Life will spring out of a seemingly dead context. 72 The question comes to mind: did the prophet choose this covenant, rather than the Sinaitic one, because Abraham is a model of blessing, not only for barren situations, but also for other nations (Gen 12:2-3; 18:18; 22:18). In fact, God promised that "I will make nations of y o u . . . I will make my covenant with you" (Gen 17:6-7, "P"). 7 3 In the final convenant reference, God promises to "renew with you [lkem, mase pi.] the everlasting covenant, the benefits assured to David [hasd dwid hanne' mnm]... So shall you summon a nation you knew not, and nations that knew you not shall run to you" (55:3-5). Authors like Duhm, de Boer and Holmgren see Israel in a military posture like David, conquering nations. 74 We ask, however, if the contrast which the prophet saw between the age of David and his own might not indicate the opposite
70 Cf, W. A. M. Beuken, "MISPAJ. The First Servant Song and its Context," VT22 (1972) 1-30. 71 F. Holmgren, With Wings of Eagles (Chappaqua, NY: Biblical Scholars Press, 1973) 44. H. concludes to a "nationalistic religion." "Popular," however, need not be the same as "nationalistic." 72 W. A. M. Beuken, art.cit. (n 68) 29-70, recognizes another reference to Sarah in 54:1-2, addressed to "you barren one," enhancing the background of the Proto-Priestly tradition in this chapter. 73 Bonnard, 247, sees such a universal perspective in 52:1-2. 74 Duhm, 376; de Boer, 56; Holmgren, 32.

DEUTERO-ISAIAH 21 conclusion.75 The dynasty which relied on human diplomacy and military might (Isa 7; 36-39; 2 Kgs 24-25) collapsed; only the people who trust in the Lord survive. The Lord himself, according to Dt-Isa, fights Israel's battles (40:23; 42:13; 51:9-11,12-16,21-23; 52:3,10; 54:3). In this democratization of the Davidic promises, Dt-Isa returned to his northern sympathies.76 He also intuited a good relationship between Israel and the nations. It is our conclusion, as in the earlier study of chaps. 41-48, that Dt-Isa was speaking to his own people about their salvation and was explicitly harsh against the nations. Yet he was introducing examples and traditions which implicitly reached in a friendly and dignified way towards the salvation of the nations. From the Book of Consolation to the Servant Songs International events were rushing forward tumultously and Dt-Isa's personal isolation from his own people was becoming ever more of a strain upon him. He did not have the time and composure to prepare a theological synthesis in chaps. 49-55, and even less an opportunity when composing the Servant Songs. I credit all four Servant Songs to Dt-Isa.77 Important ideas unite the Servant Songs with the Book of Consolation. Bonnard78 develops the various senses of "servant" in the entire work of Dt-Isa, subdividing the theme between: a) the servant Israel en son ensemble, very frequent in the Book of Consolation; b) the servant Israel en son lite (49:1-6, 7-13; 52:13-53:12); c) the servant prophet Dt-Isa (50:4-11); d) the servant Cyrus (42:1-9); e) the servant God (43:23-24). Although I cannot follow these conclusions in all their details, Bonnard's investigations indicate the overlapping of the Servant Songs with the Book of Consolation. H. W. Hertzberg traces two important words, ps'm (rebels) and rabbm (the "many") through the Book of
75

The deliberate, literary contrast between Psalm 89 and Isa 55 3-5 is investigated by O Eissfeldt, "The Promise of Grace to David in Isaiah LV 1-5," Israel's Prophetic Heritage (New York Harper, 1962) 199-200 A similar contrast with Psalm 18 is recognized by Schoors, 149 (by mistake S refers to Ps 17 44 instead of Ps 18 44) 76 Cf Schoors, 148 77 The trend in scholarship is to attribute the Servant Songs to Dt-Isa such is the position taken by the major works mentioned at the beginning of this investigation Bonnard, Lack, Melugin and Spykerboer For periodical articles especially between 1952-1975, cf Colin G Kruse, art cit (n20) Kruse identifies other tendencies a servant is not Israel, b few scholars are willing to identify the servant as an individual except Ginsburg, the masklm of Dan 11-12, Orhnsky, Dt-Isa himself, Chavasse, the new Moses, c anonymity of the servant is intentional, servant may indicate an office or a type, d some extra dimensions beyond historical context point to the future 78 Bonnard, 37-46

22 THE CATHOLIC BIBLICAL QUARTERLY | 42, 1980 Consolation and the Servant Songs.79 He has uncovered a very intriguing and consistent interpretation, not only uniting the Servant Songs with the rest of Dt-Isa, but also recognizing the p$e'im or rebels to be linked with Israel and the rabbim or the "many" with gentiles. He arrives at a conclusion that the Fourth Song speaks of salvation for both groups, Israelites and Gentiles. A serious interruption, however, divides the Servant Songs from Dt-Isa's earlier work in the Book of Consolation. If we glance again at the topical outline with Table I, we find that only two major motifs carry through into the Servant Songs; the notion of mispat and sedeq and the theme of the servant. The former idea of "justice" is consistently prominent throughout all sections of Dt-Isa's career and book; the latter theme of servant is strong only in chaps. 41-48 and now in the Servant Songs. The Servant Songs bring a new idea visibly to the surface: the hopes of universal salvation. Previously this monumental idea had only been hinted at. I follow the position, especially refined by Henri Cazelles80 and Ernst Vogt,81 a) that the Book of Consolation reads more smoothly if the Servant Songs are considered separately; b) that the very difficult fragments at the end of the first three songs represent mainly the prophet's initial attempts at the Servant Songs and were added almost like appendices; c) that other straggling verses slipped in, once the Servant Songs had been allowed to interrupt the Book of Consolation. To exemplify these statements, Table II has been appended to this study. Ernst Vogt has summarized the points of convergence and separation between the Book of Consolation and the Servant Songs. We quote at some length:

79 H W Hertzberg, "Die 'Abtrnnigen' and die 'vielen ' Ein Beitrag zu Jesaja 53," Verbannung und Heimkehr (Festschrift W Rudolph, Tubingen J C Mohr, 1961) 97-108 pselm refers to Israelites in 32 27,46 8,48 8,50 l,alsoinTnto-Isaiah,57 1-5,58 1,59 12,59 20 rabbim refers to gentiles frequently throughout the Scriptures (cf 102-3), in Dt-Isa, explicitly in 52 15 and 53 12 Hertzberg is corroborated by the important study of D E Hollenberg, art cit (n 34) 35-36 80 Cazelles, "Les pomes du Serviteur Leur place, leur structure, leur thologie," RSR 43 (1955) 5-55, accepted by R Tournay, RB 75 (1968) 590, n 5 This position of Cazelles was generally followed yet also seriously modified m the case of the first and second songs by -E Dion, "Les Chants du Serviteur de Yahweh et quelques passages apparents d'Is 40-44 Un essai sur leurs limites prcises et sur leurs origines respectives,'* Bib 51 (1970) 43-44 Cazelles is defended against Dion by J Coppens, Le Messianisme et sa relve prophtique (Gembloux Duculot, 1974) 43-44 Coppens maintains that when the songs were added to the Book of consolation, the songs already included the "additions " 81 E Vogt, "Die Ebed-Jahweh-Lieder und ihre Ergnzungen," Est Bib 34 (1960) 775-788, as later modified in Isaas 40-55, Tex tus Select , argumentum ex vaticiniis Cyrus Israel et Servus Domini (Romae 1966)

DEUTERO-ISAIAH 23

Book of Consolation 41:21-29 First and Last 29 speaks of idols

Servant Songs

Fragments

42:1-4 First Song

Y
42:20-21 First and Last 8 speaks of idols 48:8-9 Conclusion to Part One (ch 41-48), about the new Exodus

42:5-7 Fragment about the Servant

48:22 Misplaced here occurs also in 57:21 49:1-4 + 5c Second Song 49:5ab, 6,8,9a Fragments about the Servant 49:7 Fragment from the Book of Consolation

^^ 49:9b-12 New Exodus 50:1-3 Consolation for Israel. V 3 speaks of sackcloth

v

40:4-9a Third Song

50:9a continues image of sackcloth in 50:3; phrases here all bor rowed from 51:6b, 8d 50:10-11 Comment by the editor, admonishing us to heed the servant's message 51:4-6 Very late inter polation 52:13-53:12 Fourth Song

24

THE CATHOLIC BIBLICAL QUARTERLY | 42, 1980

They [the fragments] do not have the dramatic character of the [Servant] Songs, where the speaker [-Servant] proceeds immediately in his own name rather than mediating the word of Yahweh with the introductory formula, "Thus says Yah weh" (42 5,49 5a, 7,8) In the [Fragments] hymnic participles occur (42 5; 49 5a, 7a), these are entirely missing in the Servant Songs, but are found very often in the Book of Consolation Moreover, in both [the two latter] collections the infinitive of purpose is met frequently, while it is entirely missing in the Servant Songs (except 50:4) In both Fragments [42 5-7; 49 5ab, 6, 8, 9a] the Servant is called a "covenant of the people" and a "light for the nations " In the Fragments the role of the Servant towards Israel is described in time-related forms, while in the Servant Songs no traces of this form are present In the original setting of the Songs, the Servant in no way has a political role but only a purely religiousspiritual activity Action vanishes in the particular timelessness of the future 82 vision, which the prophet is experiencing The attempts to see these fragments as integral parts of the Servant Songs or even of the larger context of the Book of Consolation always seem to raise new problems without solving the older difficulties concerned with form or redaction criticism. Furthermore, there is no consistency in details a m o n g scholars, even though a growing number of them prefer to interpret the four songs within the larger setting of the Book of Consolation. 8 3 What has already been stated, we must now pursue more carefully: the brief, almost staccato a n n o u n c e m e n t of universal salvation in the Servant Songs. Earlier in this study, we stressed that Dt-Isa was visibly anti-gentile, yet all the while preparing to a n n o u n c e salvation for the gentiles. This intuition of world redemption, explicitly denied but implicitly sustained, breaks loose in the fragments, especially in those connected with the Second Song. There we are told:

art cit, 882-3 Eiliger, 223-4, lists many positions for 42 5-9 We can add that those scholars who deal with the first song within a larger strophic pattern divide the units differently, cf 21 Within vv 5-9 there is the repetition of 'ani yahweh at the beginning of 6 & 9, yet on the contrary there is the change from 2nd sg in 6 to 2nd pi in 9 In favor of joining 42 8-9 with 41 21-29, we can point out a literary bond between hn'snot hinnh-b' in 42 9 and ri'Sn lsiyyn hinnhhinnm in 41 27 E Haag, "Bund fur das Volk und Licht fur die Heiden (Jes 42,6)," Didaskalia 1 (1977) 3-14, argues strongly for uniting 42 5-9 with 42 1-4 so that the servant includes in himself the promise to Israel and is a light to the nations I do not think that Haas overcomes all the difficulties inherent in uniting 41 1-4 + 5-7 + 8-9, namely, the solemn new introduction in 42 5, longer than most introductions in the Book of Consolation Cf 43 1,14,44 2,6 The introduction in 44 24 is equally as long as 42 5, but that in 44 24 also forms a close inclusion with 45 7 and introduces a lengthy, important oracle about Cyrus I call attention to the differences pointed out by Vogt, art cit (n 82)
83

82

DEUTERO-ISAIAH 8
4

25

9a 5ab

6 89

Thus said* the Lord: 85 In a favorable time I answer you 85 and on the day of salvation I help you. 86 I form and give you as a covenant of the people [Israel] to raise up the[ir] land and to allot the desolate heritge, Saying to those in prison: "Come out!" and to those in darkness: "Show yourselves!" But now thus says*1 the Lord, the one forming me within the womb to be his servant, to bring back Jacob to him and to see that Israel is gathered to him,88 It is far too small a thing for you to be my servant [simply] to raise up the tribes of Jacob and to restore the survivors90 of Israel. I give you as a light to the nations, the mediator of my salvation to the ends of the earth. (49:8-9a, 5ab, 6)

This arrangement of 49:8,9a, 5ab, 6 amounts to a radical rearrangement of verses. Yet, it attempts to arrive at a reasonable development of thought, while respecting critical or literary details.91 Most scholars find vv 7-9 or 7-13 very unruly. I quote from Melugin who normally feels comfortable with larger integrated units, in this case for him 44:24-49:13. "It is difficult to determine whether these verses [49:1-13] were originally uttered together or whether they were associated by means of the process of collection. Certainty eludes us, but I would argue that 49:1-13 is a collection. Not only is each genre

Because there is a citation of 42:5-7 within this oracle of 49:8, the past tense, "thus said the Lord," is employed for kh 'amaryahweh. The translation seeks to communicate the contrast with 49:5, which we place later in the poem: w'att 'amaryahweh, "but now thus says the Lord," Suggestions for the textual study of this poem come from E. Vogt, Isaas 4-55, 20. 85 The verbs 'nitik. . . 'azartka, completed tense, are translated in the present tense of oracular promise. 86 The citation is identical in form with 42:7 (Schoors, 100). Because 49:8 omits the phrase le'rgyim, I prefer to drop it also in 42:7. Therefore, the announcement of universal salvation is reserved for 49:6 which we place after w 8-9a in this same poem. 8 ? Cf. fn84 88 We follow Qere, represented in lQIsaa and many other witnesses: l rather than the kethib/o\ 89 Delete at the beginning of 6, wayy'mer, added by the later redactor in stiching the units together. 90 We follow the Qere nesr, Qal pas ptc. from nsar. 91 G. H. Giblin, "A Note on the Composition of Isaias 49,l-6(9a)," CBQ2 (1959) 207-212, divides the song 49:l-3,5b to which was added 49:4-5a,6.

84

26

THE CATHOLIC BIBLICAL QUARTERLY | 42, 1980

capable of standing alone by form and content, but each has its own particu 92 lar intention as well." Our own arrangement seeks to respect both the close bonds between vv 8-9a and vv 5ab, 6, as well as manifest the development from vv 8-9a to vv 5ab, 6. We note the following contrasts and comparisons:
8a 5a we'atta'amar yahweh But now thus says the Lord ntattk I give you as a light to the nations

hh'amar yahweh thus said the Lord [formerly] we'ettenk and I give you as a covenant of the people [Israel] we'essork I form you lehqim 'eres to raise up the land [of Israel] ys' salvation

8c

6b

8c 8d 8b

5a 6a 6c

y sert forming me lehqtm 'et-sibt ya'qb to raise up the tribes of Jacob yS't my salvation

This contrast and development from vv 8-9a to vv 5ab, 6 is substantively strengthened by the use of 'am and gyim. Vv 8-9a, with its citation from the fragment in 42:5-7,93 restricts the ymyel', the day of salvation, to the brt 'am [yisrO], the covenant of the people Israel, while vv 5ab, 6 begin right there with the gathering of Israel to the Lord, and then in a sudden burst of mighty zeal, freed from the frustrating shackles upon ministry, Dt-Isa exclaimed: It is far too small a think for you to be my servant [simply] to raise up the tribes of Jacob and to restore the survivors of Israel. I give you as a light to the nations, the mediator of my salvation to the ends of the earth. (49:6) The major contrast then is between the 'am yisr'el and the gyim or gentile
92 Melugin, 144-5. According to M. the units within 49:1-13 would have ben vv 1-6, 7, vv 8-12, 13. McKenzie, 103, recognizes some "displacement" in vv 1-6, especially with 5c. Westermann, 213, writes, "editors are almost unanimous that 49:7-12 contain additions, . . . Primarily, it is the words of v. 8." Spykerboer, 162, refers "to the mass of literature connected with" 49:1-6; the problem overflows into 49:7-13. Schoors, 98-104, discusses the documents 49:7-12(13). 93 Cf. 86.

DEUTERO-ISAIAH 27 nations. Studies by Aare Launa94 and J. J. Stamm95 establish to my satisfaction that the word 'am, at least in all its 27 occurrences in Second and Third Isaiah (in the sg.),96 refers exclusively to Israel. The two times gy is used in the sg. (49:7; 55:5) and all its appearances in the pi. as gyim, the word refers to the foreign nations in Dt-Isa. Within a fragmentary and unfinished piece of poetry Dt-Isa made the colossal leap from an exclusive concern for Israel's salvation and its concomitant anti-gentile attitude to world salvation.97 Yet, there is something very normal, that what had been stirring beneath the surface all through the Book of Consolation, should break loose suddenly under the tension and frustration of personal rejection by his own people.98
AT LEAST two areas important for interpreting Dt-Isa remain undeveloped here. First, we accept the conclusions of J. Alberto Soggin that the fourth Song does not necessarily refer to the death of the Servant, particularly because of parallel phrases in biblical laments as Pss 31:23; 88:5-7; Lam 3:54; Jer 11:18-20." We have acted upon this solid conclusion by attributing to

Aare Launa, "Der Bund des Volkes' Ein Aspekt der Deuterojesajanischen Missionstheologie," Beitrge zur Alttestamentlichen Theologie (cf. . 41) 256-261, esp. 259. 95 J. J. Stamm, "Berit 'am Deuterojesaja," Probleme Biblischer Theologie (Mnchen: Kaiser, 1971) 510-524. A different position is taken by Delbert R. Hillers, "brit 'am: Emancipation of the People," JBL 97 ( 1978) 175-182, who explains berit as "a derivative of brr, and means Clearing/emancipation.' It thus parallels 'rgim in 42:6. Therefore brt 'am means 'people' in the sense of'mankind.'" 96 Launa, art.cit. (n 94) 259, "Abgesehen von der vorliegenden Stelle 42, 6 (und ihrer Dublette 49,8) kann man nur in zwei Fllen fr die Deutung auf die Menschheit pldieren (40,7 [textkritisch unsicher: fehlt in LXX] und 42,5); doch ist es nicht unmglich, dass auch hier Israel bemeint ist." Concerning the four uses of the pi. 'ammim in Dt-Isa, twice the passage is textually uncertain (49:22 where LXX reads 'iyyim; 51:5, missing in LXX) and twice those who belong to Israel's religion, yet once in 51:4 the text is secondary, the other occurence is 56:7 in Trito-Isaiah. 97 This universalist view is sustained also by: P.-E. Dion, "L'universalisme religieux dans les diffrentes couches redactionelles d'Isaie 40-55," Bib 51 (1970) 161-182, where he differs with the narrow view of de Boer, Snaith and Orlinsky. Our own rearrangement of the verses would further neutralize the objection of the latter authors who felt that the narrower view within 8 would reverse or restrict the possible universal scope in the preceding vv 5-6. 98 In a more reflective style I have developed not only the transition from Book of Consolation to the Servant Songs but also the impact of Dt-Isa's agony on the four Servant Songs, in "The Painful Cost of Great Hopes: The Witness of Isaiah 40-55," Sin, Salvation and the Spirit (ed. by Daniel Durken, O.S.B.; Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1979) 146-162. 99 J. Alberto Soggin, "Tod und Auferstehung des leidenden Gottesknechtes: Jesaja 53:810," Z/4 W 87 (1975) 346-355. R. N. W. Whybray, Thanksgiving for a Uberated Prophet. An Interpretation of Isaiah Chapter 53 (JSOTSup 4; Sheffield: Univ. of Sheffield, 1978) 79-106, has a long discussion, corroborating Soggin's conclusion, and arriving at a literary genre of "a psalm of thanksgiving," a position recognized long ago by J. Begrich, Studien zu Deuterojesaja

94

28 THE CATHOLIC BIBLICAL QUARTERLY | 42, 1980 Dt-Isa the editing of chaps. 40-55, excluding a few late interpolations like 45:14-17 and 51:4-6, but we have not investigated the full implications of this position. Second, the results of this study must be checked against the continuous and prominent presence of sedeq or mispt in all three stages of Dt-Isa's career. Table 1 of major topics/words shows the strong presence of this concept in chap. 40; 41-48; 49-55; Servant Songs. J. J. Scullion100 correctly insists that sedeq-sdq is not so much a law or norm as a reference to the acts of Yahweh which bestow salvation within a community-covenant context. H. H. Schmid101 extends this concept of community to a "world order," Hertzberg102 to world salvation. W. A. M. Beuken103 sees these acts of God's justice happening within the inscrutable course of history (b'rah mispt, (40:14) in which Israel, the nations and their gods are all involved. Because sedeq and mispt envelop such a wide variety of concepts,104 it became an ideal word by which, according to Lack,105 the editor united all major units of the entire book of Isaiah (chaps. 1-39; 40-55; 56-66). The following statements summarize the principal conclusions of this investigation: a. form follows content, and by means of major ideas we can subdivide Dt-Isa's work into chap. 40; chaps. 41-48; chaps. 49-55; Servant Songs, b. Major ideas characterize each section, yet there are also minor motifs (like Zion-Jerusalem in chaps. 41-48) or implicit intuitions (like a world view in the meaning of 'eres) which give us signals for future development, c. Within chaps. 41-48 and 49-55 Dt-Isa's preoccupation centered on the salvation of Israel, yet he was speaking/writing in such a way as to be ready any moment to turn to the gentiles. This happened in 49:6, a fragment or initial attempt at the Servant Songs, d. Chaps. 41-48 stylistically is dominated by many exalted but scattered hymnic participles, by sustained trial speeches against the gods of the nations and crypto-Israelites, and by an increasing disputation against the bn yisr'l. These chapters were com-

(BWANT77,1938, reprinted in TBu 20, Mnchen 1963)63-65 Before Soggin and Whybray, the death of the servant was denied also by H M Orlinsky, Studies on the Second Part of the Book of Isaiah The So-Called "Servant of the Lord" (VTSup 14, Leiden Brill, 1967) 60-61 100 J J Scullion, "sedeq-sedeqah in Isaiah cc 40-66 with special reference to the continuity m meaning between Second and Third Isaiah," UF3 (1971) 335-348 101 H H Schmid, Gerechtigkeit als WeItOrdnung (Tubingen J C Mohr, 1969) 134 102 W Hertzberg, art cit ( 79) 103 W A M Beuken, art cit (n 68) 104 Jorg Jeremas, "mishpat im ersten Gottesknechtslied (Jes XLII 104)," VT 22 (1972) 31-42 In the three strophes of the first song mispt connotes royalty in 1, the prophet towards Israel in 3, the prophet towards the world in 4 105 Lack, 247

DEUTERO-ISAIAH 29 posed before the fall of Babylon and represent a fully developed "theology." e. In chaps. 49-55 the style is more somber, often that of lament or a sober proclamation of salvation. The prophet is not disputing with Israelites but encouraging the remnant of his followers over the meagre results of the new exodus. Zion, he insists, will have a glorious future, f. The Servant Songs begin with the strong chords of lament but end in a psalm of thanksgiving as the isolated and persecuted Dt-Isa finds peace and dignity in the Lord alone, g. Each of the two major sections were edited with a sense of chronological sequence: chaps. 41-48, from ebullient hopes in Cyrus to sarcastic opposition from his own people; chaps. 49-55 and the Servant Songs, from lamentation to new hopes.

^ s
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