HYDRODYNAMICS AND THEORY OF WAVES

FLUID MECHANICS
CONTENTS
1
1. BASIC MATHEMATICS
2. FLUID PROPRIETIES
2.1 Compressibility
2.2 Thermal dilatation
2.3 Mobility
2.4 Viscosity
3. EQUATIONS OF IDEAL FLUID MOTION
3.1 Eulers equation
3.2 Equation of continuity
3.3 The equation of state
3.4 Bernoullis equation
3.5 Plotting and energetic interpretation of
Bernoullis equation for liquids
3.6 Bernoullis equations for the relative movement of ideal
non-compressible fluid
4. FLUID STATICS
4.1 The fundamental equation of hydrostatics
4.2 Geometric and physical interpretation
of the fundamental equation of hydrostatics
4.3 Pascals principle
4.4 The principle of communicating vessels
4.5 Hydrostatic forces
4.6 Archimedes principle
4.7 The floating of bodies
5. POTENTIAL (IRROTATIONAL) MOTION
5.1 Plane potential motion
5.2 Rectilinear and uniform motion
5.3 The source
5.4 The whirl
5.5 The flow with and without circulation
around a circular cylinder
5.6 Kutta Jukovskis theorem
6. IMPULSE AND MOMENT IMPULSE
2
THEOREM
7. MOTION EQUATION OF THE REAL FLUID
7.1 Motion regimes of fluids
7.2 Navier Stokes equation
7.3 Bernoullis equation under the permanent regime
of a thread of real fluid
7.4 Laminar motion of fluids
7.4.1 Velocities distribution between two plane parallel
boards of infinit length
7.4.2 Velocity distribution in circular conduits
7.5 Turbulent motion of fluids
7.5.1 Coefficient in turbulent motion
7.5.2 Nikuradzes diagram
8. FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS
9. HYDRODYNAMIC PROFILES
9.1 Geometric characteristics of hydrodynamic profiles
9.2 The flow of fluids around wings
9.3 Forces on the hydrodynamic profiles
9.4 Induced resistances in the case of finite span profiles
9.5 Networks profiles
10. WAVE THEORY
10.1 Basic equations
10.2 Traveling waves planes, with small amplitude
10.3 Groups of waves
10.4 Stationary wave
10.5 Waves in liquid with finite depth
BIBLIOGRAPHY
3
1. Basic mathematics
The scalar product of two vectors
k a j a i a a
z y x
+ +
and
k b j b i b b
y x 2
+ +
is a scalar.
Its value is:
z z y y x x
b a b a b a b a + +
. (1.1)
a b
a b

( )

b a cos
. (1.2)
The scalar product is commutative:
a b b a
. (1.3)
The vectorial product of two vectors a and b is a vector
perpendicular on the plane determined by those vectors, directed in such
a manner that the trihedral a , b and b a should be rectangular.
z y x
z y x
b b b
a a a
k j i
b a
. (1.4)
The modulus of the vectorial product is given by the relation:
4
( )

b a b a b a sin . (1.5)
The vectorial product is non-commutative:
a b b a (1.6)
The mixed product of three vectors a , b and c is a scalar.
( )
z y x
z y x
z y x
c c c
b b b
a a a
c b a
. (1.7)
The double vectorial product of three vectors a , b and c is a
vector situated in the plane ( ) c b, .
The formula of the double vectorial product:
( ) ( ) ( ) c b a c a b c b a . (1.8)
The operator is defined by:
z
k
y
j
x
i

. (1.9)
applied to a scalar is called gradient.
. grad
k
z
j
y
i
x

. (1.10)
scalary applied to a vector is called divarication.
. a div a
5
z
a
y
a
x
a
a
z
y
x

. (1.11)
vectorially applied to a vector is called rotor. . a rot a
z y x
a a a
z y x
k j i
a

. (1.12)
Operations with :
( ) + +
. (1.13)
( ) b a b a + + . (1.14)
( ) b a b a + + . (1.15)
When acts upon a product:
- in the first place has differential and only then vectorial
proprieties;
- all the vectors or the scalars upon which it doesnt act must, in
the end, be placed in front of the operator;
- it mustnt be placed alone at the end.
( ) ( ) ( ) + +
c c
. (1.16)
( ) ( ) ( ) + + a a a a a c
c
. (1.17)
( ) ( ) ( ) + a a a a a c
c
. (1.18)
6
( ) ( ) ( ) c c b a b a b a + , (1.19)
( ) ( ) ( ) b a b a b a c c , (1.20)
( ) ( ) b a b rot a b ac + , (1.21)
( ) ( ) a b a rot b b a c + , (1.22)
( ) ( ) ( ) a b a rot b b a b rot a b a + + + . (1.23)
c

- the scalar

considered constant,
c

- the scalar

considered constant,
c a - the vector a considered constant,
c b - the vector b considered constant.
If:
, v b a (1.24)
then:
( ) v rot v v v
v
+

,
_

2
2
. (1.25)
The streamline is a curve tangent in each of its points to the
velocity vector of the corresponding point
( ) k v j v i v v
z y x
+ +
.
The equation of the streamline is obtained by writing that the
tangent to streamline is parallel to the vector velocity in its corresponding
point:
z y x
v
dz
v
dy
v
dx

. (1.26)
The whirl line is a curve tangent in each of its points to the whirl
vector of the corresponding point
( ) k j i
z y x
+ +
.
7
v rot
2
1

. (1.27)
The equation of the whirl line is obtained by writing that the
tangent to whirl line is parallel with the vector whirl in its corresponding
point:
z y x
dz dy dx


. (1.28)
Gauss-Ostrogradskis relation:


d a d n a


, (1.29)
where

- volume delimited by surface

.
The circulation of velocity on a curve (C) is defined by:

, r d v
C

(1.30)
in which
ds r d
(1.31)
represents the orientated element of the curve (- the
versor of the tangent to the curve (C )).
Fig.1.1
8
( )

+ +
C
z y x
dz v dy v dx v
(1.32)
The sense of circulation depends on the admitted sense in
covering the curve.
ABMA AMBA

. (1.33)
Also:
BA AMB AMBA
+
. (1.34)
Stokes relation:
( )

C
d n v rot r d v
(1.35)
in which n represents the versor of the normal to the arbitrary
surface

bordered by the curve (C).

9
2. FLUID PROPRIETIES
As it is known, matter and therefore fluid bodies as well, has a
discrete and discontinuous structure, being made up of micro-particles
(molecules, atoms, etc) that are in reciprocal interaction.
The mechanics of fluids studies phenomena that take place at a
macroscopic scale, the scale at which fluids behave as if matter were
continuously distributed.
At the same time, fluids dont have their own shape so are easily
deformed.
A continuous medium is homogenous if at a constant temperature
and pressure, its density has only one value in all its points.
Lastly, a continuous homogenous medium is isotropic as well if it
has the same proprieties in any direction around a certain point of its
mass.
In what follows we shall consider the fluid as a continuous,
deforming, homogeneous and isotropic medium.
We shall analyse some of basic physical proprieties of the fluids.
10
2.1. Compressibility
Compressibility represents the property of fluids to modify their
volume under the action of a variation of pressure. To evaluate
quantitatively this property we use a physical value, called isothermal
compressibility coefficient,

, that is defined by the relation:

,
1
2
1
]
1

N
m
dp
dV
V

(2.1)
in which dV represents the elementary variation of the initial volume,
under the action of pressure variation dp.
The coefficient

is intrinsic positive; the minus sign that

appears in relation (2.1) takes into consideration the fact that the volume
and the pressure have reverse variations, namely dv/ dp < 0.
The reverse of the isothermal compressibility coefficient is called
the elasticity modulus K and is given by the relation:
.
1
2 1
]
1

m
N
dV
dp
V K

(2.2)
Writing the relation (2.2) in the form:
,
K
dp
V
dV

(2.3)
we can underline its analogy with Hooks law:
.
E l
dl

(2.4)
11
a) The compressibility of liquids
In the case of liquids, it has been experimentally ascertained that
the elasticity modulus K, and implicitly, the coefficient

, vary very
little with respect to temperature (with approximately 10% in the interval
C
0
60 0 ) and they are constant for variations of pressure within enough
wide limits. In table (2.1) there are shown the values of these coefficients
for various liquids at C
0
0 and pressure
200 p
bars.
Table 2.1.
Liquid
[ ] N m /
2

[ ]
2
/ m N
K
Water
10
10 12 , 5

9
10 95 , 1
Petrol
10
10 66 , 8

9
10 15 , 1
Glycerine
10
10 55 , 2

9
10 92 , 3
Mercury
10
10 296 , 0

9
10 7 , 33
Therefore, in the case of liquids, coefficient

may be
considered constant.
Consequently, we can integrate the differential equation (2.2)
from an initial state, characterised by volume
0
V
, pressure
0
p
and
density
0

, to a certain final state, where the state parameters will have

the value
p V ,
1
and

respectively; we shall successively get:

V
V
p
p
dp
V
dV
0 0
,
(2.5)
or
( )
.
0
0
p p
e V V



(2.6)
12
b) The compressibility of gases
For gases the isothermal compressibility coefficient depends very
much on pressure. In the case of a perfect gas, the following relation
describes the isothermal compressibility:
pV = cons.,
which, by subtraction, will be:
.
V
dV
p
dp

(2.8)
By comparing this relation to (2.3) we may write:
.
1
p K

(2.9)
It follows that, in the case of a perfect gas, the elasticity modulus
is equal to pressure.
2.2 Thermal dilatation
Thermal dilatation represents the fluid property to modify its
volume under the action of a variation of temperature. Qualitatively, this
property is characterised by the volumetric coefficient of isobaric
dilatation, defined by the relation:
,
1
dT
dV
V

(2.10)
where dV represents the elementary variation of the initial volume V
under the action of variation of temperature dT. Coefficient

is positive
for all fluids, except for water, which registers maximum density
13
(minimum specific volume) at C
0
4 ; therefore, for water that has
C t
0
4 we shall have . 0 <
Generally,

varies very little with respect to temperature,

therefore it can be considered constant. Under these circumstances,
integrating the equation (2.10) between the limits
0
V
and V, and
respectively
0
T
and T, we get:
( ), ln
0
0
T T
V
V

(2.11)
or else
( )
.
0
0
T T
e V V

(2.12)
By dividing the relation (2.12) to the mass of the fluid
,
0 0
V V m
we get the function of state for an incompressible fluid:
( )
,
0
0
T T
e

(2.13)
In the case of a perfect gas the value of the coefficient is obtained
by subtracting the equation of isobaric transformation
,
_

. cons
T
V
; we
get:
, . dT
T
V
dT cons dV
(2.14)
which, replaced into (2.10) enables us to write:
.
1
T

(2.15)
14
Thus, for the perfect gas, coefficient

is the reverse of the

thermodynamic temperature.
2.3. Mobility
In the case of fluids, the molecular cohesion forces have very low
values, but they arent rigorously nil.
At a macroscopic scale, this propriety can be rendered by the fact
that two particles of fluid that are in contact, can be separated under the
action of some very small external forces. At the same time, fluid
particles can slide one near the other and have to overcome some
relatively small tangent efforts.
As a result, from a practical point of view, fluids can develop only
compression efforts.
In the case of a deformation at a constant volume, the
compression efforts are rigorously nil and, as a result, the change in
shape of the fluid requires the overcoming of the tangent efforts, which
are very small. Therefore the mechanical work consumed from the
exterior will be very small, in fact negligible.
We say that fluids have a high mobility, meaning that they have
the property to take the shape of the containers in which they are.
Consequently we should stress that gases, because they dont have their
own volume, have a higher mobility than liquids (a gas inserted in a
container takes both the shape and the volume of that container).
2.4 Viscosity
Viscosity is the property of the fluid to oppose to the relative
movement of its particles.
As it has been shown, overcoming some small tangent efforts that
arent yet rigorously nil makes this movement.
15
To qualitatively stress these efforts, we consider the
unidimenssional flow of a liquid, which takes place in superposed layers,
along a board situated in xOy plane (fig.2.1).
Fig.2.1.
Experimental measurements have shown that velocity increases
as we move away from the board in the direction of axis Oy, and it is nil
in the near vicinity of the board. Graphically, the dependent
( ) y f v
is
represented by the curve . This simple experiment stresses on two
aspects, namely:
- the fluid adheres on the surface of the solid body with which
it comes into contact;
- inside the fluid and at its contact with the solid surfaces,
tangent efforts generate which determine variation in velocity.
Thus, considering two layers of fluid, parallel to the plane
xOy and that are at an elementary distance dy one from the
other, we shall register a variation in velocity
dy
dy
dv
, due to
the frictions that arise between the two layers.
To determine the friction stress, Newton used the relation:
dy
dv

, (2.16)
that today bears his name. This relation that has been experimentally
verified by Coulomb, Poisseuille and Petrov shows that the friction stress

is proportional to the gradient of velocity. The proportionality factor

is called dynamic viscosity.

16
If we represent graphically the dependent
( ) dy dv f /
we shall
get the line 1 (fig.2.2) where
ty
.
The fluids that observe the friction
law (2.16) are called Newtonian fluids
(water, air, etc). The dependent of the
tangent effort to the gradient of velocity is
not a straight line (for example curve (2) in
fig. 2.2), for a series of other fluids,
generally those of organic nature. These
fluids are globally called non-Newtonian
fluids.
Fig.2.2
The measures for the dynamic viscosity are:
- in the international standard (SI):
[ ]
s m
Kg
m
s N

(2.17)
- in the CGS system:
[ ]
s cm
g
cm
s dyn

. (2.18)
The measure of dynamic viscosity in CGS system is called
poise, and has the symbol P. We can notice the existence of relation:
P
s m
Kg
10 1

. (2.19)
17
We can determine the dynamic viscosity of liquids with the help
of Hpplers viscometer, whose working principle is based on the
proportionality of dynamic viscosity to the time in which a ball falls
inside a slanting tube that contains the analysed liquid.
The kinematic viscosity of a fluid is the ratio of dynamic viscosity
and its density:

. (2.20)
The measures for kinematic viscosity are:
- in the international system:
[ ]
s
m
2
. (2.21)
- in CGS system:
[ ]
s
cm
2
. (2.22)
the latter bearing the name stokes (symbol ST):
s
m
s
cm
ST
2
4
2
10 1 1

. (2.23)
Irrespective of the type of viscometer used (Ubbelohde, Vogel-
Ossag, etc) we can determine the kinematic viscosity by multiplying the
time (expressed in seconds) in which a fixed volume of liquid flows
through a calibrated capillary tube, under normal conditions, constant for
that device.
In actual practice, the conventional viscosity of a fluid is often
used; this value is determined by measuring the time in which a certain
volume of fluids flows through a special device, the conditions being
conventionally chosen. The magnitude of this value thus determined is
expressed in conventional units. There are several conventional
18
viscosities (i.e. Engler, Saybolt, Redwood etc) which differ from one
another both in the measurement conditions and in the measure units.
Thus, Engler conventional viscosity, expressed in Engler degrees
[ ] E
0
is the ratio between the flow time of 200 cubic cm of the analysed
liquid at a given temperature and the flow time of a same volume of
distilled water at a temperature of C
0
20 , through an Engler viscometer
under standard conditions.
The viscosity of a fluid depends to a great extent on its
temperature. Generally, viscosity of liquids diminishes with the increase
in temperature, while for gas the reverse phenomenon takes place.
The dependence of liquids viscosity on temperature can be
determined by using Gutman and Simons relation:
0
0
T
B
T C
B
e

+

. (2.24)
where the constants B and C depend on the nature of the analysed liquid
(for water we have B= 511,6 K and C= -149,4 K).
For gases we can use Sutherlands formula
T S
T S
T
T
+
+

,
_

0
2 / 3
0
0
. (2.25)
where S depends on the nature of the gas (for air S=123,6 K).
In relations (2.24) and (2.25),

and
0

are the dynamic

viscosities of the fluid at the absolute temperature T, and at temperature
) 0 ( 15 , 273
0
0
C K T
respectively.
19
In table 2.2 there are shown the dynamic and kinematic
viscosities of air and water at different temperatures and under normal
atmospheric pressures.
Table 2.2
Temperature
[ ] C
0
-10 0 10 20 40 60 80
1
]
1

s m
Kg
3
10

Air 0,016 0,017 0,017 0,018 0,019 0,02 0,029

Water - 1,79 1,31 1,01 0,66 0,48 0,37
1
]
1

s
m
2
6
10

Air 1,26 13,3 14,1 15,1 16,9 18,9 20,9

Water - 1,79 1,31 1,01 0,66 0,48 0,37
We must underline the fact that viscosity is a property that
becomes manifest only during the movement of liquids.
A fluid for which viscosity is rigorously nil is called a perfect or
ideal fluid.
Fluids may be compressible
( ) [ ] p
or incompressible (

is
constant with respect to pressure).
We should emphasize that the ideal compressible fluid is
analogous to the ideal (or perfect) gas, as defined in thermodynamics.
The movement of fluids may be uniform (velocity is constant),
permanent v = v (x,y,z) or varied v = v (x,y,z,t).
20
3. EQUATIONS OF IDEAL FLUID
MOTION
3.1 Eulers equation
We shall further study, for the most general case, the movement
state of a fluid through a volume

that is situated in the fluid stream;

we shall not take into consideration the interior frictions(i.e.viscosity), so
we shall analyse the case of perfect (ideal) fluids that are on varied
movement.
The volume

is situated in an accelerated system of axes, joint

with this system. The equations, which describe the movement of the
fluid, will be obtained by applying dAlemberts principle for the fluid
that is moving through the volume

.
The three categories of forces that act upon the fluid that is
moving through the volume

,bordered by the surface

(fig.3.1), are:
Fig.3.1
- the mass forces
m
F
;
- the inertia forces
i
F
;
- the pressure forces p
F
(with an equivalent effect; these
forces replace the action of the negligible fluid outside
volume

).
21
According to dAlemberts principle, we shall get:
0 + +
p i m
F F F
. (3.1)
Equation (3.1) represents in fact the general vectorial form of
Eulers equations.
Lets establish the mathematical expressions of those three
categories of forces.
If F is the mass unitary force (acceleration) that acts upon the
fluid in the volume

, the mass elementary force that acts upon the mass

d
, will be:
d F F d
m

, (3.2)
hence:

d F F
m
. (3.3)
As the fluid velocity through the volume

is a vectorial function
with respect to point and time: ( ) t r v v , , upon the mass
d
that is
moving with velocity v the elementary inertia will act:
d
dt
v d
F d
i
. (3.4)
So, the inertia will be:

d
dt
v d
F
i . (3.5)
If d is a surface element upon which the pressure p acts, and
n - the versor of the exterior normal (Fig.3.1), the elementary force of
pressure is:
d n p F d
p

. (3.6)
22
Having in mind Gauss-Ostrogradskis theorem, the resultant of
pressure forces will be:


d p d n p F
p


. (3.7)
By replacing equations (3.3), (3.5) and (3.7) in the equation (3.1),
we shall get:
0

,
_

d
dt
v d
p F
, (3.8)
Hence:
dt
v d
p F

1
, (3.9)
Or
( ) v v
t
v
p F +

1
, (3.10)
The equation (3.10) Eulers equation in a vectorial form for the
ideal fluid in a non-permanent movement.
23
Projecting this equation on the three axes, we shall obtain:
z
x
y
x
x
x x
x
v
z
v
v
y
v
v
x
v
t
v
x
p
F

1
;
z
y
y
y
x
y y
y
v
z
v
v
y
v
v
x
v
t
v
y
p
F

1
; (3.11)
z
z
y
z
x
z z
z
v
z
v
v
y
v
v
x
v
t
v
z
p
F

1
.
3.2 Equation of continuity
This equation can be obtained by writing in two ways the
variation in the unity of time for the mass of fluid that is in the control
volume

, bordered by the surface

(fig.3.1). By splitting from the

volume

one element d , and taking into consideration that the density

is a scalar function of point and time, ( ) t r, , we can write the total
mass of the volume

d m
. (3.12)
The variation of the total mass in the unity of time will be:

d
t t
m
. (3.13)
The second form of writing the variation of mass is obtained by
examining the flow of the mass through surface

that borders volume

.
Denoting by n the versor of the exterior normal to the area
element d , and by v the vector of the fluid velocity, the elementary
24
mass of fluid that passes in the unity of time through the area element
d is:
d v dM
n

. (3.14)
In the unity of time through the whole surface

will pass, the

mass:

d v M
n
(3.15)
that is the sum of the inlet and outlet mass in volume

, by crossing
surface

.
By equalling equations (3.13) and (3.15), it will result:

+

0 d v
t
n . (3.16)
According to Gauss-Ostrogradskis theorem:
( )



d v d v
n
. (3.17)
Taking into consideration (3.17), the equation (3.16) will take the
form:
( ) 0
1
]
1

d v
t
, (3.18)
hence, successively:
25
( ) , 0 +

v
t

(3.19)
0 + +

v v
t

, (3.20)
0 + v
dt
d

. (3.21)
The equation (3.21) represents the equation of continuity for
compressible fluids.
In the case of non-compressible fluids (
. cons
,
0
dt
d
), the
equation of continuity takes the form:
0 v , (3.22)
or
0

z
v
y
v
x
v
z
y
x
. (3.23)
It follows that the inlet volume of non-compressible liquid is
equal to the outlet one in and from the volume

.
3.3. The equation of state
From a thermodynamically point of view, the state of a system
can be determined by the direct measurement of some characteristic
physical values, that make up the group of state parameters (e.g. pressure,
volume, temperature, density etc.).
26
Among the state parameters of a thermodynamically system
generally there are link relationships, explained by the laws of physics.
In the case of homogenous systems, there is only one implicit
relationship, which carries out the link among the three state parameters,
in the form of:
( ) 0 , , T p F
. (3.24)
Adding to vectorial equations (3.10) and (3.21) the equation of
state, we get three equations with three unknowns:
( ) ( ) ( ) t r p t r t r v , , , , , , that enable us solve the problems of motion and
repose for the ideal fluids.
3.4. Bernoulli s equation
Bernoullis equation is obtained by integrating Eulers equation
written under a different form (Euler Lamb), that stresses the rotational
or non-rotational nature of the ideal fluid (see the relation (1.25)).
Euler Lambs equation:
v rot v
v
t
v
p F

,
_

2
1
2

. (3.25)
Considering the case when the mass force derives from a
potential U, thus being a conservative force (the mechanical energy-
kinetic and potential-will be constant):
U F . (3.26)
In the case of compressible fluids, when
( ) p
, we insert the
function:
27
( )

p
dp
P

. (3.27)
Thus:
( )
p
p
P

1
. (3.28)
The equation (3.25) takes the form:
v rot v
t
v v
P U

,
_

+ +
2
2
. (3.29)
The equation (3.29) can be easily integrated in certain particular
cases.
In the case of permanent motion 0

t
v
, and:
- along a stream line:
z y x
v
dz
v
dy
v
dx

, (3.30)
- along a whirl line:
z y x
dz dy dx


, (3.31)
- in the case of potential motion
0 v rot
:
0
z y x

, (3.32)
28
-in the case of helicoid motion (the velocity vector v is parallel
to the whirl vector):
z
z
y
y
x
x
v
v
v


. (3.33)
Multiplying by r d the equation (3.29), we shall get under the
conditions of permanent motion ( 0

t
v
):
( ) v rot v r d
v
P U d

,
_

+ +
2
2
. (3.34)
Since
2 v rot
, we shall get:
z y x
z y x
v v v
dz dy dx
v
P U d

2
2
2

,
_

+ +
. (3.35)
The determined is zero for one of the four cases above. By
integrating in these cases we shall get Bernoullis equation:
C
v
P U + +
2
2
. (3.36)
If the fluid is a non-compressible one, then

p
P
.
If the axis Oz of the system is vertical, upwards directed, the
potential U is:
C gz U +
. (3.37)
29
It results the well known Bernoullis equation as the load
equation:
C z
p
g
v
+ +
2
2
. (3.38)
The kinetic load
g
v
2
2
represents the height at which it would rise
in vacuum a material point, vertically and upwards thrown, with an initial
velocity v, equal to the velocity of the particle of liquid considered.
The piezometric load

p
is the height of the column of liquid
corresponding to the pressure p of the particle of liquid.
The position load z represents the height at which the particle is
with respect to an arbitrary chosen reference plane.
Bernoullis equation, as an equation of loads, may be expressed as
follows: in the permanent regime of an ideal fluid, non-compressible,
subjected to the action of some conservative forces, the sum of the
kinetic, piezometric and position loads remains constant along a
streamline.
Multiplying (3.38) by

we get the equation of pressures:

C z p
v
+ +
2
2
, (3.39)
where:
2
2
v
dynamic pressure;
p
piezometric (static) pressure;
z
position pressure.
30
Multiplying (3.38) by the weight of the fluid G, we get the
equation of energies:
C z G
p
G
g
v
G + +
2
2
, (3.40)
where:
g
v
G
2
2
- kinetic energy;

p
G
- pressure energy;
Gz - position energy.
3.5. Plotting and energetic interpretation of Bernoullis
equation for liquids
Going back to the relation (3.38) and considering C = H (fig.3.2):
H z
p
g
v
+ +
2
2
. (3.41)
Fig.3.2
31
The sum of all the terms of Bernoullis equation represents the
total energy (potential and kinetic) with respect to the unit of weight of
the moving liquid.
This energy measured to a horizontal reference plane N-N,
arbitrarily chosen is called specific energy and it remains constant during
the permanent movement of the ideal non-compressible fluid that is
under the action of gravitational and pressure forces.
3.6. Bernoullis equation for the relative movement of
ideal non-compressible fluid
Lets consider the flow of an ideal non-compressible fluid
through the channel between two concentric pipes that revolve around an
axis Oz with angular velocity

(fig.3.3.).
Fig.3.3
In the equation (3.38) v is replaced by w, which represents the
relative velocity of the liquid to the channel that is revolving with the
velocity
r u
.
Upon the liquid besides the gravitational acceleration g, the
acceleration r
2
acts as well.
32
The unitary mass forces decomposed on the three axes will be:
.
;
;
2
2
g F
y F
x F
z
y
x

(3.42)
In this case, the potential U will be:
C
r
gz U +
2
2 2

. (3.43)
By adding (3.43) to Bernoullis equation, we get:
C z
p
g
r
g
w
+ +

2 2
2 2 2
, (3.44)
or
C z
p
g
u w
+ +

2
2 2
. (3.45)
In the theory of hydraulic machines we use the following
denotations:
v absolute velocity;
w relative velocity;
u peripheral velocity.
The equation (3.45) written for two particles on the same
streamline is:

2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2 2
z
p
g
u w
z
p
g
u w
+ +

+ +

(3.46)
33
4. FLUID STATICS
The fluid statics hydrostatics is that part of the mechanics of
fluid which studies the repose conditions of the fluid as well as their
action, during the repose state, on solid bodies with whom they come into
contact.
Hydrostatics is identical for real and ideal fluids, as viscosity
becomes manifest only during motion. In hydrostatics the notion of time
does no longer exist.
4.1 The fundamental equation of hydrostatics
If in Eulers equation (3.9) we assume that 0 v , we get:
0
1
p F

. (4.1)
We multiply everywhere by r d :
0
1
r d p r d F

. (4.2)
or

dp
dz F dy F dx F
z y x
+ +
. (4.3)
If the axis Oz of the system
xOyz
is vertical, upwards directed,
then:
0
y x
F F
,
, g F
z

and equation (4.3) becomes:
34
0 +

dp
gdz
. (4.4)
In the case of liquids (

= cons.), by integrating equation (4.4)

we get:
. const
p
gz +

(4.5)
or
. const
p
z +

(4.6)
or
. const z p +
(4.7)
Equation (4.7) is called the fundamental equation of hydrostatics.
If
0
p
is the pressure at the surface of water (in open tank the
atmospheric pressure), pressure p, situated at a distance h from the
surface, will be (fig.4.1):
Fig.4.1
1 0 2
z p z p + +
, (4.8)
h p p +
0
. (4.9)
p is called the absolute pressure in the point 2, and
h
is the
relative pressure.
35
4.2 Geometrical and physical interpretation of the
fundamental equation of hydrostatics (fig.4.2)
Fig.4.2
According to (4.6) we can write:
2
2
2
1
1
1
z
p
z
p
+ +

. (4.10)
In fig.4.2 we have:

p
- piezometric height corresponding to the absolute
hydrostatic pressure;
2 , 1
z
- the quotes to an arbitrary plane (position heights).
4.3 Pascals principle
We rewrite the fundamental equation of hydrostatics between two
points 1 and 2.
2 2 1 1
z p z p + +
. (4.11)
36
Supposing that in point 1, the pressure registers a variation
p
,
it becomes
p p +
1
. In order that the equilibrium state shouldnt be
altered, for point 2 the same variation of pressure has to be registered.
2 2 2 1 1 1
z p p z p p + + + +
. (4.12)
Hence:
2 1
p p
. (4.13)
Pascals principle:
Any pressure variation created in a certain point in a non-
compressible liquid in equilibrium, is transmitted with the same intensity
to each point in the mass of this liquid.
4.4 The principle of communicating vessels
Let us consider two communicating vessels (fig.4.3) that contain
two non-miscible liquids, which have specific weights
1

and
2

,
respectively. Writing the equality of pressure in the points 1 and 2,
situated in the same horizontal plane N N that also contains the
separation surface between the two liquids, we get:
2 2 0 1 1 0
h p h p + +
, (4.14)
or else
1
2
2
1

h
h
, (4.15)
where
1
h
and
2
h
are the heights of the two liquid columns that,
according to this relation, are in reverse proportion to the specific
weights of the two liquids.
37
Fig.4.3
If
,
2 1

then
2 1
h h
.
In two or more communicating vessels, that contain the same
liquid (homogenous and non-compressible), their free surfaces are on
the same horizontal plane.
4.5 Hydrostatic forces
The pressure force that acts upon a solid wall is determined by
means of the relation:

A
dA n p F
, (4.16)
where dA is a surface element having the versor n , and p is the relative
pressure of the fluid.
Let A be a vertical plane surface that limits a non-compressible
fluid, with specific weight

(fig.4.4).
38
Fig.4.4
Then the hydrostatic pressure force will be:

A
y
M A z zdA F
0
, (4.17)
where:
0
z
- the quote of the specific weight for surface A;
y
M
- the static moment of the surface A with respect to the axis
Oy.
The application point of the pressure force F is called pressure
centre. It has the following co-ordinates:
y
y
A
M
I
zdA
dA z
F
zdF

2
, (4.18)
y
yz
A
M
I
zdA
yzdA
F
ydF

.
y
I
- the inertia moment of surface A with respect to the axis Oy;
39
yz
I
- the centrifugal moment of surface A with respect to axes Oy
and Oz.
The hydrostatic pressure force that acts upon the bottom of a
container does not depend on the quantity of liquid, but on the height of
the liquid and on the section of the bottom of this container.
The above statement represents the hydrostatic paradox and is
illustrated in fig.4.5. The force that presses on the bottom of the three
different shaped containers, is the same because the level of the liquid in
the container is the same, and the surface of the bottom is the same.
Fig. 4.5
4.6 Archimedes principle
Lets consider a solid body and further to simplify a cylinder,
submerged in a liquid; we intend to compute the resultant of the pressure
forces that act upon it (fig.4.6).
Fig.4.6
40
The resultant of the horizontal forces
'
x
F
and
' '
x
F
is obviously
nil:
.
,
0
' '
0
'
x x
x x
A z F
A z F

(4.19)
The vertical forces will have the value:
.
;
2
' '
1
'
z z
z z
A z F
A z F

(4.20)
Thus their resultant will be:
( ) V h A z z A F F F
z z z z z
+
1 2
' ' '
. (4.21)
This demonstration may easily be extended for a body of any
shape.
An object submerged in a liquid is up thrust with an equal force
with the weight of the displaced liquid.
4.7. The floating of bodies
A free body, partially submerged in a liquid is called a floating
body.
The submerged part is called immerse part or hull.
The weight centre of the hulls volume is called the hull centre.
The free surface of the liquid is called floating plane.
The crossing between the floating plane and the floating body is
called the floating surface.
41
Its weight centre is called floating centre, and its outline is called
floating line or water line.
In order that the floating body be in equilibrium, it is necessary
that the sum of the forces that act upon it as well as the resultant moment
should be nil.
Upon a floating body there can act two forces: the archimedean
force and the weight force also called displacement (D = mg) (fig.4.7)
Fig.4.7
As a result, a first condition to achieve the equilibrium is:
V mg D
, (4.22)
where m is the mass of the floating body, V is the volume of the hull,
and

is the specific weight of the liquid.

Furthermore, in order that the moment of the resultant should be
nil these two forces must have the same straight line as support or, in
other words, that the weight centre G should be found on the same
vertical with the centre hull.
Equation (4.22) is called the equation of flotability.
Stability is the ability of the floating body to return on the initial
floating of equilibrium after the action of perturbatory forces that drew it
out of that position has ceased.
With respect to a Cartesian system of axes Oxyz, having the plane
xOy in the floating plane and axis Oz upwards directed (fig.4.8), the
floating body has six degrees of freedom: three translations and three
rotations. The rotation around Ox and Oy is most important.
42
These slantings are due to the actions of waves or wind.
By definition, the rotation of the floating body thus produced as
the volume of the hull to remain unchanged as a value but which can
vary in shape is called isohull slanting.
Let
0 0
L L
be the plane of the initial floating. After the slanting
of the isohull around a certain axis, the floating body will be on a floating
1 1
L L
.
If initially the centre of hull were situated in the point
0
C
after
the isohull slating with an angle

, the centre of hull would move

further, in the sense of slanting, to a point
1
C
.
This movement takes place due to the alteration of the shape of
the hull volume.
The locus of the successive positions of the centre of the hull for
different isohull slantings around the same axis is called the curve of the
centre of hull (trajectory C).
The curvature centre of the curve of the hull centres is called
metacentre and its curvature radius is called metacentric radius.
For transversal slantings around the longitudinal axis Ox we
shall talk about a transversal metacentre M and about a transversal
metacentric radius r (fig.4.8 a).
43
Fig.4.8 a, b
For longitudinal slantings around the transversal axis Oy the
longitudinal metacentre will be denoted by

, and the corresponding

metacentric radius will be R (fig. 4.8 b).
Causing a transversal slanting to the floating body, isohull, with a
small angle,

, the centre of hull will move to point

1
C
(fig.4.8 a). In
this case, the force of flotability
V
, normal on the slanting flotability
1 1
L L
, having as application point the point
1
C
wont have the same
support as the weight (displacement) of the floating body.
As a result, the two forces will make up a couple whose moment,
r
M
, will be given by the relation:
sin h D M
r

, (4.23)
where
a r h . (4.24)
is called metacentric height, and a is the distance on the vertical between
the weight centre and centre of hull; denoting by
G
z
and
C
z
the quotes
of these points to a horizontal reference plane, we shall have:
C G
z z a
. (4.25)
44
The metacentric height, expressed by the relation (4.24) may be
positive, negative or nil. We shall in turn analyse each of these cases.
a) if h > 0 the metacentre will be above the weight centre, and the
moment
r
M
, given by the relation (4.24) will also be positive. From
fig.4.8.it can be noticed that, in this case, the moment
r
M
will tend
to return the floating body to the initial floating
0
L
; for this reason it
is called restoring moment. In this case the floating of the body will
be stable.
b) if h < 0, the metacentre is below the centre of weight (fig.4.9 a). It
can be noticed that, in this case, the moment
r
M
will be negative
and will slant the floating body even further. As a result, it will be
called moment of force tending to capsize, the floating of the body
being unstable.
c) If h = 0, the metacentre and the centre of hull will superpose (fig.4.9
b). Consequently, the restoring moment will be nil, and the body will
float in equilibrium on the slanting floating.
Fig.4.9 a, b
In this case the floating is also unstable. Thus, the stability
conditions of the floating are: the metacentre should be placed above the
weight centre, namely
45
. 0 > a r h (4.26)
According to (4.24) and (4.23), we may write:
( )
g f r
M M a D r D a r D M + sin sin sin
, (4.27)
where:

sin r D M
f

, (4.28)
is called stability moment of form, and:
sin a D M
g

, (4.29)
is called stability moment of weight.
As a result, on the basis of (4.27) we can consider the restoring
moment as an algebraic sum of these two moments.
In the case of small longitudinal slantings, the above stated
considerations are also valid, the restoring moment being in this case:
( ) sin sin a R D H D M
r
, (4.30)
where
a R H . (4.31)
represents the longitudinal metacentric height, and R is the longitudinal
metacentric radius.
46
5. POTENTIAL (IRROTATIONAL)
MOTION
The potential motion is characterised by the fact that the whirl
vector is nil.
0
2
1
v rot
, (5.1)
hence its name: irrotational.
If is nil, its components on the three axes will also be nil:
. 0
2
1
, 0
2
1
, 0
2
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

y
v
x
v
x
v
z
v
z
v
y
v
x
y
z
z x
y
y
z
x

(5.2)
r:
.
,
,
y
v
x
v
x
v
z
v
z
v
y
v
x
y
z x
y
z

(5.3)
Relations (5.3) are satisfied only if velocity v derives from a
function

:
47
. , ,
z
v
y
v
x
v
z y x

(5.4)
or vectorially:
v
. (5.5)
Indeed:
( ) 0 grad rot v rot . (5.6)
Function
( ) t z y x , , ,
is called the potential of velocities.
If we apply the equation of continuity for liquids,
0
2
2
2
2
2
2

z y x z
v
y
v
x
v
z
y
x

, (5.7)
we shall notice that function

verifies equation of Laplace:

0
, (5.8)
thus being a harmonic function.
5.1 Plane potential motion
The motion of the fluid is called plane or bidimensional if all the
particles that are found on the same perpendicular at an immobile plane,
called director plane, move parallel with this plane, with equal velocities.
If the director plane coincides with xOy, then
0
z
v
.
A plane motion becomes unidimensional if components
x
v
and
y
v
of the velocity of the fluid depend only on a spatial co-ordinate.
For plane motion, the equation of the streamline will be:
48
y x
v
dy
v
dx

, (5.9)
or else:
0 dx v dy v
y x , (5.10)
and the equation of continuity:
0

y
v
x
v
y
x
. (5.11)
The left term of the equation (5.10) is an exact total differential of
function

, called the stream function:

x
v
y
v
y x

,
, (5.12)
0 dx v dy v d
y x

. (5.13)
Function

verifies the equation of continuity (5.11):

0
2 2

x y y x y
v
x
v
y
x

. (5.14)
Function

is a harmonic one as well:

0
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
2

,
_

,
_

y x y
v
x
v
x
y
z

, (5.15)
0
. (5.16)
The total of the points, in which the potential function

is
constant, define the equipotential surfaces.
In the case of a potential plane motion:

- constant, equipotential lines of velocity;

- constant, stream lines.

49
Computing the circulation of velocity along a certain outline, in
the mass of fluid, between points A and B (fig.5.1), we get:


B
A
B
A
A B
B
A
d r d r d v . (5.17)
Thus, the circulation of velocity doesnt depend on the shape of
the curve AB, but only on the values of the function

in A and B. The
circulation of velocity is nil along an equipotential line of velocity (
. const
B A

).
If we compute the flow of liquid through the curve AB in the
plane motion (in fact through the cylindrical surface with an outline AB
and unitary breadth), we get (fig.5.1):
Fig.5.1
( )


B
A
B
A
A B y x
d dx v dy v Q 1 1
. (5.18)
Thus, the flow that crosses a curve does not depend on its shape,
but only on the values of function

in the extreme points. The flow

through a streamline is nil ( ) . const
B A
.
A streamline crosses orthogonal on an equipotential line of
velocity. To demonstrate this propriety we shall take into consideration
that the gradient of a scalar function F is normal on the level surface F =
cons. As a result, vectors

and

are normal on the streamlines
and on the equipotential lines of velocity.
50
Computing their scalar product, we get:
0 +

y x y x
v v v v
y y x x


. (5.19)
Since their scalar product is nil, it follows that they are
perpendicular, therefore their streamlines are perpendicular on the lines
of velocity.
Going back to the expressions of
x
v
and y
v
:
.
;
x y
v
y x
v
y
x

(5.20)
Relations (5.20) represent the Cauchy-Riemanns monogenic
conditions for a function of complex variable.
Any potential plane motion may always be plotted by means of an
analytic function of complex variable,
( )
i
re z iy x z + .
The analytic function;
( ) ( ) ( ) y x i y x z W , , +
, (5.21)
is called the complex potential of the plane potential motion.
Deriving (5.21) we get the complex velocity:
y x
v i v
y
i
y x
i
x dz
dW

. (5.22)
51
Fig.5.2
( )


i
e v i v
dz
dW

sin cos
. (5.23)
Having found the complex potential, lets establish a few types of
plane potential motions.
5.2 Rectilinear and uniform motion
Lets consider the complex potential:
( ) z a z W
, (5.24)
where a is a complex constant in the form of:
K
v i v a
0
, (5.25)
with
0
v
and
K
v
real and constant positive.
Relation (5.24) can be written in the form:
( ) ( ) ( )i x v y v y v x v i z W
K K
+ + +
0 0

, (5.26)
52
where from we can get the expressions of functions

and

:
( )
( ) . ,
, ,
0
0
x v y v y x
y v x v y x
K
K

+

(5.27)
By equalling these relations with constants we obtain the
equations of equipotential lines and of streamlines.
.
.
2 0
1 0
cons C x v y v
cons C y v x v
K
K

+
(5.28)
From these equations we notice that the streamlines and
equipotential lines are straight, having constant slopes (fig.5.3).
Fig.5.3
53
. 0
, 0
0
2
0
1
>
<
v
v
tg
v
v
tg
K
K

(5.29)
We can easily check the orthogonality of the stream and
equipotential lines by writing:
1
2 1
tg tg
. (5.30)
Deriving the complex potential we get the complex velocity:
K
v i v a
dz
dW

0
, (5.31)
that enables us to determine the components of velocity in a certain
point:
. 0
, 0
0
>
>
K y
x
v v
v v
(5.32)
The vector velocity will have the modulus:
2 2
0 K
v v v + , (5.33)
and will have with axis Ox, the angle
2

, given by the relation (5.29).

We can conclude that the potential vector (5.25) is a rectilinear
and uniform flow on a direction of angle
2

with the abscissa axis.

The components of velocity can be also obtained from relations
(5.20):
54
.
,
0
K y
x
v
x y
v
v
y x
v

(5.34)
If we particularise (5.25), by assuming
0
k
v
, the potential
(5.24) will take the form:
( ) z v z W
0

, (5.35)
that represents a rectilinear and uniform motion on the direction of the
axis Ox.
Analogically, assuming in (5.25)
0
0
v
, we get:
( ) z v i z W
K
, (5.36)
that is the potential vector of a rectilinear and uniform flow, of velocity
K
v
, on the direction of the axis Oy.
The motion described above will have a reverse sense if the
corresponding expressions of the potential vector are taken with a reverse
sign.
5.3 The source
Lets consider the complex potential:
( ) z
Q
z W ln
2

, (5.37)
55
where Q is a real and positive constant.
Writing the variable
i
e r z , this complex potential becomes:
( ) ( )

i r
Q
i z W + + ln
2
, (5.38)
where from we get function

and

:
.
2
, ln
2

Q
r
Q

(5.39)
which, equalled with constants, give us the equations of equipotential and
stream lines, in the form:
. .
, .
cons
cons r

(5.40)
It can be noticed that the equipotential lines are concentric circles
with the centre in the origin of the axes, and the streamlines are
concurrent lines in this point (fig.5.4).
Fig.5.4
56
Knowing that:
sin cos r y and r x
, (5.41)
in a point
( ) , r M
, the components of velocity will be:
. 0
1
,
2

r
v
r
Q
r
v
S
r
(5.42)
It can noticed that on the circle of radius r = cons., the fluid
velocity has a constant modulus, being co-linear with the vector radius of
the considered point.
Such a plane potential motion in which the flow takes place
radially, in such a manner that along a circle of given radius velocity is
constant as a modulus, is called a plane source.
Constant Q, which appears in the above - written relations, is
called the flow of the source.
The flow of the source through a circular surface of radius r and
unitary breadth will be:
1 2
r
v r Q
. (5.43)
Analogically, the complex potential of the form:
( ) z
Q
z W ln
2

, (5.44)
will represent a suction or a well because, in this case, the sense of the
velocity is reversing, the fluid moving from the exterior to the origin
(where it is being sucked).
57
If the source isnt placed in the origin of the axes, but in a point
1
O
, of the real axis, of abscissa a t , then:
( ) ( ) a z
Q
z W t ln
2
. (5.45)
5.4. The whirl
Let the complex potential be:
( ) z
i
z W ln
2

. (5.46)
where is a positive and real constant, equal to the circulation of
velocity along a closed outline, which surrounds the origin.
Proceeding in the same manner as for the previous case, we shall
get the functions

and

:
, ln
2
,
2
r

(5.47)
from which we can notice that the equipotential lines, of equation
. const are concurrent lines, in the origin of axes, and the
streamlines, having the equation
. const r
, are concentric circles with
their centre in the origin of the axes (fig.5.5).
58
Fig.5.5
The components of velocity are:
0
2
1
0 >

r r
v and
r
v
S r


. (5.48)
Thus, on a circle of given radius r, the velocity is constant as a
modulus, has the direction of the tangent to this circle in the considered
point and is directed in the sense of angle increase.
If the whirl is placed on the real axis, in a point with abscissa
a t , the complex potential of the motion will be:
( ) ( ) a z
i
z W ln
2

. (5.49)
59
5.5. The flow with and without circulation around a
circular cylinder
The flow with circulation around a circular cylinder is a plane potential
motion that consists of an axial stream (directed along axis Ox), a dipole
of moment
*
2 M (with a source at the left of suction) and a whirl (in
direct trigonometric sense).
The complex potential of motion will be:
( ) z
i
z
r
z v z W ln
2
2
0
0

,
_

+
, (5.50)
where we have done the denotation:
0
2
0
1
v
r
. (5.51)
By writing the complex variable
i
e r z
, we shall divide in
(5.50) the real part from the imaginary one, thus obtaining functions

and

2
cos
2
0
0

+

,
_

+
r
r
r v
, (5.52)
r
r
r
r v ln
2
sin
2
0
0

,
_

. (5.53)
60
* The dipole or the duplet is a plane potential motion that consists of two equal sources of opposite
senses, placed at an infinite small distance , so that the product , called the moment of the dipole should
be finite and constant. .
The stream and equipotential lines are obtained by taking in
relations (5.52), (5.53),
C C ,
respectively. We notice that if in
(5.53) we assume
0
r r
, function

will become constant; therefore

we can infer that the circle of radius
0
r
with the centre in the origin of
the axes is a streamline (fig.5.8).
Admitting that this streamline is a solid border, well be able to
consider this motion described by the complex potential (5.50) as being
the flow around a straight circular cylinder of radius
0
r
, having the
breadth normal on the motion plane, infinite.
If we plot the other
streamlines we shall get some
asymmetric curves with respect to
axis Ox (fig.5.6). On the inferior
side of the circle of radius
0
r
, the
velocity due to the axial stream is
summed up with the velocity due
to the whirl.
Fig.5.6
As a result, here we shall obtain smaller velocities, and the
streamlines will be more rare.
In polar co-ordinates, the components of velocity in a certain
point
( ) , r M
, will be:
cos 1
2
2
0
0

,
_

r
r
v v
r
, (5.54)
If the considered point is placed on the circle of radius
0
r
, well
have:
61
.
2
sin 2
, 0
0
0
r
v v
v
S
r

(5.55)
The position of stagnant points can be determined provided that
between these points the velocity of the fluid should be nil.
The flow without circulation around a circular cylinder is the
plane potential motion made up of an axial stream (directed along axis
Ox) and a dipole of moment 2 M (whose source is at the left of
suction).
Thus, this motion can be obtained particularising the motion
previously described by cancelling the whirl.
By making 0 , in relations (5.50), (5.52) and (5.53) we get
the complex potential of the motion, the function potential of velocity
and the function of stream, in the form:
( ) ,
2
0
0

,
_

+
z
r
z v z W
(5.56)
, cos
2
0
0

,
_

+
r
r
r v
(5.57)
. sin
2
0
0

,
_

r
r
r v
(5.58)
By writing the equation of streamlines

= cons. in the form:

.
2 2
2
0
0
const C y
y x
r
y v
+

(5.59)
62
we notice that the nil streamline (C = 0) is made up of a part of the real
axis (Ox) and the circle of radius
0
r
(fig.5.7).
The other streamlines are
symmetric curves with respect
to axis Ox. Obviously, if we
consider the circle of radius
0
r
, as a solid border, the motion
can be seen as a flow of an axial
stream around an infinitely long
cylinder, normal on the motion
plane.
Fig.5.7
The components of velocity are:
. sin 1
, cos 1
2
2
0
0
2
2
0
0

,
_

,
_

r
r
v v
r
r
v v
S
r
(5.60)
which, on the circle of radius
0
r
, become:
. sin 2
, 0
0
v v
v
S
r

(5.61)
The position of stagnant points is obtained by making
0
S
v v
,
which implies 0 sin . Thus the stagnant points are found on the axis
Ox in the points
( ) ,
0
r A
and
( ) 0 ,
0
r B
.
63
5.6 Kutta Jukovskis theorem
Let us consider a cylindrical body normal on the complex plane,
the outline C being the crossing curve between the cylinder and the
complex plane.
Around this outline there flows a stream, potential plane, having
the complex potential
( ) z W
. The velocity in infinite of the stream,
directed in the negative sense of the axis Ox, is
v
.
In this case the resultant of the pressure forces will have the
components:

. 1
, 0

v R
R
y
x

(5.62)
The forces are given with respect to the unit of length of the body.
The second relation (5.62) is the mathematic expression of Kutta-
Jukovskis theorem, which will be only stated below without
demonstrating it:
If a fluid of density

is draining around a body of circulation

and velocity in infinite
v
, it will act upon the unit of length of the
body with a force equal to the product
v
, normal on the direction
of velocity in infinite called lift force (lift).
The sense of the lift is obtained by rotating the vector of velocity
from infinite with
0
90 in the reverse sense of circulation.
64
6. IMPULSE AND MOMENT IMPULSE
THEOREM
We take into consideration a volume

of fluid. This fluid is

homogeneous, incompressible, of density

, bordered by surface

.
The elementary volume d has the speed v .
The elementary impulse will be:
d v I d
. (6.1)

d v I
. (6.2)

d
dt
v d
dt
I d
. (6.3)
At the same time
i
F
dt
I d
. (6.4)
But:
0 + +
i p m
F F F
(dAlembert principle). (6.5)
Therefore:
e p m
F F F
dt
I d
+ . (6.6)
The total derivative, of the impulse with respect to time, is equal
to the resultant
e
F
of the exterior forces, or
i i e e e
v M v M F , (6.7)
where
e i
M M ,
are the mass flows through entrance/ exit surfaces.
Under permanent flow conditions of ideal fluid, the vectorial
sum of the external forces which act upon the fluid in the volume

, is
65
equal with the impulse flow through the exit surfaces (from the volume

), less the impulse flow through the entrance surfaces (to the volume

) .
r - the position vector of the centre of volume with respect to
origin of the reference system.
The elementary inertia moment with respect to point O (the
origin) is:
( ) d v r
dt
d
d
dt
v d
r M d
i

,
_

, (6.8)
since
( ) .
dt
v d
r
dt
v d
r v v
dt
v d
r v
dt
r d
v r
dt
d
+ + (6.9)
then
( )



d v r
dt
d
M d M
i i . (6.10)
If:
d v I d
the elementary impulse, (6.11)

d v r k d
the moment of elementary impulse, (6.12)

, d v r k
(6.13)
( )
i
M d v r
dt
d
dt
k d

. (6.14)
The derivative of the resultant moment of impulse with respect
to time is equal with the resultant moment of inertia forces with
reversible sign.
66
ex p m
M M M
dt
k d
+ , (6.15)
where
m
M
- the moment of mass forces,
p
M
- the moment pressure forces,
ex
M
- the moment of external forces.
oi oe
r r ,
- the position vector of the centre of gravity for the
exit /entrance surfaces.
( ) ( )
i oi i e oe e ex
v r M v r M M . (6.16)
Under permanent flow conditions of ideal fluids, the vectorial
addition of the moments of external forces which act upon the fluid in the
volume

, is equal to the moment of the impulse flow through the exit

surfaces less the moment of the impulse flow through the entrance
surfaces.
67
7. MOTION EQUATION OF THE REAL
FLUID
7.1 Motion regimes of fluids
The motion of real fluids can be carried out under two regimes of
different quality: laminar and turbulent.
These motion regimes were first emphasised by the English
physicist in mechanics Osborne Reynolds in 1882, who made systematic
experimental studies concerning the flow of water through glass conduits
of diameter mm d 25 5 .
The experimental installation, which was then used, is
schematically shown in fig.7.1.
The transparent conduit 1, with a very accurate processed inlet, is
supplied by tank 2, full of water, at a constant level.
68
Fig.7.1
The flow that passes the transparent conduit can be adjusted by
means of tap 3, and measured with the help of graded pot 6.
In conduit 1, inside the water stream we insert, by means of a thin
tube 4, a coloured liquid of the same density as water. The flow of
coloured liquid, supplied by tank 5 may be adjusted by means of tap 7.
But slightly turning on tap 3, through conduit 1 a stream of water
will pass at a certain flow and velocity.
If we turn on tap 7 as well, the coloured liquid inserted through
the thin tube 4, engages itself in the flow in the shape of a rectilinear
thread, parallel to the walls of conduit, leaving the impression that a
straight line has been drawn inside the transparent conduit 1.
This regime of motion under which the fluid flows in threads that
dont mix is called a laminar regime.
By slowly continuing to turn on tap 3, we can notice that for a
certain flow velocity of water, the thread of liquid begins to undulate, and
for higher velocities it begins to pulsate, which shows that vector velocity
registers variations in time (pulsations).
For even higher velocities, the pulsations of the coloured thread
of water increase their amplitude and, at a certain moment, it will tear,
the particles of coloured liquid mixing with the mass of water that is
flowing through conduit 1.
The regime of motion in which, due to pulsations of velocity, the
particles of fluid mix is called a turbulent regime.
The shift from a laminar regime to the turbulent one, called a
transition regime is characterised by a certain value of Reynolds number
*
, called critical value (
cr
Re
).
69
* Number , is the number that defines the
similarity criterion Reynolds.
For circular smooth conduits, the critical value of Reynolds
number is
2320 Re
cr
.
For values of Reynolds number inferior to the critical value (
cr
Re Re <
), the motion of liquid will be laminar, while for
cr
Re Re >
,
the flow regime will be turbulent.
7.2 Navier Stokes equation
Navier Stokes equation describes the motion of real (viscous)
incompressible fluids in a laminar regime.
Unlike ideal fluids that are capable to develop only unitary
compression efforts that are exclusively due to their pressure, real
(viscous) fluids can develop normal or tangent supplementary viscosity
efforts.
The expression of the tangent viscosity effort, defined by Newton
(see chapter 2) is the following:
y
v

. (7.1)
Newtonian liquids are capable to develop, under a laminar
regime, viscosity efforts

and

, that make-up the so-called tensor of

the viscosity efforts,
v
T
(in fig. 7.2, efforts manifest on an elementary
parallelipipedic volume of fluid with the sides
dz and dy dx,
):
70
1
1
1
]
1

zz yz xz
zy yy xy
zx yx xx
v
T



. (7.2)
The tensor
v
T
is symmetrical:
yz zy xz zx xy yx
; ;
. (7.3)
Fig.7.2
The elementary force of viscosity that is exerted upon the
elementary volume of fluid in the direction of axis Ox is:
( ) ( ) ( )
. dz dy dx
z y x
dy dx dz
z
dy dx dy
y
dz dy dx
x
dF
zx
yx
xx
zx
yx
xx
vx

,
_

(7.4)
71
z
x
y
According to the theory of elasticity:
72
.
;
; 2

,
_

,
_

z
v
x
v
y
v
x
v
x
v
x z
zx
x
y
yx
x
xx



(7.5)
Thus:
.
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
dydz dx
z
v
y
v
x
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
x
z x
v
z
v
y
v
y x
v
x
v
dF
x x x z
y
x
z x x
y
x
vx
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

(7.6)
But
0

z
v
y
v
x
v
z
y
x
, according to the equation of continuity
for liquids.
Then:
dz dy dx v dF
x x

. (7.7)
Similarly:
, dz dy dx v dF
y vy

(7.8)
. dy dy dx v dF
z vz

(7.9)
Hence:
, d v F d
v

(7.10)
73
.

d v F v
(7.11)
Unlike the ideal fluids, in dAlemberts principle the viscosity
force also appears.
. 0 + + +
i v p m
F F F F
(7.12)
Introducing relations (3.3), (3.5), (3.7) and (7.11) into (7.12), we
get:

,
_

0 d
dt
v d
v p F
, (7.13)
or:
dt
v d
v p F +

1
. (7.14)
Relation (7.14) is the vectorial form of Navier-Stokes equation.
The scalar form of this equation is:
.
1
;
1
;
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
z
y
z
x
z z z z z
z
z
y
y
y
x
y y y y y
y
z
x
y
x
x
x x x x x
x
v
z
v
v
y
v
v
x
v
t
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
z
p
F
v
z
v
v
y
v
v
x
v
t
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
y
p
F
v
z
v
v
y
v
v
x
v
t
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
x
p
F

,
_

,
_

,
_

(7.15)
74
7.3 Bernoullis equation under the permanent regime
of a thread of real fluid
Unlike the permanent motion of an ideal fluid, where its specific
energy
*
remains constant along the thread of fluid and where, from one
section to another, there takes place only the conversion of a part from
the potential energy into kinetic energy, or the other way round, in
permanent motion of the real fluid, its specific energy is no longer
constant. It always decreases in the sense of the movement of the fluid.
A part of the fluids energy is converted into thermal energy, is
irreversibly spent to overcome the resistance brought about by its
viscosity.
Denoting this specific energy (load) by f
h
, Bernoullis equation
becomes:
f
h z
p
g
v
z
p
g
v
+ + + + +
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
2 2
. (7.16)
In different points of the same section, only the potential energy
remains constant, the kinetic one is different since the velocity differs in
the section,
( ) z y x v v , ,
. In this case the term of the kinetic energy
should be corrected by a coefficient

, that considers the distribution of

velocities in the section
( ) 1 , 1 05 , 1
.
f
h z
p
g
v
z
p
g
v
+ + + + +
2
2
2
2 2
1
1
2
1 1
2 2

. (7.17)
75
* the weight unit energy
By reporting the loss of load f
h
to the length l of a straight
conduit, we get the hydraulic slope (fig.7.3):
Fig.7.3

l
h
l
z
p
g
v
z
p
g
v
I
f

,
_

+ +

,
_

+ +

2
2
2
2 2
1
1
2
1 1
2 2

. (7.18)
If we refer only to the potential specific energy, we get the
piezometric slope:
l
z
p
z
p
I
p

,
_

,
_

2
2
1
1
. (7.19)
In the case of uniform motion (
ct v
):
l
h
tg I I
f
p
. (7.20)
Experimental researches have revealed that irrespective of the
regime under which the motion of fluid takes place, the losses of load can
be written in the form:
m
f
v b h
, (7.21)
76
where b is a coefficient that considers the nature of the fluid, the
dimensions of the conduit and the state of its wall.
1 m for laminar regime;
2 75 , 1 m
for turbulent regime.
If we logarithm (7.21) we get:
v m b h
f
lg lg lg +
. (7.22)
In fig. 7.4 the load variation f
h
with respect to velocity is
plotted in logarithmic co-ordinates.
Fig.7.4
For the laminar regime
0
45 . The shift to the turbulent regime
is made for a velocity corresponding to
2320 Re
cr
.
77
7.4 Laminar motion of fluids
7.4.1 Velocities distribution between two plane parallel
boards of infinite length (fig.7.5).
To determine the velocity distribution between two plane parallel
boards of infinite length, we shall integrate the equation (7.15) under the
following conditions:
Fig.7.5
a) velocity has only the direction of the axis Ox:
; 0 , 0
z y x
v v v
(7.23)
from the equation of continuity 0 v , it results:
, 0

x
v
x
(7.24)
therefore velocity does not vary along the axis Ox.
78
b) the movement is identically reproduced in planes parallel to
xOz:
0

y
v
x
. (7.25)
From (7.24) and (7.25) it results that
( ) z v v
x x

.
c) the motion is permanent:
0

t
v
x
. (7.26)
d) we leave out the massic forces (the horizontal conduit).
e) the fluid is incompressible.
The first equation (7.15) becomes:
0
1
2
2
+

dz
v d
x
p
x

, (7.27)
Integrating twice (7.27):
( )
2 1
2
2
1
C z C z
x
p
z v
x
+ +

. (7.28)
For the case of fixed boards, we have the conditions at limit:
. 0 ,
; 0 , 0


x
x
v h z
v z
(7.29)
79
Subsequently:
. 0
;
2
1
2
1

C
h
x
p
C

(7.30)
Then the law of velocity distribution will be:
( ) ( ) z h z
x
p
z v
x

2
1
. (7.31)
It is noticed that the velocity distribution is parabolic, having a
maximum for
2
h
z
:
x
p h
v
x

8
2
max
*
. (7.32)
Computing the mean velocity in the section:
( )

h
x
x
p h
dz z v
h
u
0
2
12
1

, (7.33)
well notice that
max
3
2
v u
.
The flow that passes through a section of breadth b will be:
x
p h b
h b v Q

12
3
. (7.34)
80
* is positive, since (the sense of the flow, the positive
sense of axis Ox, corresponds to a decrease in pressure).
7.4.2 Velocity distribution in circular conduits
Lets consider a circular conduit, of radius
0
r
and length l,
through which an incompressible fluid of density

and kinematic
viscosity

(fig.7.6) passes.
We report the conduit to a system of cylindrical co-ordinates (
and r x,
), the axis Ox, being the axis of the conduit. The movement
being carried out on the direction of the axis, the velocity components
will be:
0 , 0

v v v
r x
. (7.35)
The equation of continuity 0 v , written in cylindrical co-
ordinates:
( ) ( )
0
1

1
]
1

x
r v v
r
v r
r
v
x r

, (7.36)
becomes:
0

x
v
x
, (7.37)
where from we infer that the velocity of the fluid doesnt vary on the
length of the conduit.
On the other hand, taking into consideration the axial
symmetrical character of the motion, velocity will neither depend on
variable .
As a result, for a permanent motion, it will only depend on
variable r, that is ( ) r v v .
81
The distribution of velocities in the section of flow can be
obtained by integrating the Navier-Stokes equations (7.14).
Noting by
r
i i, and

i
the versors of the three directions of the
adopted system of cylindrical co-ordinates, we can write vector velocity:
( ) i r v v
x
. (7.38)
Bearing in mind that in cylindrical co-ordinates, operator " "
has the expression:

r
i
r
i
x
i
r
. (7.39)
On the basis of (7.38), we can write:
( ) ( ) 0

x x
v i
x
v v v
, (7.40)
since, as we have seen, velocity
x
v
only depends on variable r.
On the other hand, in cylindrical co-ordinates, the term v may be
rendered in the form:
.
1

,
_

1
]
1

,
_

+
,
_

+
,
_

r
r
v
r r
i
r
x
v
x r
v
r
r
v
r r
i
v i v
x
x x x
x

(7.41)
Keeping in mind the permanent character of the motion, relation
(7.40) and (7.41) the projection of equation (7.14) onto the axis Ox may
be written in the form:
82
x
p
r
r
v
r r
x

,
_

1
, (7.42)
since, on the hypothesis of a horizontal conduit,
0
x x
g F
.
Assuming that the gradient of pressure on the direction of axis Ox
is constant (
. / cons x p
), and integrating the equation (7.42), we
shall successively get:
,
2
1
1
r
C
r
x
p
r
v
x
+

(7.43)
, ln
4
1
2 1
2
C r C r
x
p
v
x
+ +

(7.44)
The integrating constants
1
C
and
2
C
are determined using the
limit conditions:
- in the axis of conduit, at r = 0, velocity should be finite, thus
constant
1
C
should be nil;
- on the wall of conduit, at
0
r r
, velocity of fluid should be
nil; consequently:
2
0 2
4
1
r
x
p
C

, (7.45)
and relation (7.44) becomes:
( )
2 2
0
4
1
r r
x
p
v
x

. (7.46)
From (7.46) we notice that if the motion takes place in the
positive sense of the axis
( ) 0 >
x
v Ox
, then
0 / < x p
; therefore
pressure decreases on the direction of motion if I is the piezometric slope
(equal in this case to the hydraulic slope), we can write:
83
I
l
p
x
p

, (7.47)
where
p
is the fall of pressure on the length l of the conduit.
Subsequently, relation (7.41) becomes:
( )
2 2
0
4
r r
I
v
x

. (7.48)
Fig.7.6
It can be noticed that the distribution of velocities in the section
of flow is parabolic (fig.7.6 a), the maximum velocity being registered in
the axis of conduit (r = 0), therefore we get:
2
0 max
4
1
r
I
v
x

. (7.49)
Let us now consider an elementary surface d A in the shape of a
circular crown of radius r and breadth d r (fig.7.6 b). The elementary
flow that crosses surface d A is:
rdr v dA v dQ
x x
2
, (7.50)
84
and:
( )

0
0
4
0
2 2
0
8 2
r
r
I
dr r r r
I
Q

. (7.51)
The mean velocity has the expression:
2 8
max ,
2
0
x
v
r
I
A
Q
u

. (7.52)
Further on we can write:
g
v
d d g
d v
d g
v
r
v
l
h
I
f
2
1
Re
64
Re
32
32 8
2
2
2
2 2
0

. (7.53)
Relation (7.53) is Hagen-Ppiseuilles law, which gives us the
value of load linear losses in the conduits for the laminar motion:
g
v
d
l
g
v
d
l
h
f
2 2 Re
64
2 2

, (7.54)
Re
64

is the hydraulic resistance coefficient for laminar motion.
7.5 Turbulent motion of fluids
In a point of the turbulent stream, the fluid velocity registered
rapid variation, in one sense or the other, with respect to the mean
velocity in section. The field of velocities has a complex structure, still
unknown, being the object of numerous studies.
The variation of velocity with the time may be plotted as in
fig.7.7.
85
Fig.7.7
A particular case of turbulent motion is the quasipermanent
motion (stationary on average). In this case, velocity, although varies in
time, remains a constant means value.
In the turbulent motion we define the following velocities:
a) instantaneous velocity
( ) t z y x u , , ,
;
b) mean velocity
( ) ( )

T
dt t z y x u
T
z y x u
0
, , ,
1
, ,
; (7.55)
c) pulsation velocity
( ) ( ) ( ) z y x u t z y x u t z y x u , , , , , , , ,
'
. (7.56)
There are several theories that by simplifying describe the
turbulent motion:
a) Theory of mixing length (Prandtl), which admits that the
impulse is kept constant.
b) Theory of whirl transports (Taylor) where the rotor of
velocity is presumed constant.
86
c) Karamans theory of turbulence, which states that, except
for the immediate vicinity of a wall, the mechanism of turbulence is
independent from viscosity.
7.5.1 Coefficient in turbulent motion
Determination of load losses in the turbulent motion is an
important problem in practice.
It had been experimentally established that in turbulent motion
the pressure loss
p
depends on the following factors: mean velocity on
section, v , diameter of conduit, d , density

of the fluid and its

kinematic viscosity

, length l of the conduit and the absolute rugosity

*
of its interior walls; therefore:
( ) , , , , , l d v f p
, (7.57)
or:
d
l v
p
2
2

, (7.58)
d
l
g
v p
h
f
2
2

, (7.59)
r
or
d

- relative rugosity
where:

,
_

d
Re, 2
1

. (7.60)
87
*mean height of the conduit prominence ; -relative rogosity.
As it can be seen from relation (7.60), in turbulent motion the
coefficient of load loss may depend either on Reynolds number or on
the relative rugosity of the conduit walls.
In its turbulent flow through the conduit, the fluid has a turbulent
core, in which the process of mixing is decisive in report to the influence
of viscosity and a laminar sub-layer, situated near the wall, in which the
viscosity forces have a decisive role.
If we note by
l

the thickness of the laminar sub-layer, then we

can classify conduits as follows:
- conduits with smooth walls;
l
<
;
- conduits with rugous walls;
l
>
.
From (7.60) we notice that, unlike the laminar motion in turbulent
motion is a complex function of Re and
d

.
It has been experimentally established that in the case of
hydraulic smooth conduits, coefficient depends only on Reynolds
number. Thus, Blasius, by processing the existent experimental material
(in 1911), established for the smooth hydraulic conduits of circular
section, the following empirical formula:
25 , 0
4 / 1
Re
3164 , 0
3164 , 0
,
_

d v
, (7.61)
valid for
5
10 Re 000 , 4 < <
.
Using Blasius relation in (7.59) we notice that under this motion
regime the load losses are proportional to velocity to 1,75
th
power.
Also for smooth conduits, but for higher Reynolds numbers
( )
7
10 Re 000 , 3 < < we can use Konakovs relation:
( )
2
5 , 1 Re lg 8 , 1

. (7.62)
In turbulent flow through conduits, coefficient no longer
depends on Reynolds number, and it can be determined with the help of
Prandtl Nikuradses relation:
88
2
0
74 , 1 lg 2

,
_

r
. (7.63)
Some of the most important formulae for the calculus of
coefficient are given in table 7.1, the validity field of each relation
being also shown [7].
Table 7.1
No.
a
I
Relation Regime Field
I III IV V
1 Poisseuill
e
Re
64

Laminar
2320 Re <
2 Prandtl
( )
2
8 , 0 Re lg 2


Smooth
turbulent
7
10 Re
000 , 3 Re
<
>
3 Blasius
25 , 0
Re 3164 , 0


5
10 Re
000 , 4 Re
<
>
4 Konakov
( )
2
5 , 1 Re lg 8 , 1


7
10 Re
000 , 3 Re
<
>
5 Nikuradze
237 , 0
Re 221 , 0 0032 , 0

+
6
5
10 2 Re
10 Re
<
>
6
Lees
35 , 0 3
Re 61 , 0 10 714 , 0

+
6
3
10 3 Re
10 Re
<
>
7 Colebrook
-White
Re
51 , 2
72 , 3
lg 2
1
+

d
Demi-
rugous
Universal
8 Prandtl-
Nikurdze
2
0
74 , 1 lg 2

,
_

Turbulent
rugous
8 5
10 Re 10 < <
9 Sifrinson
25 , 0
11 , 0
,
_

500 Re >

d
89
II
Auth
or
7.5.2 Nikuradzes diagram
On the basis of experiments made with conduits of homogeneous
different rugosity, which was achieved by sticking on the interior wall
some grains of sand of the same diameter, Nikuradze has made up a
diagram that represents the way coefficient varies, both for laminar
and turbulent fields (fig.7.8).
Fig.7.8
We can notice that in the diagram appear five areas in which
variation of coefficient , distinctly differs.
Area I is a straight line which represents in logarithmic co-
ordinates the variation:
Re
64

, (7.64)
90
corresponding to the laminar regime
( ) 2320 Re <
. On this line all the
doted curves are superposed, which represents variation
( ) Re f
for
different relative rugosities
0
/ r
.
Area II is the shift from laminar regime to the turbulent one
which takes place for
( ) 2300 Re 4 , 3 Re lg
.
Area III corresponds to the smooth hydraulic conduits. In this
area coefficient can be determined with the help of Blasius relation
(7.61), to which the straight line III a corresponds, called Blasius
straight. Since the validity field of relation (7.61) is limited by
5
10 Re ,
for higher values of Reynolds number, we use Konakovs formula, to
which curve III b corresponds. It is noticed that the smaller the relative
rugosity is, the greater the variation field of Reynolds number, in which
the smooth turbulent regime is maintained.
In area IV each discontinuous curve, which represents dependent
( ) Re f
for different relative rugosities becomes horizontal, which
emphasises the independence of on number Re . Therefore this area
corresponds to the rugous turbulent regime, where is determined by
(7.63).
It is noticed that in this case the losses of load (7.59) are
proportional to square velocity.
For this reason the rugous turbulent regime is also called square
regime.
Area V is characterised by the dependence of the coefficient both
on Reynolds number and on the relative rugosity of the conduit.
It can be noticed that for areas IV and V, coefficient decreases
with the decrease of relative rugosity.
91
8. FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR
CONDUITS
In this chapter we shall present the hydraulic calculus of conduits
under pressure in a permanent regime.
Conduits under pressure are in fact a hydraulic system designed
to transport fluids between two points with different energetic loads.
Conduits can be simple (made up of one or several sections of the
same diameter or different diameters), or with branches, in this case,
setting up networks of distribution.
By the manner in which the out coming of the fluid from the
conduit is made, we distinguish between conduits with a free outcome,
which discharge the fluid in the atmosphere (fig.8.1 a) and conduits with
chocked out coming (fig. 8.1 b).
Fig.8.1a, b
92
If we write Bernoullis equation for a stream of real liquid,
between the free side of the liquid from the tank A and the end of the
conduit, taking as a reference plane the horizontal plane N N, we get:
f
h z
p
g
v
z
p
g
v
+ + + + +
2
2
2
2 2
1
1
2
1 1
2 2

, (8.1)
which, for the case presented in fig.8.1 a, when
0
1
v
,
0 2 1
p p p
,
1
2 1

,
h z z +
2 1
, becomes:
f
h
g
v
h +
2
2
, (8.2)
where
2
v v
is the mean velocity in the section of the conduit , and h is
the load of the conduit.
In the analyzed case shown in fig. 8.1 b, by introducing in
equation (8.1) the relations
1 0 2 2 1 1 2 0 1 1
, , , , 0 h p p z h h z v v p p v + + +
and
1
2 1

, we shall get the expression (8.2).
From an energetic point of view, this relation shows that from the
available specific potential energy (h), a part is transformed into specific
kinetic energy ( g v 2 /
2
) of the stream of fluid, which for the given
conduit is lost at the outcoming in the atmosphere or in another volume.
The other part
( )
f
h
is used to overcome the hydraulic resistances (that
arise due to the tangent efforts developed by the fluid in motion) and is
lost because it is irreversibly transformed into heat.
Analysing the losses of load from the conduit we shall divide
them into two categories, writing the relation:
93
' ' '
f f f
h h h +
. (8.3)
The losses of load, denoted by f h
'
are brought about by the
tangent efforts that are developed during the motion of the fluid along the
length of the conduit ( l) and, for this reason, they are called losses of
load distributed. These losses of load have been determined in paragraph
7.4.2, getting the relation (7.54) which we may write in the form:
d
l
g
v
h f
2
2
'

, (8.4)
where the coefficient of losses of load, , called Darcy coefficient is
determined by the relations shown in table 7.1 ; the manner of calculus
being also shown in that paragraph. Generally, in practical cases, the
values of coefficient vary in a domain that ranges between
04 , 0 02 , 0
.
Being proportional to the length of the conduit, the distributed
losses of load are also called linear losses.
The second category of losses of load is represented by the local
losses of load that are brought about by: local perturbation of the normal
flow, the detachment of the stream from the wall, whirl setting up,
intensifying of the turbulent mixture, etc; and arise in the area where the
conduit configuration is modified or at the meeting an obstacle detouring
(inlet of the fluid in the conduit, flaring, contraction, bending and
derivation of the stream, etc.).
The local losses of load are calculated with the help of a general
formula, given by Weissbach:
g
v
h
f
2
2
' '

, (8.5)
where

is the local loss of load coefficient that is determined for each

local resistance (bends, valves, narrowing or enlargements of the flow
section etc.).
94
Generally, coefficient

depends mainly on the geometric

parameters of the considered element, as well as on some factors that
characterise the motion, such as: the velocities distribution at the inlet of
the fluid in the examined element, the flow regime, Reynolds number
etc.
In practice, coefficient

is determined with respect to the type

of the respective local resistance, using tables, monograms or empirical
relations that are found in hydraulic books. Therefore, for curved bends
of angle
0
90 , coefficient

can be determined by using the relation:

0
0
5 , 3
5 , 3
90
16 , 0 13 , 0

,
_

+
d
, (8.6)
where
and d
are the diameter and curvature radius of the bend,
respectively.
Coefficient

, corresponding to the loss of load at the inlet in

their conduit, depends mainly on the wall thickness of the conduit with
respect to its diameter and on the way the conduit is attached to the tank.
If the conduit is embedded at the level of the inferior wall of the tank, the
losses of load that arise at the inlet in the conduit are equivalent with the
losses of load in an exterior cylindrical nipple. For this case,
5 . 0
.
If on the route of the conduit there are several local resistances,
the total loss of fluid will be given by the arithmetic sum of the losses of
load corresponding to each local resistance in turn, namely:

g
v
h
f
2
2
' '

, (8.7)
Using relations (8.4) and (8.7), we get the total loss of load of the
conduit:
g
v
d
l
h
f
2
2

,
_

+


, (8.8)
95
that allows us to write relation (8.2) in the form:
g
v
d
l
h
2
1
2

,
_

+ +


, (8.9)
where from the mean velocity in the flow section will result:

+ +

d
l
h g
v
1
2
. (8.10)
The flow of the conduit is determined by:

+ +



d
l
h g d
v
d
Q
1
2
4 4
2 2
, (8.11)
which allows us to express the load of the conduit, h, and diameter, d,
with respect to flow Q; we get:

,
_

+ +


d
l
d
Q
g
h 1
8
4
2
2
, (8.12)
and respectively:

( )

+ +

d l d
h
Q
g
d
2
2
5
8
. (8.13)
Sometimes in the calculus of enough long conduits, the kinetic
term ( ) g v 2 /
2
and the local losses of load are negligible with respect to
the linear losses of load.
In the case of such conduits, called long conduits, relation (8.2)
takes the form:
d
l
g
v
h h
f
2
2
'

, (8.14)
96
and relations (8.10), (8.11), (8.12) and (8.13) become:
l
gdh
v

, (8.15)
l
gdh d
Q

2
4
2

, (8.16)
l
d
Q
g
h

5
2
2
8

, (8.17)
and, respectively:
l
h
Q
g
d

2
2
5
8

. (8.18)
With the help of the above written relations all problems
concerning the computation of conduits under pressure can be solved.
Generally, these problems are divided into three categories:
a) to determine the load of the conduit, when length, rugosity,
flow and rugosity of interior walls of the conduit are known;
b) to determine the optimal diameters when flow, length,
rugosity of the walls of conduit as well as the admitted load are
known;
c) to determine the flow of liquid conveyed through the conduit
when diameter, length, nature of the wall of conduit and its load
are known.
97
9. HYDRODYNAMIC PROFILES
9.1 Geometric characteristics of hydrodynamic profiles
A hydrodynamic profile is a contour with an elongated shape with
respect to the direction of stream, rounded at the front edge-called
leading edge-and having a peak at the back edge, called trailing edge.
In what follows we shall stress on
some of the elements, which
characterise the profile.
a) The chord of the profile is
defined as the straight line which
joins the trailing edge A, with the
point B, in which the circle
Fig.9.1
with the centre in A is tangent to the leading edge; the length of the
chord will be noted by c (fig.9.1).
b) The thickness of the profile is measured on the normal to the chord
and is noted by e. This thickness varies along the chord and reaches a
maximum in a section which is called section of maximum thickness,
situated at the distance
m
l
to the leading edge.
c) Relative thickness,

, and maximum relative thickness,

m

, are
defined by the relations:
c
e
and
c
e
m
m
. (9.1)
98
d) The framework of a profile, or the line of mean curvature, is the
curve that joins the mean thickness points. The shape of the
framework is an important geometric parameter and is linked to the
curvature motion of the profile.
From this point of view, profiles can be with simple curvature
(fig.9.1) or with double curvature (9.2).
e) The arrow of the profile, f, is the maximum distance, measured on the
normal to the chord, between the framework and the chord of the
profile.
f) The extrados and intrados of the
profile represent the upper and lower
part of the profile, respectively.
By the geometric shape of the
trailing edge, which plays an important
part in the theory of profiles, we may
distinguish among three categories of
profiles:
Fig.9.2
- Jukovski profiles, profiles with a sharp edge, for which the
tangents to the trailing edge at extrados and intrados
superpose (fig.9.3 a)
- Karman-Trefftz profiles, or profiles with a dihedral tip, for
which the
tangents to the extrados and the intrados make an angle in
the
trailing edge (fig.9.3 b),
- Carafoli profiles, or profiles with the rounded tip, for which the
trailing
edge ends in a rounded contour, with a small curvature radius.
(fig.9.3c).
99
It is generally studied the plane
potential motion around the
hydrodynamic profile, considered as the
intersection of the complex plane of
motion with a cylindrical object (called
wing), normal on this plane and having
an infinite length (called span).
In reality, wings have a finite span
and, from a geometrical point of view,
they are characterised by the section of
the wing, which, generally, alters
Fig.9.3 a, b, c
the length of the wing and the shape of the wing in plane.
By the shape of the wing in plane, there are: rectangular wings
(fig.9.4), trapezoidal wings (9.4 b), elliptical (9.4 c), and triangular wings
(9.4 d).
Fig.9.4 a, b, c, d
An important parameter of the wing is the relative elongation
defined by the relation:
S
l
2
, (9.2)
where l and S represent the span and the surface of the wing,
respectively.
100
In the particular case of rectangular wing, the length of the chord
is constant
0
c c
and relation (9.2) becomes:
0
/ c l
,
since:
0
c l S
.
We can classify wings by their elongation ; into:
- wings of infinite span, when 6 > ;
- wings of finite span, when 6 < .
9.2 The flow of fluids around wings
Kutta-Jukovskis relation (5.62) can be applied to any solid body
in relative displacement with respect to a fluid.
It indicates that whenever there is a circulation around a body,
there arises a lift force y
R
, whose value is determined, under the same
circumstances of environment (
v and
), by the intensity of
circulation.
To get a higher circulation around bodies, we can act in two
ways:
- for geometrical symmetric bodies: they are asymmetrically
placed with respect to
v
direction or a rotational motion is
induced (an infinitely long cylinder, sphere-Magnus effect).
- for asymmetrical bodies: study of shapes more proper to
circulation.
On the basis of many theoretical and experimental studies, we
have come to designing wings with a high lift, called hydrodynamic
profiles.
101
Fig.9.5
In fig.9.5, the arising of circulation around the hydrodynamic
profile, alters the spectre of lines of rectilinear stream, of velocity
v
as
follows: on the extrados the sense of circulations coincides with that of
motion and is seen as a supplement of velocity v , and on the intrados
velocity is decreased with v .
According to Bernoullis law, the velocities asymmetry brings
about the static pressures asymmetry (high pressure on the intrados, low
pressure on the extrados) as well as the arising of lift force.
Applying Bernoullis relation between a point at and a point
on the profile, we get:
2 2
2 2
S
S
v
p
v
p

+ +

. (9.3)
The pressure coefficient is defined by the relation:
2
2
2
1
2

v
v
v
p p
C
S S
p

. (9.4)
102
In fig. 9.6 it is shown the distribution of pressure and of the
pressure coefficient on a hydrodynamic profile at a certain angle of
incidence,
*
.
Fig.9.6
The alteration of the incidence angle leads to the shift in the
pressures distribution.
* The angle between and the chord of the profile.
103
9.3 Forces on the hydrodynamic profiles
The forces which act upon hydrodynamic or aerodynamic
profiles: lift, shape resistance, friction force or the force due to the
detachment of the limit layer give a resultant R which decomposes by
the direction of velocity in infinite and by a direction which is
perpendicular on it (fig.9.7). Component
x
R
is called resistance at
advancement, and component y
R
, lift force.
They are usually written in the form:
.
2
;
2
2
2
S
v
C R
S
v
C R
y y
x x

(9.5)
where
x
C
is called the coefficient of resistance at advancement, and
y
C
the lift coefficient (
l c S
for profiles of constant chord).
Fig.9.7
104
Force R can also decompose by the direction of chord
(component
t
R
) and by a direction perpendicular on the chord
(component
n
R
).
These components may also be expressed with the help of
coefficients:
t
C
- the coefficient of tangent force and
n
C
- the coefficient of normal
force.
For a certain angle
s ,
is the distance between the leading edge
and the pressure centre (the application point of hydrodynamic force).
The relation expresses the moment of the force R with respect to
the leading edge:
sin cos s R s R s R M
x y n
+
. (9.7)
Also, moment M can be expressed by an analytic form similar to
that used for the components of hydrodynamic force:
S
v
c C M
m
2
2

. (9.8)
Using (9.5), (9.7), and (9.8), we get:
sin cos
x y
m
C C
C
c
s
+

. (9.9)
In the case of small incidence angles:
y
m
C
C
c
s

. (9.10)
The usage of coefficients
x
C
, y
C
and
n
C
is often met in
actual practice. Their variation is studied in different conditions and
given in the form of tables and graphics of great importance for the
calculus and design of systems, which deal with profiles.
Coefficients
x
C
, y
C
and
n
C
depend on the following main
elements:
105
- the shape of the profile;
- the span of the profile (finite or infinite, finite of small span or
great span);
- the type of the flow (Reynolds number);
- rugosity of surfaces;
- the angle of incidence.
For each shape of profile, at certain different relative elongation,
, (see paragraph 9.1), in the case of certain flow velocities (numbers
Re variable), there are diagrams experimentally established
( ) ( ) ( )
m y x
C and C C ,
.
Fig.9.8
In fig. 9.8 there are plotted the diagrams of coefficients for
resistance at advancement and for lift force for a NACA 6412 profile, of
relative elongation 3, at a number Re = 85,000.
Another type of diagram often used is the polar profile, namely
the function
( )
x y
C C
at different slanting angles (fig.9.9). The polar
allows us to define two characteristics of the profile:
- the floating or gliding coefficient:
y
x
C
C
tg
, (9.11)
106
- aerodynamic accuracy:
x
y
C
C
f

1
. (9.12)
Fig.9.9
9.4 Induced resistance in the case of finite span profiles
For wings of great span, considered infinite l , the motion
around the profile is plane. Circulation may be replaced by a whirl.
In reality, at the tips
of the wing, because of
the difference in
pressure, there arises a
107
motion of fluid from
intrados to extrados
(9.10). The greater the
weight of this motion,
the smaller the wing
span is.
Fig. 9.10
As a consequence,
circulation is no
longer constant; at the
tips there is a
minimum. (fig.9.11).
This leads to an
alteration of
hydrodynamic
parameters, through the
arising of the so-called
induced resistance.
Fig.9.11
In fig.9.12 the scheme of hydrodynamic forces for the wing of
finite span is plotted.
Due to the arising of an induced velocity
i
v
, created by the free
whirl, perpendicular on the velocity in infinite

v
, the resultant velocity
becomes:
i v v v +
. (9.13)
108
Fig.9.12
As a consequence there will appear an induced incidence angle
i

, which thus decreases the incidence angle

.
The alteration of direction and value of velocity bring about the
corresponding alteration of lift, which, as we have already shown, is
perpendicular on the direction of stream velocity.
If y R is the lift of the infinite profile and F is the lift under the
circumstances of an induced velocity (perpendicular on the direction of
velocity v ), then:
. cos
; sin
i y
i i
F R
F R

(9.14)
In the conditions of very small values of
i

, we may assume that

F R
y

, namely lift does not alter.
Component
i
R
acting on the direction Ox is called induced
resistance and may be written in the form:
S
v
C R
xi i
2
2

. (9.15)
The total resistance of the wing of infinite span is the sum
between the resistance of wing of infinite span
x
R
and the induced
resistance
i
R
.
109
9.5 Network profiles
Several profiles that are in the stream of fluid are in reciprocal
influence, behaving in a different manner within the assembly, rather
than solitary. Networks of profiles are often met in practice in the
hydraulic or pneumatic units, propellers, etc.
To study the behavior of profiles in network, let us consider a
system made up of several identical profiles, of span l and control
contour ABCD (fig.9.13). The pitch of the network is t.
Fig.9.13
Velocities v in points 1 and 2 have the components
x
v
and y
v
,
according to the system of axes shown in the figure. Assuming that the
density of fluid doesnt alter in a significant way when passing through
the network,
2 1

, then
2 1
x x
v v
.
Indeed, applying the equation of continuity:
l t v l t v m
x x
2 1
.

, (9.16)
it results
x x x
v v v
2 1
.
110
We have denoted by m the massic flow. Applying the theorem of
impulse, we get component y
R
of the lift force in the network:
( ) ( )
2 1 2 1
.
y y x y y y
v v l t v v v m R
. (9.17)
The circulation of velocity on the control contour will be:

+ + +
ABCD
C
B
D
C
A
D
y
B
A
y ds v ds v ds v ds v ds v
2 1 . (9.18)
The integrals on the segments of contour BC and AD cancel
reciprocally. There only remains:
( ) t v v ds v ds v
D
C
y y y
B
A
y


2 1 2 1
. (9.19)
Therefore:
t
v v
y y


2 1
. (9.20)
Replacing (9.20) into (9.17), we get:
l v R
x y

. (9.21)
The axial component
x
R
is due to the difference of pressure:
( ) t l p p R
x 2 1

. (9.22)
Applying Bernoullis equation between the points 1 and 2, we get:
2 2
2
2
2
2
1
1
v
p
v
p

+ + , (9.23)
or else:
111
( ) ( )
2 2 2
1 2 2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2 2 1
y y
y y
v v
t
v v v v p p
+

. (9.24)
Replacing (9.24) into (9.22). we get:

+
l
v v
R
y y
x
2
1 2
. (9.25)
The resultant force will be:
( )
t l
v
C
v v
v l R R R
r
y y
x y x r
2 4
2
2
2 2 2 2 1

+
+ +
. (9.26)
In relation (9.26) we have denoted by
r
C
the coefficient of the
network and by
v
the mean velocity in the network (fig.9.14).
( )
4
2
2 2 1
y y
x
v v
v v
+
+

. (9.24)
Fig.9.14
The lift force is perpendicular on
v
. Coefficient
r
C
is
different from the hydro-aerodynamic coefficient corresponding to a
separate profile.
10. WAVE THEORY
112
10.1 Basic equations
Waves are the free surface movements produce by:
- wind;
- Moon attraction;
- earthquakes;
- movements of bodies on the water or nearby;
- movements of frontiers.
Hypothesis: potential movement; unsteady; real liquid.
v

Integrating Euler equation, well have:
( )

,
_

+ +
t
v
P U
2
2
,
(10.1)
( ) t C
t
v
P U

+ + +

2
2
, Lagrange equation. (10.2)
0
2
2

+ + +
t
v p
gz

.
(10.3)
The water surface is at atmospheric pressure, .
In the case of fixed frontiers, we have:
0

or
n
v
n

for mobile frontiers.

10.2 Traveling waves planes, with small amplitude
Supplementary hypothesis:
The wave amplitude much more small then his wavelenght.
113
In this situation the Laplace equation has a solution like this:
( ) ( ) t kx z f cos
,
where
( )
kz
Ae z f ( ) t kx Ae
kz
cos . (10.4)

( )
( ). cos
, sin
t kx Ake
z
v
t kx Ake
x
v
kz
z
kz
x

(10.5)
The modulus of total speed will be: .
2 2 kz
z x
Ake v v v +
In the same time:
. ;
dt
dz
v
dt
dx
v
z x


(10.6)
At time t the particule will be in the point M(x,z), and at the time
1
t
in
the point ( ). ,
1 1 1
z x M
.
;
1
1
1
1

t
t
z
t
t
x
dt v z z
dt v x x

(10.7)
( )
( ). sin
; cos
1 1
1 1
1
1
t kx e
k
A z z
t kx e
k
A x x
kz
kz

(10.8)
From upper relations results that the wave curves are circles with center
in the point (
1
x ,
1
z ), having radius
1
kz
e
k
A

, decreasing with the depth

(Fig. 10.1). The wave amplitude is made by the relation:
.
0

Ak
a
(10.9)
The wave height (Fig. 10.1):
. 2
0
a h
(10.10)
114

Fig. 10.1
In equation (10.3) we neglect the term containing
2
v . The
velocity is consider small enough. Limite condition
0
p p
allow us to
introduce the term

0
p
in
t

.
It results:
2
2
1
, 0
t g t
z
sau gz
t

. (10.11)
The vertical velocity of wave has the expression:
t
z
y
z
v
x
z
v
t
z
dt
dz
z
v
y z z

. (10.12)
We presumed the amplitude of wave much more small then his
wavelenght
. 0 , 0

,
_

y
z
x
z

It results:
2
2
1
t g z

(10.13)
and
kg
2

. (10.14)
The relation (10.11) allow us to establish the surface wave
equation:
115
( ) ( ), sin sin
0
t kx a t kx
g
A
z

(10.15)
the wavelenght being:
.
2
k

(10.16)

represent the angular velocity of the particle in his circular

trajectory.

2
T
is the period of the movement..
(10.17)
Along Ox axis, the apparent propagation velocity of wave is:
.
2 k
c

(10.18)
c is called apparent velocity. This is the provenience of traveling
wave.
We chose a potential movement for which
( ) t kx a z sin
0
is a
current line.
The chosen complex potential is:
( )
( )
. ,
0
iz x y ce a y W
t ky i
+

(10.19)
In a mobil axis system
O
which has a velocity c, in respect
with fixed system 0xz, the mivement become steady (Fig. 10.2).
Fig. 10.2

116
The relations between the two systems will be:
.
;

+
z
ct x
(10.20)
10.3. Groups of waves
Let s consider two traveling waves, with equal amplitudes and
near periods:
( )
( ) ( ) [ ]. sin
sin
2
1
t x k k a z
t kx a z

+ +

(10.21)
Superposing the effects, it results:

( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
( ) ( )
( ). sin
2
cos 2
2
cos
2
1
sin 2
sin sin
t kx
t k x
a
t k x
t k x t kx a
t x k k a t kx a z

1
]
1

+
+ + +
(10.22)
The resulting wave is a traveling wave with variable amplitude:
.
2
cos 2
1
t k x
a a

(10.23)
The variable amplitude can be consider a traveling wave with
apparent velocity
1
c
:
k
c

1
or, at limite:
( )

d
dc
c
dk
kdc cdk
dk
kc d
dk
d
c

1
. (10.24)
Lets now consider the general case of many waves, with
different amplitudes, different wavelenght, but very near as value, and
dephsed (
n

- different dephases). This waves superpose. It results::

( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]

+ + + +
n
n n n n
t x k k a t kx a z
1
. sin sin
(10.25)
10.4. The stationary wave
117
The stationar wave is a particular case of wave composition. The
two composed waves have the same characterstics, but going in the
contrary sens. Practicaly, a stationary wave is obtain when traveling
wave beat a vertical wall, the reflected wave superposing the initial wave.
( )
( ) t kx
a
z
t kx
a
z

+

sin
2
sin
2
2
1
(10.26)
The resulting wave has the equation:
t kx a z cos sin (10.27)
10.5 Waves in liquid with finite depth (Fig. 10.3)
Limite conditions for a traveling wave in liquid with finite depth
are:
. 0 ;

z
v h z
z

h = the liquid depth. (10.28)
The Laplace equation is satified by a solution on the form (10.4)
where:
( ) ( ) ( ). cos ,
1 1 1 1
t kx e B e A deci e B e A z f
kz kz kz kz
+ +


(10.29)
118
Fig. 10.3
Puting the limite conditions (10.13) on the surface and (10.28)
on the bottom, we obtain the system:
0
0
1 1
2
1
2
1

,
_

,
_

kh kh
e B e A
g
k B
g
k A

(10.30)
The system (10.30) is homogenous and admits the non null
solution if 0 :
( ) ( ).
0
2
2 2
kh kh kh kh
kh kh
e e k e e
g
or
g
k e
g
k e

,
_

,
_

(10.31)
Hence:

( ).
2
kh th
kg

(10.32)
119
From the relations (10.18) and (10.32), will have:
( ) .
2
2
2

h
th
g
kh th
k
g
c
(10.33)
Solution (10.29) become:
( ) ( ) t kx z k Achk + cos
, (10.34)
and the free surface will have a similar expression with the equation of
the traveling wave with small amplitude:
( ), sin
2
t kx a z (10.35)
where:

( ) kh ch
g
A
a
2
2


(10.36)

is the wave amplitude and
. 2
1
kh
e A A

(10.37)
The curve of liquid particle is now ellipses.
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1978.
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