Edward Tolman (1886-1957) i-a desfurat ntreaga activitate la Universitatea Berkeley din California.

Tolman dezvolt un behaviorism cognitiv, focalizat pe o observaie obiectiv, pe comportamente globale proprii activitii de zi cu zi. Tot el i-a denumit sistemul ca un behaviorism intenional, urmrind finalitatea comportamentului. Termenul de cognitiv se refer la abiliti precum capacitatea de discriminare, simul locaiei i al cauzalitii precum i capacitatea de a dezvolta expectane (ateptri). Alturi de ceilali neobehavioriti Tolman introduce conceptul de variabil intermediar care se interpune ntre stimulii din mediu i rspunsurile observabile. n categoria variabilelor intermediare include cogniiile, expectaiile, scopurile, ipotezele i dorinele. De exemplu, o expectaie se dezvolt atunci cnd o recompens este dat dup fiecare rspuns corect. Astfel oamenii dezvolt expectaii de fiecare dat cnd se stabilesc relaii ntre rspunsuri si stimuli din mediu. Contribuia remarcabil a lui Tolman, care face apropierea de viitorul curent cognitivist n psihologie l constituie termenul de hart mental. n experimentul su utilizeaz dou grupuri de cobai: primul grup primete recompensa dup fiecare parcurgere reuit a labirintului; al doilea grup nu a primit recompensa i a fost lsat s parcurg labirintul la ntmplare. n ziua a unsprezecea cobaii din grupul doi au nceput s primeasc recompensa. Se constat c timpul de rezolvare i numrul de erori au sczut ntr-o manier impresionant. Concluzia lui Tolman este c aceti cobai nva relaiile spaiale i dezvolt aa numite hri mentale ale labirintului, astfel ntrirea influeneaz motivaia i performana dar nvarea n sine este un proces independent. Tolman consider c oamenii se confrunt cu astfel de hri mentale n viaa cotidian i amintete labirinturile complicate pe care un elev trebuie s le parcurg pentru a ajunge dintr-un loc n altul l colii sau al casei. Oamenii dezvolt hri mentale care includ un sens al locaiei i un sens al aranjamentului cotextual incluznd multe ci posibile care conexeaz diferite locaii. Ne construim o reprezentare a lumii n care trim i muncim; nu ne micm ntr-o manier mecanic, ci ntr-una flexibil, urmrind o cale, apoi alta .a.m.d. Tolman dorete s sublinieze c nvarea nu implic doar conexiuni stimuli rspuns, ci i conexiuni specifice hrilor mentale complexe.
William McDougall (June 22, 1871 November 28, 1938) was a British-born, American psychologist who pioneered work in human instinctual behavior and the development of social psychology. McDougall believed human behavior to be based on three facultiesintellect, emotion, and willwhich were under instinctual control. His belief that human beings consisted of both body and mind, and his investigation of the human soul and paranormalphenomena directly opposed the behaviorist approach that was dominant in American psychology during his time. He rejected behaviorism, publicly debating John B. Watson. causing his own reputation to suffer. McDougall's belief in eugenics was equally unpopular in the West. Yet, His desire was to advance a better human society by maximizing human potential on all levels. While he did not succeed, his efforts provided a strong foundation for others to research in ethology, parapsychology, and social psychology, thus contributing to the advancement of knowledge and ultimately toward the achievement of full human potential.

Life
McDougall was born on June 22, 1871 in Lancashire, England, as the second son of Isaac Shimwell McDougall and Rebekah Smalley, wealthy Scotish industrialists. He was educated in private schools, first in England and then in Weimar, Germany. Despite his fathers desire for him to become a lawyer, McDougall wanted to pursue studies in the natural sciences. With the support and encouragement of his mother, at the age of 15 McDougall entered the university in Manchester, where he earned degrees in biology and geology. After receiving a scholarship, he went on to study at Cambridge University, graduating in 1894 with a degree in natural sciences.

It was at Cambridge that McDougall became interested in human behavior, and where he realized that he needed a medical degree in order to pursue his interests. With yet another scholarship he earned his medical degree in 1898, specializing in physiology and neurology. About the same time he became familiar with the work of William James, which was in line with his own interests, and he decided to focus on a career in psychology. In 1898, McDougall became a fellow at Cambridge, studying the mind-body problem. In 1899, he participated in a field trip to New Guinea, publishing his The Pagan Tribes of Borneo in 1912. In 1900, he married Annie Hickmore, with whom he had five children. The couple lived at first in Gttingen, Germany, where McDougall studied experimental psychology under G.E. Muller. They then moved back to London, where McDougall started work as a lecturer at the University College. In 1901, McDougall began a collaboration with Francis Galton and Charles Spearman on mental testing and eugenics. He co-founded the British Psychological Society and the British Journal of Psychology in 1901. In 1904, he accepted a post in Mental Philosophy at Oxford University, where he stayed until 1920. He was the first experimental psychologist at Oxford. His famous Introduction to Social Psychology, in which he introduced his theory ofinstincts, was published in 1908. With this work McDougall became internationally famous, recognized as a scholar far beyond the circles of British academia. McDougall had undergone psychoanalysis with Carl Jung, and in 1911 he shifted his interest toward research in paranormal psychology. The same year he published his Body and Mind, where he argued for the scientific existence of the soul. When World War I broke out in 1914, McDougall joined the French army as an ambulance driver. He later became a major in the British army, in 1915, and worked with the victims of the PTSD. This experience led McDougall to shift his interest to abnormal psychology, spending the next several years in research in that field. His Outline of Abnormal Psychology was published in 1926. After the war, he served as a president of the Psychiatric Section of the Royal Society of Medicine in 1918, and the president of the British Society for Psychical Research in 1920. In early 1920s, McDougall was invited by William James to Harvard University, where he served as a professor of psychology from 1920 to 1927. However, he was not well received in the United States, especially due to his criticism of behaviorism and his support of eugenics. McDougall and John B. Watson held a long, public debate, which was published in 1928 in the book The Battle of Behaviorism. At the same time he continued to do research on psychic phenomena, and served as the president of the American Society for Psychical Research. McDougall moved to Duke University in 1927, where he remained until his death. He established the Parapsychology Laboratory there, and edited the Journal of Parapsychology. His interests continued to widen, and he published books on a variety of topicsfrom criticism of psychoanalysis and Gestalt psychology to books on social issues and world peace. In 1927, McDougall dedicated his book Character and the Conduct of Life to his wife, writing: "To my wife, to whose intuitive insight I owe whatever understanding of human nature I have acquired." McDougall died from cancer in Durham, North Carolina, in 1938.

Work
McDougall wrote a number of highly influential textbooks, particularly in the area of theory of instinct, social psychology, and parapsychology. He was an opponent of behaviorism, stressing that psychology needs to be holistic, taking into account different factors that influence human behavior.

Views on eugenics
McDougall's interest in eugenics started with his work with Galton and Spearman. His view on eugenics, however, departed from Darwinian orthodoxy in maintaining the possibility of the inheritance of acquired characteristics, as suggested by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. McDougall believed that inheritance played an important role in human behavior. He wrote: Biology and anthropology have now shown the enormous power of heredity in determining individual character and the great persistence of innate qualities through numberless generations. ....the negro race wherever found does present certain specific mental peculiarities roughly definable, especially the happy-go-lucky disposition, the unrestrained emotional violence and responsiveness, whether its representatives are found in tropical Africa, in the jungles of Papua, or in the highly civilized conditions of American cities.

...we can distinguish a race of northerly distribution and origin, characterized physically by fair color of hair and skin and eyes, by tall stature and dolichocephalism (i.e. long shape of head) and mentally by great independence of character, individual initiative, and tenacity of will. ....recently the term Homo Europaeus, first applied by Linnaeus to this type, has come into favor; and perhaps it is the best term to use, since this type seems to be exclusively European. (The Group Mind). While he believed that the different races possessed different characteristics which were inherited, McDougall's views were not so much those of racism, but rather his attempt to find the way to maximize human abilities. Thus, his concept of selective breeding was not specifically along racial lines.

Human instincts
In his famous An Introduction to Social Psychology McDougall argued that all human behavior could be explained through human instincts. Instincts are innate psychophysical dispositions based upon which humans attend to certain objects (cognitive component of behavior), experience emotional excitement when perceiving that object (emotional component), and act toward that object in certain manner (volitional component). In his view, almost all of human behavior is a result of the combination of instincts and its derivatives: habits, attitudes, sentiments, etc. McDougall supported his theory of instincts with his criticism of behaviorism. Unlike behaviorism, claimed McDougall, where behavior is seen as a reflexive response to an external trigger, the theory of instincts sees behavior as internally motivated, by human drives. Behavior thus is purposeful and goal-oriented. However, often that goal remains unknown to us, as human instincts may not be consciously understood. McDougall called his approachpurposive or hormic psychology.

Parapsychology
McDougall was a strong critic not only of Watsonian behaviorism, but also of mechanistic explanations of the universe. He believed that human existence comprises both mind and body, and he spent time in research on the connection between the two. He supported his claims by five theories: 1. the purposive character of behavior 2. the hypothesis of vitalism 3. the soul theory of man 4. Lamarckian inheritance, and 5. the concept of psychic energy. His concept of a "group mind" also reflected his ideas in this area. He researched the principles of telepathy and near-death experiences. His student, J. B. Rhine, continued his research.

Legacy
McDougall was one of the early pioneers in social psychology. His book Social Psychology (1908) was published almost twenty years before social psychology was widely accepted in academia as a part of psychology. McDougall carried out many experiments designed to prove his ideas of instinctual behavior. His views strongly influenced Konrad Lorenz, and other ethologists who established the tradition of rigorous research on animal behavior, which turned into modern behavioral ethology. Even though McDougalls theory of instincts has been superseded by more modern theories of sociobiology, and recently evolutionary psychology, it was one of the first to point to the importance of innate drives in human behavior. Because of his interest in eugenics and his unorthodox stance on evolution, McDougall has been adopted as an iconic figure by proponents of a strong influence of inherited traits on behavior, some of whom are regarded by most mainstream psychologists as scientific racists. While McDougall was certainly an unorthodox figure and always willing to take a minority view, there is no reason to suppose that in the light of modern psychological knowledge and political developments, he would have supported the position taken by such groups. McDougall believed that eugenics could be used for the betterment of society, that is, to create a society that would be free of illnesses, physical or mental deformations, or any form of inferiority. McDougall regarded intelligenceas the highest standard of human existence. In his letter to the Japanese emperor in 1934, he explained his idea and

suggested that Japan could test it in practice. Japan indeed developed certain policies based on eugenic principles, and China and Singapore followed in 1990s.

Edward Thorndike (1874 - 1949) is famous in psychology for his work on learning theory that lead to the development of operant conditioning within behaviorism. Whereas classical conditioning depends on developing associations between events, operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of our behavior . Skinner wasnt the first psychologist to study learning by consequences. Indeed, Skinner's theory of operant conditioning is built on the ideas of Edward Thorndike.

Thorndike (1898)
studied learning in animals (usually cats). He devised a classic experiment in which he used a puzzle box (see fig. 1) to empirically test the laws of learning. He placed a cat in the puzzle box, which was encourage to escape to reach a scrap of fish placed outside. Thorndike would put a cat into the box and time how long it took to escape. The cats experimented with different ways to escape the puzzle box and reach the fish. Eventually they would stumble upon the lever which opened the cage. When it had escaped it was put in again, and once more the time it took to escape was noted. In successive trials the cats would learn that pressing the lever would have favorable consequences and they would adopt this behavior, becoming increasingly quick at pressing the lever (see Fig 1). Edward Thorndike put forward a Law of effect which stated that any behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped.

- See more at: http://www.simplypsychology.org/edward-thorndike.html#sthash.Jya0zF22.dpuf

THORNDIKE, EDWARD LEE 1874-1949 Educational psychologist Scientist of Education Edward Thorndike influenced the development of American public schooling in the first half of the twentieth century as much as any other individual. During the five decades of his active career, he applied scientific theories and techniques to a wide range of educational problems. Thorndike praised scientific policy making, calling it "the only sure foundation for social progress." In education he focused his science methodology on such diverse issues as learning theory, testing, and school efficiency. He was also a writer of enormous output. During his lifetime Thorndike

wrote seventy-eight books and published more than four hundred articles. As a result of his efforts, and the efforts of others taking a similar "scientific" approach, public-school administrators and teachers began applying Thorndike's vision of science in their schools. This new vision was exhibited most dramatically in new attempts to see students as objects to be measured and quantified. Educational Background Born on 31 August 1874 in Williamsburg, Massachusetts, Thorndike moved frequently as a child, the son of a Methodist minister who regularly changed pastorates. Young Edward attended elementary and secondary schools in New England before matriculating at Wesleyan University, where he received a bachelor of arts degree. After studying for two years with William James at Harvard, Thorndike received his Ph.D. from Columbia in 1898 at age twenty-three. His dissertation, Animal Intelligence: An Experimental Study of the Associative Processes in Animals, was immediately considered a landmark study, and Thorndike's career was launched. He taught for a year at Western Reserve University in Cleveland before moving back to New York to take a position at Teachers' College, Columbia. His work there was so highly acclaimed that Thorndike became a tenured professor of educational psychology before reaching the age of thirty. Stimulus-Response Theory As a graduate student at Harvard, Thorndike began the studies of animal learning that led to his theory of connectionism. At the time, his experiments were so controversial that he was refused space on Harvard's campus and had to conduct the experiments in the basement of William James's home in Cambridge. Thorndike's experiments consisted of putting an animal in a "problem box" and then rewarding the animal with a small piece of food if it pressed a lever and escaped. With repetition, the amount of time it took the animal to perform the required task declined. Thorndike called this process learning. Simply stated, Thorndike's theory of learning holds that the application of a given stimulus (S) elicits a response (R). The bond between S and R is "stamped in" by the giving of rewards. Learning, in other words, is enhanced by both repetition and reward. Application to Education Thorndike's work had immediate applications to education. Under his model of learning, the basic teaching method required continuous activity. Student learning occurs, he argued, when students respond correctly to a stimulus and are then rewarded. As he wrote in his dissertation: "The best way with children may often be, in the pompous words of an animal trainer, 'to arrange everything in connection with the trick so that the animal will be compelled by the laws of his own nature to perform it.' " A second important aspect of his theory is the notion that teaching precisely what is to be learned is critically important. Furthermore, according to Thorndike's experiments, transfer of learning from one subject matter to another does not take place. This latter idea turned traditional theories of education upside down: older learning theory emphasized the value of learning certain subjects, primarily Latin and Greek, not so much for their own content but because they trained the "faculties of the mind." Critics of the classical curriculum, heartened by Thorndike's work, vigorously renewed their assaults on schools that continued to use the traditional curriculum. Testing From the earliest days of his career Thorndike was concerned with mental measurement. In 1901 he offered his services to a school in New York to test and record every pupil on general mental development; in the same year, Thorndike began teaching the nation's first course in educational measurement. In 1904 the publication of his book Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social Measurements made him a leader in the test-and-measurement movement. Needless to say, Thorndike had a nearly boundless faith in the value of quantifying and measuring. He told students at Columbia University in 1921 that the "knowledge of educational products and educational purposes must become quantitative, taking the forms of measurement." The phrase "All that exists, exists in some amount and can be measured" is usually credited to Thorndike. There is some doubt as to whether he actually uttered these words, but whether he did or not, they accurately convey his conviction. In 1909 Thorndike created a rating scale for handwriting, and tests measuring reading comprehension, geography, composition, arithmetic, spelling, and reasoning followed. In his many years of work he developed some of the most widely used tests of aptitude and achievement, and generations of American students took tests that bore his name. Five-Decade Career At the close of the first decade of the twentieth century Thorndike was still a relatively young man, one who remained a powerful force in educational circles until his retirement thirty years later. His additional contributions to American education were numerous. With George D. Strayer, he created and shaped the movement to survey and measure school systems during the 1910s and 1920s. He published numerous text-books used by classroom teachers, and his Thorndike-Century junior Dictionary (1935) became a staple of American classrooms. His laws of learning influenced others to the extent that nearly all aspects of school life, from assessment to course content, were affected by his work. His experiments in adult learning greatly changed the field of adult education when he showed that the ability to learn declined very little with age. Somehow, he also found time to be active in many professional education organizations. Edward Thorndike retired from Teachers' College in 1940 and died of a cerebral hemorrhage on 9 August 1949 at the age of seventy-four

Charcot, Jean Martin

International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences | 1968 | Copyright Charcot, Jean Martin WORKS BY CHARCOT SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY Jean Martin Charcot (18251893), specialist in neurology and hypnosis, was born in Paris in modest circumstances, the son of a carriage builder. Finishing secondary school at 19, he entered the medical school of the University of Paris. He served his internship at the Salptrire, a very large Parisian hospital for patients of all ages with chronic, incurable diseases, particularly those of the nervous system. The Salptrire had been one of the first hospitals to accept Philippe Pinels beginning steps toward the reform of mental hospitals. In 1793, at the Bictre, another part of the Parisian medical service, Pinel had stopped the practice of keeping psychotic patients in chains, and the Salptrire had followed this example a few years later. Charcots connection with the Salptrire lasted throughout his life. In 1862, at the age of 37, he became a senior physician there. Up to that time, although he had been a competent physician and had published several papers, his work had been in no way remarkable nor had he shown any particular interest in the nervous system. Yet in the following eight years he produced what were to become the classic descriptions of multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and the localization of lesions of the spinal cord. It is said that in those eight years he founded the field of modern neurology (Guillain [1955] 1959, pp. 1011). His method of diagnosis is, in its broad outlines, the one still being used. His appointment as professor of diseases of the nervous system at the University of Paris in 1882 represents the first recognition of neurology as a specialty in its own right. Charcot was known for his ability as a clinician. Before him, no clinician could unequivocally recognize a given neurological disease in a living person, although the presence of such disease entities had been established by postmortem study. Charcot was especially adroit at relating observable clinical signs and symptoms to the underlying neurological damage visible in a post-mortem examination. He was able to delineate the symptomatology of each disease in the living patient and to differentiate each syndrome from closely related disorders. Moreover, he succeeded in correlating each clinical picture with the post-mortem establishment of a set of lesions, thus founding what he called the clinical-anatomical method. Although austere and reserved, Charcot was able to teach his diagnostic skill to his pupils by examining patients in their presence. These demonstrations were spectacular displays for which he soon became celebrated. Students came to him from all over the world, among them Pierre Janet and Sigmund Freud. Charcot also made contributions to cerebral physiology. The doctrine that the cerebrum of the brain functions homogeneously, advocated by Pierre Flourens, a French physiologist, dominated medical science through the 1860s. Charcot, among others, did much to demonstrate that some functions of the cerebrum are localized in specific regions (1875). Although Charcot maintained his interest in neurology, in the 1880s he began to devote considerable time to the study of hysteria and hypnosis. Hysterical patients show a host of bewildering symptoms: amnesia, paralysis, anesthesia, contractures, and spasms. Charcot studied these patients intensively, using hypnosis as one technique of investigation. Although his work with hysterics and his exploration of hypnosis were interrelated, it is necessary to consider them separately. Charcot considered neuroses, including hysteria, to be diseases of the nervous system, but ones with no known organic lesions ([18721887] 18771889, vol. 3, pp. 1314). Significantly, he believed, not that they are a separate class of nervous diseases but, rather, that they are governed by the same physiological laws as the common organically based neural diseases. He laid considerable stress on the importance of organic factors in causing neuroses, although he admitted the presence of functional components, notably in his conception of traumatic ideas. Traumatic ideas, although dissociated from the consciousness of the patient and forgotten, continue to exert an influence on the patient and to determine the nature of his hysterical symptoms. A weakness, probably of a hereditary constitutional origin, would make some individuals subject to this hysterical dissociation. Charcot considered trauma, either physical or psychological, to be the precipitating etiological factor bringing on the dissociative process. Conventional medical opinion held that hypnotism was at best a theatrical stunt and at worst sheer charlatanism. Consequently, Charcot was moving against medical opinion when he decided to employ hypnosis. He had read widely in psychology (Guillain 1955) and had familiarized himself with earlier work on hypnosis. A physiologist, Charles Richet, and a psychologist, Thodule Ribot, whose opinions Charcot respected, had upheld the scientific validity of hypnotic phenomena. Hypnotism came to be his preferred method of investigating hysteria. Integral to his conception of hysteria was his belief that only hysterical persons can be hypnotized and that hypnosis itself is a manifestation of hysteria. To

Charcot, the hypnotic trance and the hysterical crisis constituted essentially the same kind of alteration of personality. The trance, however, could be induced by the operator and could therefore be used for the study of hysteria. Charcot distinguished three progressive stages in the depth of hypnosis, namely: lethargy (drowsiness), catalepsy (in which isolated suggestions are accepted without question since they can be acted upon without interference from other ideas), and somnambulism (the ability to carry out complicated activities with no recollection afterward, so that there is a splitting of personality by dissociation). Charcot has been accused of being uncritical about the influence of suggestion, and it has been charged that he was duped by overzealous assistants (Guillain 1955). However, his writings show that he did appreciate the significance of both suggestion and malingering in hypnosis as well as in hysterical manifestations, although it is probable he underestimated the importance of their effects. Charcots contention that hypnosis is a psychopathological phenomenon was even then being disputed by the Nancy school of hypnosis, in the persons of Ambroise-Auguste Libeault and Hippolyte Bernheim. The Nancy school argued that hypnosis is a normal behavioral experience arising from suggestion which can be induced in practically anyone and is continuous with waking behavior. Later findings support the position of the Nancy school, not that of the Salptrire school. Although wrong in particulars, Charcot did much to make the study of hypnosis respectable (Wechsler 1953). He found that hypnosis can restore forgotten memories. He demonstrated so thoroughly that hysteria can occur in the male that after a few years such a statement was no longer seriously questioned. Freud, for example, who had worked under Charcot in 18851886 and referred to him later as my master ([1914] 1938, p. 943), was so impressed with Charcots demonstrations of cases of male hysteria that he insisted on lecturing on this subject when he returned to Vienna. He was received with ridicule. In Vienna, medical authorities still held the view that hysteria was somehow due to a wandering womb, and, consequently, male hysteria was a contradiction in terms. These lectures added to Freuds disrepute among Viennese medical men. It was a casual remark of Charcots that reinforced Freuds later firmly established belief in the primacy of sexual difficulties as an etiological factor. According to Freud, on one social occasion Charcot insisted that a certain female patients difficulties arose from the im potence of her husband. Charcot prepared the way for much other fruitful psychological medical collaboration. Above all, he contributed to the establishment of neurology as a scientifically based medical specialty.

Etologistii (oameni de stiin care se ocup de studiul comportamentului

uman si non-uman n circumstane naturale) sugereaz c pentru anumite comportamente, constante la animale, se gsesc paralelisme cu comportamentele umane. Mai recent, cteva cercetri chiar trateaz comportamentul animal-uman n paralel. Fenomenul de ntiprire descrie tendina bobocilor de gsc iesii din goace (ca si a celor de ra si gin) de a se lua dup primul obiect pe care l vd si care se misc pe durata unei perioade critice care apare imediat dup ce ies din goace. Perioada se numeste critic deoarece reacia fa de acelasi obiect mobil (numit declansator) nainte sau dup aceast perioad nu mai are ca rezultat apariia aceluiasi comportament suprimat Asadar, etologia are la origine studiul biologic al comportamentului animalelor iar printele domeniului este considerat Lorenz K. (1903-1989) cu teoria sa asupra ntipririi (imprinting), care corespunde unei nvri foarte rapide a unui comportament de ctre un animal tnr, n cursul unei perioade critice, cnd este predispus particular ctre aceast nvare care va orienta dezvoltarea sa ulterioar. La acestea s-au adugat experimentele lui Harlow, care au fundamentat elaborarea teoriei atasamentului social al puilor de animale sau al bebelusilor umani. Nevoia de contact social, de atasament fa de mama sa sau a unui semen apare aici desprins de satisfacerea nevoilor primare (de ex., nevoia alimentar) si este considerat ca o caracteristic nnscut a speciei. Convergena cercetrilor n etologie si n psihologia dezvoltrii ctre 1960 a orientat metodele de studiu n psihologia copilului, dnd nastere la un curent care poate fi numit etologie uman, n care Bowlby, psihiatru si psihanalist englez, este cel mai bun reprezentant (Tourrette si Guidetti, 2002, p. 10).