Facility Planning

Unit 1

Unit 1
Structure: 1.1 Introduction Objectives 1.2

Introduction to Facility Planning

Facility Management Hotel Functions Operational Areas Consideration Space Analysis

1.3

Building Construction Building Materials Types of Construction

1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8

Post Construction Treatments Smart Building Summary Terminal Questions Answers

1.1 Introduction
Facility Management or Facilities Management is the management of buildings, physical plant and services. The learning experiences that you obtain from here would help to bridge the gap between industry and academia. Upon completion of this program, you will know how to apply your knowledge to actual hospitality work situations. Managing hospitality facilities require special knowledge, skills and dedication. The facilities are costly and complex. In this text, we try to present the key issues involved in the management and design of hospitality facilities.
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Facilities regularly need managerial attention because modifications are needed due to obsolescence, newer environmental legislation, growth of governmental requirements, additional requirements of safety and security. To stay in competitive markets, managers have to implement these issues and for that the managers should understand the basic elements of facility planning and design. Objectives: After studying this unit, you should be able to: explain the nature and different operations of hospitality facilities indicate the general principles involved in building construction including the materials of construction apply different post-construction treatments like damp proofing and termite proofing and the latest concept of smart building.

1.2 Facility Management

In business, facility management (or facilities management) is the management of buildings, physical plant and services. The services are sometimes considered to be divided into hard services and soft services. Hard services include such things as ensuring that a buildings air conditioning is operating efficiently, reliably, safely and legally. Soft services include such things as ensuring that the building is cleaned properly and regularly or monitoring the performance of contractors like builders, electricians. The term facility management is similar to property management but often applied only to larger and/or commercial properties where the management and the operation are more complex. The definition of Facility Management provided by the International Facility Management Association (IFMA) is:

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A profession that encompasses multiple disciplines to ensure functionality of the built environment by integrating people, place, process and technology. It is the practice or coordinating the physical workplace with the people and work of the organization; it integrates the principles of business administration, architecture and behavioural and engineering sciences. In UK and other European countries, facilities management has a wider definition than simply the management of buildings and services. The definition provided by the European Committee for Standardization and ratified by BSI British Standards is: Facilities Management is the integration of processes with an organization to maintain and develop the agreed services, which support and improve the effectiveness of its primary activities. Thus we can say that Facilities Management is the integration of multidisciplinary activities within the built environment and the management of their impact upon people and the workplace. It is the role of facility management to ensure that everything is available and operating properly for building occupants, to do their work. The facility manager generally has the most influence upon the quality of life within a facility. Facility Management may range from the small scale, single small building custodial services to the large scale or even on an international scale like global service provision to a multinational corporation. Facility Management is also provided by larger property managers who act on behalf of their owner clients. 1.2.1 Hotel Functions Hotels have gone through an evolution during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Before 1800, there were roadside inns and taverns, which
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provided only lodging facilities in a very crude form. Food was not available and the lodging facilities were normally available from dusk to early morning. Later, food facility was introduced. Late 1800s saw a number of technological innovations Central heating, electric lighting, elevators, and telephones and so on. During mid-nineteenth century, hotels started emerging as social centres. They slowly started holding important civic and social functions and gatherings. Thus, properties started accommodating meeting and banquet rooms, exhibit spaces, conference and convention centres, board rooms and various recreational facilities. Now-a-days hotels function space is used mainly by corporate and association groups. The needs of corporate groups are entirely different from the needs of the association groups. The Corporate groups need a sophisticated high quality space for board meetings, management meetings, new product introduction, and training program for executives, etc. Comparatively association groups need less sophisticated, large and extensive space for conferences, exhibitions, new product launch, and small space for seminars, training programs, etc. Local community may require a neat and presentable space for receptions, meetings, banquets, etc. The amount and type of function area depends upon the type of hotel. A small mid-price hotel offers a single multipurpose space; moderate dcor hotel may provide a convention centre for 1000 people or more, in addition to several other spaces for social functions. All these hotels, whether small or convention type, have to pay attention to items like floors, walls, communications, lighting, furniture, etc. At present, the travelling public has become more health and fitness conscious. As a result, to attract guests, many hotels have responded to this trend by adding tennis courts, swimming pools, health clubs, jogging track, etc. Some of the properties have introduced even golf facilities to attract high-level executives.
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1.2.2 Operational Areas & Consideration This topic is briefly devoted to the issues involved in facility operations electrical, HVAC, lighting, laundry, telecommunication, and food service. It is very difficult for the hospitality industry to survive without electric power. There is no alternate energy source to electric power. Hospitality industry uses electric power for light, heat and power. Lighting system affect several aspects direction of light, optical characteristics, nature and level of illumination of physical plant management. Lighting system also affects HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and Air-conditioning) system design and operation, building design and the economics. Electricity is also used for power and is of major concern in the hospitality industry. Because motors consume a lot of electrical energy, 90% of the energy cost of the hospitality industry is of electrical power. Thus, it is clear that controlling energy cost involves controlling electricity consumption. HVAC systems create and maintain levels of comfort required by guests. HVAC systems should be properly selected and maintained if you want to provide comfort conditions to the guest. Heat is also required to cook food. Heat is critical to the hospitality industry. Refrigeration deals with

maintaining a cold surface and this is necessary for food storage systems. Maintaining a cold surface means removing unwanted heat from a space, thus producing a cold space. Air-conditioning systems are now-a-days

considered as a necessity and not as a luxury. Factors of comfort deals with temperature, moisture content, air movement, and air purity. Air-conditioning helps to maintain these desired factors of comfort. Hence it is very essential to maintain the air-conditioning plant properly. At present hospitality industry manages with on-premises laundry facilities. The on-premises laundry is very essential because this is a guest need; besides it works as a laundry for hotel linen. Again, this laundry is to be maintained properly.
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It is your responsibility to provide safe and dependable elevator and escalator services. Your guests require safe and economical transportation, particularly vertical transportation. The elevators and escalators work throughout day and night and for this condition, they should be maintained well. Finally, water is very essential. Your source of water may contain impurities and hence you may have to purify water and supply potable water for guest use and consumption. You will have to heat the water so that the guests can bathe and clean themselves. In addition to guest use and cooking of food, water is very essential for sanitizing, gardening, fire-fighting, etc. Water is also necessary for recreation swimming pools, wade pools, spa, etc. All the water facility requires plumbing services and for waste water and sewage, a separate plumbing system is needed. swimming pools also a different plumbing system is needed. Telecommunication as well as internet systems have recently become popular with the guests. This involves equipment and lines over which those calls and internet facilities go out. Guests prefer to stay in a hotel, which provides them these services. 1.2.3 Space Analysis Space allocation in a hotel varies from property to property. The main difference in the ratio of allocation of area for the guest-rooms to public area and support area is significant in different hotels and resorts. This ratio may be 90 to 95 percent in budget hotels and motels; this is because these properties may not have or have limited food and beverage area, recreation space, back-of-house areas and so on. Whereas this ratio may be less than 60% in large luxury hotels as well as resorts and large convention hotels to accommodate laundry facilities , different type of food and beverage outlets, recreation facilities like swimming pool, spa, jogging track, meeting rooms,
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Similarly, for

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Board Rooms, etc. While planning different facilities, the architect considers these space requirements as advised and discussed by the hotel management. Depending on these instructions, such areas are included in the detailed plan of the hotel. The following table shows the percentage of total hotel space allocated to guestrooms.

Lodging Type

% total hotel space Devoted to guestrooms

Budget hotels Motels Commercial hotels Convention hotels first class Resorts first class Convention centres

95% 95% 85% 65% 60% 60%

Self Assessment Questions 1. Write down some of the hotel functions. 2. True or false: Guestrooms represent between 65 and 85 % of the total area for most properties. 3. Who are the users of hotel function spaces? 4. Fill in the blank: HVAC systems create and maintain levels of ____________ to the hotel guests. 5. What is the role of facility management?

1.3 Building Constructions

1.3.1 Building Materials The building of the hotel is very important because it shelters employees and guests from sun, rain, cold, winds, etc., besides it houses the telecommunication, electrical, lighting, heating, ventilation and air-

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conditioning systems. The building protects people, equipment, furnishings, etc., from the weather and provides usable space and thus enhances the value of the properties. The building materials are critically important. Good building materials may give satisfactory service but premature building failures are the result of poor selection or improper application of building materials. Building material is any material, which is used for construction purpose. Many naturally

occurring substances such as clay, sand, wood and rocks have been used to construct buildings. Many man made products are in use, some are more and some are less in synthetic materials. Concrete is a composite building material made from the combination of aggregate (composite) and a binder such as cement. The most common form of concrete is Portland cement concrete which consists of mineral aggregate (generally gravel and sand), Portland cement and water. After mixing, the cement hydrates and eventually hardens into a stone-like material. When used in the generic sense, this is the material referred to by the term concrete. For a concrete construction of any size, as concrete has a rather low tensile strength, it is generally strengthened using steel rods or bars, known as rebars. This strengthened concrete is then referred to as reinforced concrete. In order to minimize any air bubbles, which would weaken the structure, a vibrator is used to eliminate any air that has entered when the liquid concrete mix is poured around the iron work. Concrete has been the predominant building material in this modern age. Concrete comes cheap and will support structures for a long of time. A. Metal Metal is used as structural framework for larger buildings such as skyscrapers or as an external surface covering. There are many types of
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metals used for building. Steel is a metal alloy whose major component is iron and is the usual choice for metal structural building materials. It is strong, flexible and if refined well and/or treated, lasts a long time. Corrosion is metals prime enemy when it comes in contact with water. The lower density and better corrosion resistance of aluminium alloys and tin sometimes overcome their greater cost. Brass was more common in the past, but is usually restricted to specific uses or specialty items today. Metal figures are quite prominent in prefabricated structures and can be seen used in most cosmopolitan cities. It requires a great deal of human labour to produce metal, especially in large amounts needed for the building industries. Other metals used include titanium, chrome, gold, silver. Titanium can be used for structural purposes, but it is much more expensive than steel. Chrome, gold and silver are used as decoration materials because these materials are very expensive and lack structural qualities like tensile strength or hardness. B. Glass Clear windows have been used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a building. They provided humans with the ability to both let light into rooms while at the same time keeping inclement weather outside. Glass is generally made from mixtures of sand and silicates and is very brittle. Modern glass curtain walls can be used to cover the entire faade of a building. Glass used to span over a wide roof structure is a space frame. The glass is installed in sliding doors to balconies, other patio doors and exit/entrance doors. Tempered glass should always be installed in such locations because tempered glass is harder to break and when shattered,

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breaks into rounded pieces, thus reducing the chances of injury. Any glass used in shower stalls should be safely glazed. C. Ceramics Ceramics are such things as tiles, fixtures, etc. Ceramics are mostly used as fixtures or coverings in buildings. Ceramic floors, walls, counter-tops, even ceilings are very common in many hotels. Many countries now-a-days use ceramic roofing tiles to cover many buildings. Ceramics used to be just a specialized form of clay-pottery firing in kilns, but it has evolved into more technical areas. D. Plastics The term plastic covers a range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic condensation or polymerization products that can be moulded or extruded into objects or films or fibres. Their name is derived from the fact that in their semi-liquid state they are malleable or have the property of plasticity. Plastics vary immensely in heat tolerance, hardness and resiliency. Combined with this adaptability, the general uniformity of composition and lightness of plastics ensures their use in almost all hotel and industrial applications today. E. Cement Composites Cement bonded composites are an important class of building materials. These products are made of hydrated cement paste that binds wood or the like particles or fibres to make pre-cast building components. Wood and natural fibres are composed of various soluble organic compounds like carbohydrates, glycosides and phenolics. These

compounds are known to retard cement setting. Therefore, before using a wood in making cement bonded composites, its compatibility with cement is assessed.

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1.3.2 Types of Construction We will now discuss the different types of hotel buildings. There are two methods of construction. In the first method, termed as traditional method, the loading from the building is carried by the walls. The thickness of the walls depends on the height and weight of the building. The walls are to be ready before placing the roof. The walls carry the weight of the roof. The second method is called framed structure, which consists of a series of frames, formed of columns, which are connected by beams at floor and roof levels. The walls are later constructed within these frames. A. Load Bearing A load-bearing wall is one in which a wall of a structure bears the weight and force resting upon it, conducting the vertical load from the upper structure to the foundation. In other words, a load-bearing wall supports the loads of a structure such as floors, equipment, furniture and people. Design of these walls was not based on engineering data but only on wellintentioned but unscientific building codes. As buildings grew taller, the

building code requirements for thickness of a brick wall became economically prohibitive. The last truly high rise, load-bearing brick structure built under old codes was the Monadnock Building in Chicago (1889-91) 16 stories tall with brick walls two meters (6 feet) thick at the base tapering to 30 centimetres (12 inches) at the top storey. Depending on the type of building and the number of stories, load-bearing walls are gauged to the appropriate thickness to carry the weight above it. Without doing so, it is possible that an outer wall could become unstable if the load exceeds the strength of the material used, potentially leading to the collapse of the structure. The arrival of structural steel on the building scene put a temporary end to the brick-bearing wall skyscraper, but research conducted in 20th century has led to resurgence. Thinner walls were designed for high rise buildings and built safely at a reasonable cost. However the birth of the
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skyscraper era, the concurrent rise of structural steel as a more suitable framing system, and the limitations of load-bearing construction in large buildings led to a decline in the use of load-bearing walls in large scale, commercial structures. Every structure, whether load-bearing or framed structure, consists of two parts foundation and superstructure. The lowest parts of the structure which are in contact with the ground and which transmit the loads of the structures to the ground are called foundations or substructures. The

ground on which the foundation rests is called foundation bed and it ultimately bears the load of the structure. Superstructure is the part of the structure, which is above the ground level. Walls, doors, windows, vertical transportation structures, roof

structures etc., are parts of the superstructure. A part of the superstructure located between the ground level and the floor level is called plinth. In order to sub-divide the portion between the plinth level and the roof level, solid constructions are carried out and these constructions are called floors and the exposed top surfaces of floors are called floorings. The floors are of two types timber floors; and composite floors. Only timber is used as a material in timber floors whereas the floors composed of more than one material are known as the composite floors. The composite floors offer the following advantages: 1. They resist fire. 2. They are more sound-proof. 3. They can be adopted for greater spans. 4. They can be easily cleaned and hence offer better hygienic properties. Floorings offer a pleasing appearance to the upper surface of the floor. Some of the flooring materials are: concrete, brick, linoleum, marble, plastic, tile ceramic and vitrified, timber, etc. The flooring material is selected
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considering the following factors appearance, cleaning, durability, hardness, fire resistance, slipperiness, damp-resistance, comfort and cost. Exterior Walls Walls can be of either solid or cavity construction. Solid walls may be of stone, brick, concrete faced stone or concrete hollow brick. Solid walls give a dignified and impressive appearance to a hotel. Cavity walls consist of two distinct walls separated by a two inch cavity. Stripes of metal are built in at intervals to link the two walls together. The still air, which is trapped in the interior of the wall is a very good insulator and damp barrier. By decreasing the heat losses through the walls, the cavity tends to reduce the heating costs of the building. These cavities may be filled with foamed plastics to further increase the resistance to heat flow. an efficient barrier against moisture. Interior walls are of two categories load-bearing and non-load-bearing. The load-bearing walls help to support the structure and they rest on foundations. They may be of stone, brick, concrete faced stone or concrete hollow bricks. Non-load-bearing walls serve only as partitions and hence may be made of any materials wood, glass, etc. B. Framed Structure We will now turn our attention to a newer technique, called framed construction that has been used for construction of the large hotels in the last few decades. A skeleton framework of columns and beams is formed The In addition, the cavity itself is

and this provides the whole support and strength of the building.

rectangular spaces formed by the beams and columns are filled in to form the walls and floors. The function of the walls is limited to providing protection from weather. These walls are known as panel walls or in-fillings. The loads of the floors, roofs and panel walls are supported by the beams, which in turn, transmit the loads to the columns and the columns carry the
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whole weight of the structure to the foundations. The materials used for the construction of framed structures, particularly multi-storey buildings, are mainly mild steel and RCC (reinforced cement concrete). The RCC gives a far higher degree of protection against the spread of fire. Let us now discuss some of the advantages of framed structures over loadbearing structures: 1. The panel walls can be made of any material. Brick is used, but more common is the use of composite panels, incorporating openings for windows and producing a variety of surface treatments. Large areas of glass can be incorporated. The thickness of the external walls should withstand weather conditions and heat and sound insulation whereas internal walls should only withstand heat and sound insulation. 2. The construction is speedy and becomes easier. Thus it can make hotel operation more economical. 3. For lowest price, the columns must be spread at equal intervals; if a larger area unobstructed by columns is required, considerable expense is incurred. 4. Framed structures resist vibrations effectively. They are very useful for places subjected to earthquakes. 5. Greater freedom in planning can be expected from framed structures. The large open spaces can be easily provided within the building and by providing panel walls; the area can be suitably changed.

Self Assessment Questions 6. Define a framed structure. 7. True or false: better resistant to vibrations is an advantage of a framed structure.

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1.4 Post Construction Treatments

We have got a fairly rough idea of building construction. However, after occupying the building, we may come across the problems of termites, dampness and water leakage. The following treatments, viz, termiteproofing, damp-proofing and water-leakage-proofing, known as postconstruction treatments, are to be given to the buildings to control termites, dampness, and water leakage. 1.4.1 Termite-proofing Termites are small, delicate insects that live inside climate-controlled colonies that are constructed in the soil or wood. Termites eat wood. They convert wood fibre (cellulose) into sugar. Over time, a large termite colony can do extensive damage to structures made of wood. They often consume wood from the inside out. There are many types of termites; Most occur in tropical, semi-tropical or hot, arid (desert) climates. Subterranean termites live in underground

colonies on buried wood. When the initial wood supply is depleted, the colony may be extended through shelter tubes to above ground wood. This is when damage to structures is done.

Fig 1.1: shows the different types of Termites

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Fig. 1.2: Termite Proofing

Shelter tubes are made from soil particles and thus are the color and texture of the local soil. They are built on foundation walls, posts, pilings, etc anything that spans between soil and wood. Look for termite shelter tubes during annual inspections for insect and water damage and if tubes are found it is an indication that subterranean termites may be active. Other types of termites such as dry wood and damp wood termites do not make shelter tubes. We have to find out the best way to protect structures in our area. In

general, structures should be protected from subterranean termites by a combination of post-construction soil treatment and baiting. We should be especially diligent because of subterranean termites potential for rapid and extensive damage. Dry wood termites can do significant damage. This termite may build colonies above ground, entirely concealed in the structure and unlike their subterranean cousins; they do not need contact with the soil. Often damage to cabinets and furniture can be more significant than damage to structural timbers.

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Damp wood termites also nest above ground but require wood that is continuously wet. Generally when the affected wood is made dry, these termites disappear. However, structures in especially damp climates may be attacked directly. Until recently termites were controlled in new and existing buildings by treating the soil around the foundation with highly toxic and persistent insecticides like chlordane and heptachlor. However these insecticides are banned. Nowadays termite control combines lower toxicity organophosphate and pyrethroid insecticides, applied to the soil with termite baits that disrupt colonies. Insecticides that target termites are called termiticides. Soil treatments can also be applied after construction by injecting insecticides into the trenching. Bait stations are placed at or below ground level;

foraging termites find them, feed on bait and take poison back to the colony. in the colony, the bait is fed to nest mates ,larva and the queen. Poison baits are made of cellulose material that has been laced with an insect regulator or poison. 1.4.2 Damp Proofing Damp proofing in construction is a protective measure applied to the exterior of building foundation walls. Rising damp can arise for various reasons the failure of an existing damp proof course (dpc), the complete absence of a damp proof course, bridging due to the raising of external ground or internal floor levels Brick, stone and mortar are porous, allowing damp from the ground to rise by capillary action, carrying with it ground salts including chlorides and nitrates. These salts can absorb moisture from atmosphere leading to wall dampness in conditions of high relative humidity. Other reasons may be: trees and shrubs close to the building a leaking drain pipe
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defective pointing or cracks in the brickwork exterior wall too thin for an exposed situation inadequate roof slope splashing of rain water unprotected tops of walls, parapets and compound walls, etc. Condensation, which takes place when warm humid air is cooled and the moisture is deposited on the walls, floors and ceilings; this is the main source causing dampness in badly designed commercial kitchens.

A. Effects stains on wall-paper and paintwork distemper flaking metal rusting plywood coming apart wood / wallboards warping and buckling walls getting a mild electric shock impervious floor coverings losing their adhesion to the floor apearance of dry- or wet-rot or mould growths. condensation on the surface of walls, ceilings, floors and cold water pipes. B. Remedies Condensation is the main cause of dampness in hotels. Condensation is a liable occurance in any moist atmosphere and it is at its worst when the surfaces of the room are cold and inadequately ventilated. Improved

ventilation of the room by extra windows or fans will help the moisture in the air to be carried before it has time to settle and condense. This is

particularly applicable to cooking and washing-up areas owing to the large quantities of steam being generated in these areas.

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The requirements of an ideal material for damp-proofing are: it should be durable it should be perfectly impervious it should not allow any movement in itself it should be capable of resisting safely the loads coming on it it should be flexible it should be quite cheap it should be available in abundance it should be dimensionally stable Some of the materials used for damp-proofing are: Sheets of copper and aluminum these are flexible material, corrosion resistant and impervious to moisture. However, lead is quite heavy. Self Assessment Questions 8. True or false: The main source of causing dampness in badly designed commercial kitchens is condensation. 9. Define termite proofing. 10. What are the two types of termites? 11. True or false: One of the effects of dampness is that it promotes and accelerates the growth of termites.

1.5 Smart Building

Smart building is the term commonly used to define a residence that uses a Home Controller to integrate the various home automation systems of the residence. The most popular Home Controllers are those that are

connected to a Window-based PC during programming and are then left to perform the home control duties on a stand-alone basis. Integrating home systems allows them to communicate with one another through the home controller, thereby enabling single button and voice control of the various
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home systems simultaneously, in the pre-programmed scenarios or operating modes. For example, a scenario such as Im Home could be triggered by pressing one button Keychain Remote from your vehicle as you approach the driveway. The Home Controller receives the Keychain Remote Command triggering a scenario, pre-programmed. The celestial clock in the Controller knows that it is 7 pm and sunset in your geographical location, therefore starting the scenario by sequentially - lighting in the drive way, garage

entry, walkway , hallway, and kitchen. It then directs the security system, opens the garage door, unlocks the interior garage entry door, adjusts the thermostats to a present home position and turns on the whole house audio system. The home control processor is essentially the Hub of the home systems network. The Home Control Processor is programmed to customer select requirements to initiate sequential automatic operation of the home systems, in response to one button commands from a systems controller based on the situation and / or time. Other time saving scenarios such as Party Time, AWAY, Good Night, etc; involving several home systems can be activated by phone, voice and remotes as desired. A Good Night system automatically turns off all lights and adjusting the thermostats, the system provides an audio report indicating the status of the security system by zone, the temperature in each zone, the position of the garage doors and the wakeup times set. PC Networks are quickly becoming an essential element of todays Smart Buildings. A Windows 98 release 2 PC Network allows all of the family PCs to share response including one connection, and one account to the Internet, simultaneously. This is also convenient for smart building system upgrades, since much of the home automation and systems equipment is PC programmable and equipment manufacturers now provide software

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upgrades via the Internet. The Internet connection will increasingly play a major role in the operation and monitoring of our homes. Self Assessment Questions 12. 13. What is a smart building? Fill in the blank: _________________ will increasingly play a major role in the operation and monitoring of our homes.

1.6 Summary
We have learnt the meaning, function and role of facility management and planning. We discussed the general principles of building construction traditional load-bearing wall construction and the modern framed

construction. After the occupation of the building, we have to pay attention to two major maintenance aspects of the building dampness and termite problem. The sources, effects and remedies for these problems were Then we had a look at the latest concept of Smart

discussed briefly. Building.

1.7 Terminal Questions

1. Explain Facility Management. 2. What are the advantages of a framed construction? 3. What is termite proofing? Discuss some methods of post-

Construction termite-proofing methods. 4. Write short notes on Smart Building.

1.8 Answers
A. Self-Assessment 1. Meeting rooms, exhibit spaces, conference halls, convention places, boardrooms, and recreational facilities.
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2. True 3. Corporate and Association groups 4. Comfort 5. To ensure that everything is available and is operating Properly for hotel-guests to do their work. 6. A structure consisting of a series of frames formed of columns which are connected by means of beams at floor and roof levels 7. True 8. True 9. The treatment, which is given to a building so as to prevent the growth of termites in the building. 10. Dry-wood termites and subterranean termites 11. True 12. A residence that uses a Home Controller to integrate the residences various home automation systems of the residence. 13. The internet connection B. Terminal Questions 1. Refer Sec1.2 2. Refer Sec 1.3.2 3. Refer Sec.1.4.1 4. Refer Sec.1.5

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