CEE Term Work Master

A Practical Lab Manual of
Commissioning
Of
Electrical Equipment
Subject code 180901

Department of Electrical Engineering
Om Shanti Engineering College - Rajkot

Om Shanti Engineering College Rajkot
Department of Electrical Engineering

Semester : VIII
Subject : Commissioning of Electrical Equipments

Index
Sr.
No.
Name of the Practical Page No. Date Signature
1. Study of testing and evaluation of
Insulation materials

2. Study of Dielectric absorption, IR and
PI tests

3. Study of testing and measurement of
TAN DELTA

4. Study of Partial Discharge
measurement

5. Study of oil testing and standards
6. Study of condition monitoring and
testing of On load tap changer

7. Study of Testing and conditioning
monitoring of LT Switch gear

8. Study of monitoring of HV Breakers
9. Study of Testing methods and
conditioning monitoring of Cables

10. Study of Conditioning monitoring
through Thermography

Signature of Faculty Signature of HOD

Commissioning of Electrical Equipments

Om Shanti Engineering College Rajkot Department of Electrical Engineering 2

1. Study of testing and evaluation of Insulating materials

1.0 Abstract
The insulation of components and devises is of vital importance and is often the decisive factor in design
and construction. The progress in insulation technology has offered a large variety of insulation
materials for innumerable applications. It is necessary; therefore, for any material that it meets the
functional requirements before specific application. To ensure this, a standard is established for use as a
rule or basis of comparison for evaluation of properties of the insulating materials. Testing a material as
per a standard method thus helps in providing a basis for reliability, in quality control, to verify
manufacturing process and establish a history for new materials.
The paper discusses about the evaluation tests, test procedures and significance of the basics properties
of insulating materials.
For evaluation of electrical, mechanical and chemical properties of the insulating material
Following type of test are discussed in paper
- Electrical tests
- Mechanical tests
- Thermal tests
- Miscellaneous tests.

2.0 Introduction
The most important function of the insulating material is to insulate voltage-carrying conductors against
one another as well as against earth. But in addition, they must frequently perform mechanical
functions and must be in a position to with stand certain thermal and chemical stresses. Such stresses
very often occur simultaneously, so that the mutual effect of various parameters must be known.
Decisive for the economical application of an insulating material is, ultimately, its long term or ageing
durability under various types of stresses encountered in practice For its satisfactory and reliable
operation every insulation material must be evaluated for
electrical, mechanical and thermal properties. The various types of the test to evaluate the insulation
material are categorized in following table and are discussed further
Table 1 - Test on insulation system


3.0 Electrical tests
3.1 Dielectric strength
The maximum electrical stress that a unit thickness of a material can withstand is known as electrical
strength. The unit of dielectric strength is Volts /mm. The dielectric strength is an important property of
insulation for selection of the material and its quantity. To evaluate the breakdown strength, insulation
material is stress between two electrodes until break down occurs. The voltage at which the current
through insulation system exceeds a predefine magnitude is taken as breakdown voltage. The ratio of
break down voltage to the electrode separation distance is declared as dielectric strength of the
insulation material. The factor that affects the test results is size and shape of the electrodes, material of
the electrodes, rate of rise of the voltage, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure and specimen
thickness. Break down of insulation is a statistical phenomenon. Test is conducted sufficient number of
times on identical test specimens and break down stress is declared with the associate breakdown
probability.
3.2 Dielectric constant and dissipation
3.2.1 Dielectric constant
Dielectric constant is ratio of capacitance by two metallic electrodes with an insulator between them
and the capacitance of the same electrodes with vacuum between them. In short its measure of charge
storing capacity of the material. Dielectric constants are most frequently measured by means of
capacitance measurements. For measurement, dielectric is filled between two electrodes and
capacitance is measured. From capacitance and volume of the dielectric material
dielectric constant can be calculated as: For parallel plate electrodes



The polarization effects in dielectric cause variation in dielectric constant and the
polarization effect depends on frequency. Hence measurement & record of the frequency of the
test voltage is important. In a multi dielectric system the electric stress inside the various
dielectrics is a function of the dielectric constant of the individual material and hence in such
system the quantity of the material is selected considering stress inside it. Also it is one of the
important parameter for selecting dielectric for charge storage applications.

3.2.2 Dissipation factor

Any dielectric or electrical insulation can be considered as equivalent to a combination of capacitors and
resistors, which will duplicate the current-voltage behavior at a particular frequency, or time of voltage
application. The perfect dielectric capacitor has a current which leads the voltage by 90o, but the
imperfect dielectric has a current which leads voltage by less than 90o .The dielectric phase angle , and
the difference 90o - = , is loss angle. Tangent of this loss angle (Tan ) is referred as dissipation factor.
(Ref-ASTM-D150)
I ts measured with Schering bridge or Ampere turns bridge.
As it is measure of the dielectric losses it is an important factor to monitor the health of the dielectric as
an effect of ageing.



3.3 Electrical resistance
Insulation resistance: The insulation resistance between two electrodes that are in contact with, or
embedded in, a specimen, is the ratio of the direct voltage applied to the electrodes to the total current
between them. It is dependent upon both the volume & surface resistance of the specimen.
Volume resistance: The volume resistance between the electrodes that are in contact with, or
embedded in, a specimen, are the ratio of the direct voltage applied to the electrodes to that portion of
the current between them that is distributed through the volume of the specimen.
Surface resistance: The surface resistance between the electrodes that are on the surface of the
specimen is the ratio of the direct voltage applied to the electrodes to that portion of the current
between them, which is primarily in a thin layer of moisture or other semi conducting material that may
be deposited on the surface.
Volume resistivity: The volume resistivity of the material is the ratio of the potential gradient parallel to
the current in the material to the current density.
Surface resistivity:
The surface resistivity is defined as the ratio of the potential gradient parallel to the current along its
surface to the current per unit width of the surface (Ref-ASTM-D257)
3.4 Arc and tracking resistance
3.4.1 Arc resistance
Arc resistance is a measure of the time in seconds required to make an insulating surface conductive
under a high voltage, low current arc. Or, the arc resistance is the elapsed time in which the surface of a
plastic material will resist the formation of a continuous conducting path when subjected to a high
voltage, low current arc under specific conditions.
(Ref-ASTM-D495)


Test specimen and apparatus. The test specimen is a plaque of 3mm in thickness and the voltage is
imposed through a tungsten rod of 2.4mm in diameter.
Test method
The imposing interval of voltage to generate arcs is gradually shortened every 60 sec to find out the time
in second by which electrically conductive paths are formed between two electrodes and the generation
of the arcs ceases. The effect of arc is deterioration of the surface property. For a reliable operation of
the equipment material with better arc resistance should be selected considering ambient conditions
temperature, pressure, humidity and pollution.
3.4.2 Tracking resistance
Tracking means the formation of electrically conductive paths on the surfaces of insulators by the
reaction between the pollutant and the electric field, such as electric discharge.
(Ref-IEC-112)
Test specimen and apparatus: The thickness of the test specimens is 3mm and the required area for
each test is more than 15mm x 15mm. Imposed voltage is from 100V to 600V. The electrode is made of
platinum and its cross-sectional area is 5mm x 2mm with the one end in the form of a chisel where the
chisel angle is 30!k.
A-type electrolyte is 0.1% aqueous solution of NH4CL to be dropped once every 30sec. and the size of a
drop is 20mm3.
Test method:
First of all, a test is continued at an arbitrary level of voltage until 50 drops or the failure before 50
drops. Then the test is repeated at either higher or lower voltage on the same specimen but a different
position from the previous test, until the maximum voltage at which the failure does not occur up to 50
droops on all 5 different test positions is obtained. The above-mentioned maximum voltage is called CTI.
CTI (comparative tracking index) is the maximum endurable voltage for a certain insulator without
causing tracking up to 50 drops of the electrolyte in each of the 5 repeated tests.
4.0 Mechanical test
4.1 Tensile strength and elongation
Tensile strength:
The maximum tensile stress that a material is capable of sustaining Tensile strength is calculated from
the maximum load during a tension test carried out to rupture and the original cross-sectional are of the
specimen (Ref ASTM-E6)


The samples are condition in a standard atmosphere as per individual material specification. The
dimensions are measured in mm. the sample is then held rigidly on the jaws of tensile tester and the
breaking load is recorded in the Newtons (kilograms). The tensile strength is calculated as:
Tensile strength at break , N / mm2 (kg/cm2)

The elongation is calculated as:

4.2 Flexural strength
Flexural strength is the ability of a material to withstand bending forces applied perpendicular to its
longitudinal axis. It is superior to tensile test because if a material is used in the form of a beam and if
the service failure occurs in bending, then flexural test is more relevant for design and specification
purpose than tensile test. The test specimens are generally rectangular bars with a thickness of about 4
mm , width 10-15 mm & length 24-30 times the thickness After suitable conditioning, the test specimen
is placed on supports in the tensile tester as shown in fig 2 & load is applied till it breaks.



4.3 Compressive strength
The maximum compressive stress that a material is capable of sustaining is termed as compressive
strength. (Ref ASTM E6 )
Compressive strength is calculated from maximum load during a compression test and the original cross-
sectional are of the test specimen. Compressive strength describes the behavior of a material when it is
subjected to a compressive load at a relatively low and uniform rate of loading. The test specimens are
generally rectangular blocks of (12.7 x 12.7 x 25.4) mm or cylinders of 12.7 mm diameter and 25.4 mm
long. After suitable conditioning, the test piece is clamped between the compressive fixture and load is
applied. Compressive strength is then calculated as, Compressive strength is then, N / mm2 (kg/cm2)

4.4 Impact strength
Impact strength:
Impact strength means the amount of energy consumed to break a test specimen divided by the unit-
width of the specimen, when the specimen is broken by the stroke with the pendulum-type hammer
having specific energy and linear velocity. (Ref- ASTM-D256)
4.4.1 Izod impact test
The specimen shall be a rectangular bar of size (63.5 x 12.7 x12.7) mm with a notch at the centre for
Izod test. The test specimen is clamped vertically so that the notched end of specimen faces the striking
edge of pendulum. The pendulum is released, allowed to strike the specimen and swing through. The
impact strength is calculated as:

4.5 Hardness
Hardness is defined as the resistance of a material to the deformation, particularly permanent
deformation and indentation or scratching and is purely a relative term. (Ref-ASTM-E6)
There are many types of hardness grades like, Rockwell harness, Barcol harness and durometer
hardness. The durometer hardness test is mostly used for soft materials. Durometer hardness is
measured with durometer hardness tester. The test piece shall be a square of size (25.4 x 25.4 x 3) mm.
The test piece is placed on the hard, flat surface and the pressure foot of instrument is pressed onto the
specimen. The durometer hardness is read with in 1 sec. after the pressure foot is in firm contact with


specimen. There are two type of durometer used namely type A and type D. the basic difference lines in
general used for soft materials like rubber, elastomer, type D is meant for thermosets and composites.
(Ref-ASTM-785)
5 Thermal tests
5.1 Heat deflection temperature
Heat deflection temperature is defined as the temperature at which a standard test bar (normally of 125
x 12 x 6.5 mm) deflects by 0.25 mm under a steady load of either 66 or 264 psi. It is also known as heat
distortion temperature and it is a single point measurement and does not indicate long-term resistance
to heat of the material. The specimen are supported on steel supports that are 10 cm apart with a load
applied on the top of the specimen vertically and midway between the support and this is kept in a
precise temperature bath. A suitable deflection measurement device such as a dial indicator is normally
used. The unit is capable of applying 66 or 264-psi stress by means of dead weight. The specimen is
heated at the rate of 2 0.2 0C/ min. The temperature at which the bar has deflected 0.25 mm is
reported as heat deflection temperature. Residual stress of test specimen, specimen thickness, fiber
stress and specimen preparation procedure may affect the result.
5.2 Vicat softening temperature
The Vicat softening temperature is the temperature at which a flat-ended needle of 1 mm2 circular cross
section will penetrate a thermoplastic specimen to a depth of 1mm under specified load using a selected
uniform rate of temperature rise. (Ref ASTM-A1525 )
The flat test specimen is molded or cut from a sheet with a minimum thickness and width of 1.5 and
12.5 mm respectively.
5.3 Melt flow index
The melt flow index measures the rate of extrusion of a thermoplastic material through an orifice of
specific length and diameter under prescribed condition of temperature and load. A high molecular
weight material is more resistant to flow than low molecular weight material. The melt index apparatus
is preheated to a specified temperature. The material is loaded into the cylinder from the top and a
specified weight is placed on a piston. The material is allowed to flow through die. The initial extrudate
is discarded because it may contain some air bubbles and contaminants. Depending on the material or
its flow rate, cuts for the test are taken at different time intervals. The extrudate is weighed and melt
index value is calculated in grams per ten minutes. Preheat time, moisture and sample volume may
affect the result.



5.4 Thermal class
The correct knowledge of safe operating temperature of an insulating material is vital for its safe and
optimal application. Insulating material is generally polymeric based and prone to thermal stress. Hence
active service life span of insulation is usually governed by the thermal stress. Insulating materials are
classified as per there temperature withstands capability as follows:
Thermal class Temperature (
0
C)
Y 90
A 105
E 120
B 130
F 155
H 180
200 200
220 220
250 250
Temperature index is defined as the maximum temperature at which a material has 20,000 hour of life.
Temperature index of a material is determined by conducting longterm thermal endurance test.
Depending on type of material a particular test is selected as per IEC 216. e.g. flexural strength for rigid
laminates etc. A number of specimens are prepared and exposed to at least three elevated
temperatures. Cyclic aging temperature and duration shall be selected based on expected thermal class
of material as given in above specification e.g. 21 days at 180 0C, 7days at 200 0C and 3 days at 220 0C.
6 Miscellaneous tests
6.1 Flammability
Since most of the insulation materials are flammable to a lesser or greater extent, knowledge of the
burning characteristics of materials is necessary to make proper choice for specific application. Test
procedure for relative rate of burning or extent and time of burning of self supporting material in
vertical and horizontal position. Numbers of test specimens are conditioned before the test to eliminate
role of contaminants. Samples of specified dimensions are mounted in horizontal or vertical position(as
shown in Fig 3) and then free end is exposed to a specified gas flame for 30 second. The time and extent
and relative rate of burning are measured and reported along with visual observations e.g. dripping etc.


6.2 Oxygen Index
The minimum concentration of oxygen, expressed as volume percent , in a mixture of oxygen and
nitrogen that will just support flaming combustion of a material initially at room temperature under
specified conditions. (Ref ASTM-D2863)
Test specimens in the form of rectangular strips are taken for the purpose, they are clamped, vertically,
one by one, in the column and burnt using appropriate concentration of oxygen and nitrogen. For initial
trials, oxygen concentration of about 18 percent if the specimen burns rapidly or about 25 percent or
higher if the specimen goes out is recommended. At the end of the test, the oxygen index, n, is
calculated as :

where O2 = Volumetric flow of oxygen at the specified concentration, cm3/s
and N2 = corresponding volumetric flow rate of nitrogen cm3/s
Complete details of the method can be found in ASTM D 2863


6.3 Smoke density
It is important to measure the smoke producing characteristics of plastics under controlled conditions of
combustion or decomposition. All burning plastic materials produce smoke to a lesser or greater extent.
ASTM D 2843 describes a standard test method (laboratory test procedure) for the determination of
density of smoke from the burning or decomposition of plastics.
Test specimens 25.4 +
0.3mm by 6.2 +
0.3mm in size shall be used in the test. They are conditioned and positioned in the chamber as given in
the test method. The percent light absorbed is recorded at 15-s intervals for 4 min. Upon completion of
the test, turn on the exhaust blower to ventilate the combustion products from the chamber.
Average the readings at 15-s intervals of light absorption for three specimens in each group, plot the
average light absorption against time taken on a linear paper. Read the maximum smoke density at the
highest point of the curve. Further, smoke density rating is also determined using simple calculation and
graph plotted.
6.4 Accelerated Weathering Test
6.4.1 UV radiation test
This test covers the basic principles and operating procedures for using fluorescent ultraviolet (UV) and
condensation apparatus to simulate the deterioration caused by sunlight and water as rain or dew. This
method is intended to simulate the deterioration caused by the water as rain or dew and the UV energy
in the sunlight. It is NOT intended to be used to simulate the deterioration caused by the localised


weather phenomena such as atmospheric pollution, biological attack and salt water exposure.
Accelerated weathering tester meeting all the requirements specified in ASTM G 53 1984. Essentially it
consists of a test chamber, UV lamps, condensation mechanism, water supply, cycle timer, temperature
controller and test specimen racks. Flat, smooth test pieces of size 75*150 mm are suggested. For
insulating materials such as wood, plastic or porous laminates, the maximum thickness should be 20 mm
to allow adequate heat transfer for condensation.
Mount the test specimens in the racks with the test surfaces facing the lamps. When the test conditions
are not specified, the following cycle & test temperatures may be used. 4 h UV exposure at 600 C & at 4
h condensation exposure at 400 C Other cycles & temperatures may be used by mutual agreement.
However, it should be noted that condensation periods of at least 4 h duration & UV exposure at least 2
h duration is required to reach equilibrium.

6.4.2 Microorganisms
Polymeric materials are generally not vulnerable to microbial attack under normal conditions. However,
low-molecular weight additives such as plasticizers, lubricants, stabilizers and antioxidants may migrate
to the surface of plastic components and encourage the growth of microorganisms. The test requires
preparing a fungus spore suspension from cultures of various microorganisms that can attack polymers.
The test specimen can be of any size or shape, including completely fabricated parts, test bars etc and is
exposed to fungus spore. The detrimental effect can be seen through loss of properties, change in
aesthetic quality, loss of optical transmission and increase in brittleness. The rate of growth depends
upon many factors like heat, light and humidity.
6.5 Accelerated life tests
6.5.1 Insulation ageing under electrical, thermal and multi-stress



The main goal of aging studies is to establish a relation ship for aging process and the stress causing it.
The long term tests at realistic working stresses are not possible due to time constraints. This is why the
accelerated aging is generally an accepted method for estimating the service life. Electrical failure in
solid insulation is irreversible whereas in liquid and gases it may be reversible. Failure is largely
attributed to the breakdown due to the presence of degrading stresses. Aging under multi-stress is of
considerable interest as results obtained are quite different when stresses are applied separately or
sequentially. Simultaneous electrical and thermal stresses have been most commonly investigated since
the presence of these two stresses is almost unavoidable in most applications.
Experiments are performed with the aging process accelerated by stresses exceeding the normal
operating stress. There are several models used to estimate lifetime of the insulation under single or
multiple stresses. Of these, the most frequently used models for electrical stress are the inverse power
model and exponential model. For thermal stress only, the Arrhenius relationship is mainly used.
Regarding multiple stresses, particularly for electrical and thermal stresses acting simultaneously,
several models namely electrical strength model by Simoni, exponential model by Fallau and
probabilistic model by Montanari have been proposed. These models are discussed here in brief.

6.5.2 Life models for Electrical stress
Two major models relating the applied electrical stress with time to failure is universally accepted; the
inverse power model and the exponential model. For these models, the sets of data for several
different voltages (at constant frequency) are taken with other conditioned unchanged. The electrical
stress at constant frequency is assumed to be the only stress
6.5.2.1 Inverse power law
The inverse power model is one of the most frequently used in the aging studies under electrical stress
only. It is described by the following relationship
L= AV-n
Log L= log A n log V
Where L is the time to failure (usually it is a Weibull scale parameter, the mean or some percentile), V
the applied voltage, and A, n, are constants to be determined. To evaluate the data using Weibull
distribution, a special procedure has to be followed. The data must be ordered from smallest to largest
time taken for failure and a probability calculated for each point using the relationship below

Where F (i) is the percentage of failed samples, i is an order of failed sample (rank) and n is the total
number of samples (including sample not failed). To ensure the observed data follows Weibull


distribution these points either plotted on a special probability graph paper or specific software is used
which indicates straight line fit. In the Weibull distribution the parameters may indicates either
breakdown time or voltage, the probability distribution is :

Where F (x) is a probability of failure, is the scale parameter ( > 0) and represents the time (or voltage
for F (x) to reach 63.2%, is the shape parameter ( > 0) and is a measure of spread of data, and x is a
random variable (time or voltage).
6.5.2.2 Exponential law
The basic form of this model is given as:

Where L is the time to failure, V the applied voltage and A, k are constants to be found from
experimental data. The validity of the exponential model is checked by plotting the data points on semi
log paper.
Even though both models are useful for quick analysis, the extrapolation of results to operating
conditions presents difficulties. In a actual situation, based on the experimental data a threshold value is
reached, below which expected life is considerably increased. Therefore the simple equations for both
models can be augmented by incorporating a threshold stress (E0). The simplified equations for power
and exponential law can be written as;

Where E is the applied stress, L0 is life at E0 and n, K1, K2 is constants.
6.5.3 Aging models for thermal stress
Thermal stress is a major factor in limiting life of an electrical insulating material. Dakin proposed a
theory for the interpretation of thermal aging in 1948 based on Arrhenius relationship. According to this,
the chemical reaction rates depend on temperature and can be written as;



Where L is life, T is temperature and A, B are constants. When a log of life is plotted against reciprocal of
absolute temperature (1/T0) a straight line results Fig 6

6.5.4 Multi-stress aging models

Multi-stress model incorporates the combined effects of the more than one stress like thermal
and voltage stresses acting simultaneously. The equivalent multi-stress ageing models for
electrical and thermal stress from Inverse-power law and Exponential are as follows

6.6 Conclusion:
Insulating system is one of the most important components in an electrical product. The
properties of the insulation can be looked from four aspects and they are electrical, thermal,
mechanical and chemical. It is necessary to ensure all the above properties of insulation before
using it in an application. Various electrical, thermal, mechanical and chemical tests are being
used to evaluate the materials. The electrical tests are generally classified in to two types and
they are Acceptance tests and Life tests. Acceptance tests like dielectric strength, relative
permittivity, dissipation factor etc. will ensure the operational performance of insulation. Life
tests are used to evaluate the lifetime of insulation under certain working condition. The life tests
can be accomplished by subjecting the insulation to higher voltage, higher temperature and/or
higher frequency. This test will be performed on all the newly developed insulating materials in
addition to existing one.



2. Dielectric Absorption, Insulation Resistance, Polarization Index and other
Tests for diagnostic monitoring of electrical equipments

DIELECTRIC ABSORPTION
Commercial insulations of electrical equipment are usually composite in structure. Such
dielectrics when subjected to alternating current voltages show a dielectric loss which is .greater than
can be accounted for by their conductivities. Among these anomalous properties, is that of dielectric
absorption? This property is illustrated in the behaviors of dielectric when subjected to continuous
voltage. The charge applied continues to flow into dielectric over a period of time which varies from
dielectric to dielectric. Contrary wise, on shorting the charged insulation, the dielectric does not give up
its charge instantaneously. The complete loss of charge requires a time interval which also varies from
dielectric to dielectric. And after having been shorted, the insulation may accumulate a residual charge.
It is this anomalous behavior of insulation which is included in the property off dielectric absorption.
The factors such as testing temperature, the magnitude of the voltage applied and the presence
of polar materials such as moisture, organic acids and other products formed by the normal degradation
of the insulation which are important for insulation resistance and dielectric power factor evaluation are
of equal importance ,in their effect on dielectric absorption.
The dielectric absorption characteristic of insulation however when applied to dielectrics
intended for AC voltage use carries greater Significance than does the insulation resistance characteristic
since by its measurement, knowledge can be obtained concerning those anomalous properties of of a
dielectric which contribute to give a total dielectric loss which is greater:
Than that to be accounted for by the DC voltage conductivity measurement. Consequently
dielectric absorption has been applied as a non-destructive, low DC vo1tag'e gauge of the condition of
insulation both during and after factory manufacture and in service use under AC voltage.
When the insulation consists of an inorganic dielectric such as mica assembled in series with an
organic binder (shellac) as in certain types of rotating machines, changes in the dielectric absorption
value in service are associated with the organic binder since the mica constituent is substantially stable
in its absorption characteristics.
Where the dielectric consists of liquid treated paper as in certain types of cables and capacitors, the
change in dielectric absorption in service is associated with the dielectric degradation in the
impregnating liquid. This change may be due to the presence of liquid soluble contamination arising
either from the use of contaminated paper or degradation in the paper during commercial use or it
may be due to deep seated chemical changes in the liquid itself. In either instance, the low voltage
dielectric absorption test offers rapid and easily available tool for the study of quality changes in
dielectric assemblies either in the factory or in the field.


The application of one type of testing procedure based on dielectric absorption property of
liquid treated paper may be illustrated with reference to liquid impregnated power capacitors.
According to this procedure, the test is run as follows
(a) The capacitor is charged for 4 seconds at 400 volts (DC).
(b) The metallic charge on the capacitor plates is removed by discharging the capacitor rapidly for 0.05
seconds through a resistance of 100 ohms.
(c) The resorption current arising from the recovery charge which appears on the capacitor electrode
after the removal of the short discharge of operation (b) is measured over a period of .4 seconds.
(d) The ratio of discharge current as measured in operation (b) and the resorption current as measured
in operation (c) gives the values relating to the dielectric quality of the insulation.
Increase in these values during service operation is a indication of dielectric degradation.
A high value before commercial use is indicative of poor insulation quality.
Values indicative of commercially good and service degraded insulations range between a low of
about 3 for new and commercially serviceable insulation and values as high as 80 and higher for
insulation which has been degraded sufficiently as to constitute a hazard for continued commercial use.
In industrial dielectrics, a combination of dielectrics is very often used. In particular, the laminar
insulation, in the composition of which fibrous materials of the type of paper (condensers, Rotating
machines, Transformers etc) enter, is very widely used.
Deterioration of the quality of laminar insulation occurs on account of more or less uniform
change of the properties of one or a few layers, since the characteristics of the remaining layers remain
practically unchanged. This causes heterogeneity in the dielectric and peculiar change of its
properties.
The process taking place in the heterogeneous dielectric when it is connected to a direct
voltage are manifested in the appearance of an absorption current in the external circuit with can be
recorded for example with the aid of an oscillograph with the increase of the conductivity of the
defective layer, the
amplitude of the absorption current increases and its duration decreases simultaneously. Therefore
from the oscillograph of the absorption current, a definite idea about the condition of insulation can be
formed. However it is not convenient to measure the absorption current, firstly, since it is small in
magnitude and secondly, since a large rush of current of charges of the capacitance of the insulation
precedes it, the measuring instruments have to be protected from it.. Therefore some times other
method for example, the so called method of measurement of inverse voltage is used. In this method
the absorption coefficient of capacitance is determined as shown in fig. 4.1.


Absorption coefficient is the ratio of residual voltage, measured in definite conditions, across
the capacitance to the initial voltage.
The capacitance is charged for a time t1, discharged for time t2 and for time t3 the capacitance
is left open and residual voltage U2 measured.
Smaller will be the absorption coefficient, lesser will be the degree of deterioration of the
dielectric.
. In polar dielectric, the orientation of dipole molecules is one of the clearest physical causes for
the appearance of absorption current. But appearance of absorption current in non polar dielectrics can
be attributed to the inhomogenity of the dielectric, the formation of space charge in a dielectric under
the action of an external field and other causes which initiate the process of redistribution of charge
with time in the volume of a dielectric.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CAPACITANCE AND RESISTANCE OF ELECTRICAL INSULATION
The capacitance of insulation of capacitor of any shap can be written as
C = K. X. -- (1)
Similarly the volume resistance of the insulation of any shape
P
R= ----- -- (2)
X
Where K is the dielectric constant and P is the volume
Resistivity of the insulation.
The product of C and R would then become
CR = KP -- (3)
In CGS system.
CR = KP -- (4)
where C is in Farads, R in ohms and P in ohms-cms, K is Farads/Cm
Thus the product of capacitance and volume resistance of any capacitor with a homogeneous
dielectric does not depend upon the geometrical dimensions and shape of the insulation of capacitor
and is exclusively determined by the properties of the dielectric.


The' product CR has a definite physical meaning. Let a capacitor with capacitance C and an
insulation resistance R be charged to a certain voltage Uo. If left opened after the. Voltage source is
switched off the capacitor will gradually be discharged.

Determination of Absorption Coefficient
FIGURE 4.1

Figure 4.2 Equivalent Circuit For Capacitor Self Discharge
The equation of voltage drop U across the electrodes of the capacitor as a function of
time reckoned from the moment the source of voltage is switched off takes the form.
-t
U = U0 exp (----)
CR
This is shown in fig. 4.3



The product CR is the time constant of capacitor se11 discharge. The constant is equal to the
time interval during which the voltage diminishes across the capacitor C and can be plotted as a sub
tangent to the curve u(t) at any point on it. In fig.4.3, DB is sub tangent at point U = U0 i.e. at point ~
where the curve intersects the Y-axis, as well as a sub tangent BD
at the point of the curve for which U = Uo/e.
Larger the value of CR i.e. longer the capacitors self discharge time the better is the quality of capacitor
insulation. If C is measured in farads and R in ohm or as is
usually in practice, C in micro farads and R in mega ohm, the product CR is obtained in ohm
farads or seconds.
Measurement Of insulation resistance And polarisation index
When a dielectric is energised by application of direct voltage across it, and if the change of
current flowing through a dielectric versus time, beginning from the moment of application of voltage, is
recorded with the aid of an oscillograph, the current will be of the form as shown in fig.4.4.
The current in curve I is the steady state conduction current also called residual current which is
stable with time and is given by the ratio of applied voltage and resistance of the insulation portion of
the equipment.
The current in curve II is a representation of the absorption current which as discussed earlier
decreases with time and after a certain time reduces to an insignificant value.
Empirically absorption current is given by
I
A
= KVC t
N

Where V is change in value of applied voltage i.e. difference in voltage between adjacent steps.
C is the capacitance of the insulation.
K is a constant demanding upon type of insulation.
N is constant with value 0.5 to 1.
The current in the curve III is the capacitive current given by
-t
-----
RC
E e
I
C
= ------


R
Where E is the test Voltage & R is the resistance of the insulation and any other resistance in the test set
up.
This current also reduce with time and becomes negligible. The curve IV is the sum of all the three
currents at any time as observed by the galvanometer from the moment direct voltage is switched on.
Thus two aspects become clear from the characteristic of fig. 4.4.

The current is not constant and goes on decreasing with time. Thus the insulation resistance as
measured is inversely proportional to the current through the dielectric increases as the time of
electrification increases. The significance of time of electrification and measurement of steady state
valve is therefore obvious.
The another factor of important is the rate of change of current or insulation resistance with time.
The characteristics which defines this is called polarization index which is the ratio of insulation
resistance after ten minute electrification to insulation resistance after one minute electrification.

IR after 10 min electrification
i.e.Polarisation Index (PI)= ---------------------------------------------------------
IR after 1 min electrification.


Polaristion index value of a good, clean, dry dielectric is high and for imperfect dielectric low as shown in
fig 4.5
Thus application of direct voltage on insulation of equipment can provide useful information
about the condition of Insulation. However the test voltage in such a test is generally low and this test
obviously can not give indication of those defects which promote the formation of destructive ionisation
under normal voltage stresses under which the electrical equipment is operating. '
Application of dependence of capacitance on frequency
The capacitance of a laminar dielectric with losses decreases with the increase of frequency. At
direct voltage w = Oe the capacitance is equal to the value of undamaged layer of insulation. In the
other limiting case when w --> 00, capacitance is the value which the specimen has at the moment of
switching on to the source of direct voltage.
The capacitance frequency method consists in comparing the values of capacitances measured
at two different frequencies one of much must tie to the left part of the curve (I) of flg.4.6 and the other
in the right (II).
The method has found most widespread application during the preventive testing of insulation
of transformers and is mainly capable of detecting the moistening of surface layer of the insulation. The
capacitance is measured at the frequencies of 50 c/s (C50) and 2c/s (C2). From the experiments, it has
been found that for the organic fibrous materials, the degree of moistening is considered to be
inadmissible if -:
C2
-------- > 1.3
C50
Application of the dependence of capacitance on temperature.
With the increase of the temperature of the dielectric, its conductivity gradually increases, the
greatest growth 0f conductivity being observed for the moist layer with the increase of temperature, on
the one hand, the degree of heterogeneity of the dielectric is increased and on the other hand, the time
constant is decreased. Therefore increase of temperature acts approximately in the same way as
decrease of frequency. Capacitance is measured at the temperature of 70
0
C & 20
0
C and index of degree
of inadmissibility of moistening is
C70
0
C
-------- > 1.3
C20
0
C


Application of dependence of tan on temperature or frequency
The dependence of tan d on frequency and temperature" can be used with good success to
check the condition of insulation of electrical equipment.
.
This has been found particularly useful transformers.
This technique is useful also for predicting thermal stability problem of Electrical Equipment.
HIGH VOLTAGE DIELECTRIC LOSS AND CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENTS OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENTS
Electrical insulation exposed to electric field displays the ability to store electrical energy. The
energy stored in a unit volume is proportional to the square of field strength and to the absolute
dielectric constant of the insulation. This process most often entails energy dissipation in the insulation
in the form of heat. Electrical Energy expended by an electric field insulation is known as dielectric loss.
A lossy specimen may be represented by a series or parallel equivalent current as shown in figures.
The following relations hold in the two cases.
(Note : e = 2tf)

fig 1 tan o = WCsRs (1)

I = WCs U cos d (d is delta) (2)

tan o
P = I
2
R s = U
2
WCs ------------ (3)
1 + tan
2
o
1
Fig. 2 tan o = ---------- (4)
Rp WCp

P = U
2
WCp tan o (5)


On the condition that losses in circuit must be equal for both series and parallel representation.
U
2
WCs. tan o = U
2
WCp tan o (6)
1 + tan
2
o

or Cs = Cp (1+ tan
2
o) (7)

and Rs = Rp tan
2
o
1 + tan
2
o



If tan o < < 0.1
Tan
2
o < < 0.01

Then if error does not increase +/- 1% it is safe to assume.
Cs = Cp --- (9)
Rs = Rp tan
2
o --- (10)

The capacitance cp in the parallel equivalent circuit is the sought for capacitance of the specimen. Tan d
of a dielectric is a measure of its quality. For a good dielectric, tan d should be as small as possible.
Tan d or a good dielectric increases slowly and linearly with increase in voltage upto its operating
voltage. If a dielectric is becoming unhealthy, tan delta will shoot up with increase in voltage as shown in
fig.

It is also important that of the dielectric does not increase with temp. upto the rated temp. of the
dielectric. Otherwise increased tan d would result in still higher temp. and then further increase of tand
and still further increase of temp. finally resulting in thermal instability of the dielectric.
The Schering Bridge: -
One of the most commonly used method for measuring tan d or loss tangent and capacitance is
the Schering bridge. The bridge measures the capacitance and loss angle of a capacitor by comparing it
with a gas filled standard capacitor which has a regligible loss over a wide frequency range. The
arrangement is shown in figure.
The first arm of the bridge consists of a sample, the dielectric loss and capacitance of which are
to be measured. On account of dielectric loss the current through the capacitor leads the voltage by an
angle 90
0
d. Which is slightly less than 90
0
.
The lossy capacitor Cx is represented by the series circuit i.e. a resistance Rx in series with Cx.
R3 is a variable resistor and R4 is a fixed resistor. C4 is a variable capacitor. The null detector is
connected across (b) & (d).



PLOT OF TAN D OF GOOD & BAD DIELECTRICS UP TO THE RATED VOLTAGE OF DIELECTC OF THE EQUIPMENT
FIG 2.3

Fig 2.4
Under the balance conditions, when null detector shows no deflection,

Zab Zad
----------- = ------------ (11)
Zbc Zdc
1
Now Zad = Rx j --------- (12)
WCs


1
Zab = j --------- (13)
WCs

1
R4 [ -j ( -------)]
WC4
Zbc = ---------------------- (14)
R4 -j ( 1 )]
WC4
Zdc = R3 (15)
Therefore from (11)
1 1 1
-j ( -------) [R4 -j ( -------)] = Rx j ( ---------)
WCs WC4 WCx
---------------------------------------------- -------------------------
1 R3
R4 [-j ( -------) ]
WC4

Equating components in quadrature

R4
Cx = Cs ------- (16)
R3


And equating components in phase gives,
C4 R3
Rx = ---------- (17)
Cs
Now tan d = WCx Rx

= W . Cs R4 x C4 R3
R3 Cs

Or tan d = WC4 R4 (18)
In practice R4 is a constant value 1000 or 10,000
So that tan d becomes directly proportional to C4.
To exclude from Zbc & Zdc and the galvanometer branches any currents due to inter capacity
between the high voltage and low voltage arms, except those following through Zab & Zad, the bridge is
fully screened as shown in fig . The L. V. arms are usually protected with spark gaps against the
appearance of high voltages in the event of failure of specimen or standard capacitor.

In fig the network is earthed at the low voltage end of the transformer supplying the high
voltage and by this also the bridge is earthed at (G). Under balance both sides of the null detector G are
at the same potential, but the shield is earthed. III & IV and depending upon the length of the leads to Cs
and Cx, these partial capacitances can assume values over a wide limit. These partial capacitances can
be measured and thus their influence on the dissipation factor can be calculated,. If C1 is the partial
capacitance of branch I & C
II
that of branch that of branch II, the calculation shows,
tan d = Rw (C
4
+ C
II
) R
3
WC
1

This procedure is time consuming and inconvenient and there are methods available to
overcome this defect. The principle of the method may easiest be described by the Wagner Earth as
shown in fig. 2.5



In this arrangement, an additional arm Z is connected between the low voltage terminal of the
four arm bridge and earth. Together with the stray capacitance of the high voltage bus bar to earth, the
arrangement becomes equivalent to six arm bridge and a double balancing procedure is required which
can enables the detector to be switched on into either set of arms.
At balance the terminals of the detector are at earth potential and the capacitance between the
terminals and screens having no potential difference between them and do not affect the balance
conditions. Both the detector and low voltage leads must be screened. The capacitance between the
leads and screens are in parallel with the impedance Z as such do not contribute to the balance
conditions.
This method however is rarely used today as an electronic device for automatic balancing of
Wagner earth may be used. The basic circuit is shown in fig.
Though the bridge may be earthed at (C), the potentials of the screen are shifted to the
potential of the detector branch by a high quality amplifier with unity voltage gain. The shields of leads
Cs & Cx are not grounded, but connected to the out put of the amplifier, for which operational
amplifiers can be conveniently used . The high input impedance and very low output impedance of the
amplifier does not load the detector branch and keep sthe screen potential at any instant at an artificial
ground. A second screen which is earthed may be added to prevent disturbances by neighboring voltage
sources.
Transformer Ratio arm Bridge.: -
There are many types of bridges available for precision measurements of impedance over a
wide range of frequencies based on transformer coupling. A simple inductively coupled current ratio
arm bridge suitable for high voltage measurement is shown in fig.


The main art of the bridge circuit consists of a three winding current comparator or current
transformer with very low losses and leakage (Core of high permeability) which is carefully shielded
against magnetic stray fields and protected against mechanical vibrations. Thus the particular merit in
this arrangement is that there is not net mmf across the windings 1-2 at balance conditions.
Furthermore the stray capacitance across the windings and that of the screened low voltage leads does
not enter in the balance expression since there is no voltage developed across them. This enables long
leads to be used without wagner earth. The sensitivity of the bridge is higher than that of Schering
Bridge.

The balance is indicated by zero voltage induced in the detector coil and corresponds to the
conditions when I x N1 = I2 N2 where N1 and N2 are the number of turns in series with sample and
standard capacitor and I x & I 2 are corresponding currents following in N1 & N2.
For a current Is in the standard capacitor Cs, the voltage developed across the R-C arm is given
by



Is R
V = --------------
1 + JWCR
The portion of current I2 in the coil 2 is
IS
I2 = -----------
1 + JWCR
and for a unity applied voltage.
1 jwc
s
I2 = -------------------------------------- = --------------------------
( R ) ( 1 ) (1 + jWCR) 1 + jWC(Cs + c) R
--------- + ---------
1 + jWCR jWCs
Therefore,
N2
C x = Cs x -----
N1

And tan o = WR (Cs + C)

The capacitance and phase angle balance are obtained by making N1, N2 and R variable.
Thus by using the Bridge circuits discussed above, the capacitance and tan d of the dielectric of
the electric of the electrical apparatus can be measured at different voltages up to the rated voltages
and at different temp. of the voltages of the objects. These values are then utilized to predict the
condition of the equipment in operation.



3. Tan Delta Measurement an Important Parameter

THREE TERMINAL CAPACITOR
& TWO TERMINAL CAPACITOR

TRANSFORMER RATIO ARM BRIDGE
Ix Nx = Is Ns
Cx Nx = V WCs Ns
Cx = Cs x Ns/Nx
& Tan is W R (C + Cs).
BASIC CAPACITANCE THEORY

Power factor = Cos = Sin = I
R
/I
Dissipation factor = COT =Tan = Ir/Ic

TAN DELTA & COS

PARALLEL LOSSES & SERIES LOSSES

Tans = WCRTanp = 1/RpWCp

Cp = Cs/1+Tan
2
s = Cs/1+ (RsWCs)
2

Rp = Rs (1+1/tan
2
s) = Rs (1+1/*RsWCS+
2
)


CONVERSION FORMULAS:
Cpf = mA X 10
6
W X Kv
Cpf = mA X 3180 at 50Hz
KV
Cpf = mA X 2650 at 60Hz
KV
mA = KV w Cpf x 10
-6
mA = KV X Cpf X 314 X 10
-6
at 5Hz
mA = KV X Cpf X 377 C 10
-6
at 60Hz
% DF = W
LOSS
X 100 KV X mA

All these formulas are valid when DF / PF is less than 20%
W
LOSS
= kv
2
X Cpf X % DF X 3.14 X 10
-6
at 50Hz
W
LOSS
= kv
2
X Cpf X %DF X 3.77 X 10
-6
at 60Hz
Df PF = -------------------
(1 + DF
2
)
PF
DF = ---------------------
(1- PF
2
)

Cpf = Capacitance, Pico farad
DF = Dissipation factor
mA = Milliamp
PF = Power factor
KV = Kilo Volts
W = 2f
W
LOSS
= Watt Loss
F = Frequency



UST, GST & GSTg MODES OF OPERATIONS

UST, GST & GSTg MODES OF OPERATIONS

GST Mode

H
L

UST MEASURES CHL GST MODE MEASURES CHL + CHG

GSTg MODE MEASURES CHG


Dissipation factor indicates following in any insulating system
Insulating systems chemical change due to time &
temperature and other service conditions.
Damaged insulation system due to local over heating.
Contamination due to water, carbon, oil, dirt etc.
Leakages through crack & surfaces.
Ionization both local & general.

INTERPRITATION OF RESULTS
Interpretation of results is generally based on experience, information supplied by Electrical apparatus
manufacturer observing keenly the trends & differences under varying conditions like;
*. Trends of measurement on the same unit at different intervals of time under essential
identical conditions.
*. Measurement of identical units of same make or parts of same unit under similar test
conditions around same time.
*. Measurements of same unit at different voltages showing variation with stress voltage, any
sudden increase in slope indicates ionization.
TYPICAL TAN VALUES FOR VARIOUS EQUIPMENTS
Sr.No. Equipment % Tan Delta
1. New High voltage Transformer 0.25 % to 1%
2. In Service 0.75 % to 15%
3. LV Distribution Transformer 1% to 5 %
4. OCB 0.4% to 2%
5. Cable with solid Insulation 0.5% to 15%
6. Cable Oil filled/Pressurised 0.2% to 0.5%
7. Motors 2% to 8%
8. Capacitor without Dischrg Device 0.05% to 0.5%
9. Bushing Oil filled 0.3% to 4%


10. Bushing 3% to 10 %

PERMITIVITY & DISSIPATION FACTOR
Sr.No. Material r Tan Delta
1. Air 1.0 0.0 %
2. Kraft Paper 2.2 0.6 %
3. Tx. Oil 2.2 0.02 %
4. Polyester 3.0 0.3 %
5. Polyamide 3.5 0.3 %
6. Polyethylene 2.3 0.05 %
7. Polypropylene 2.2 0.02 %
8.
Rubber
3.6 4.0 %
It is interesting to note r & %Tan values for water & Ice.
r %Tan
Water 80 100
Ice 88 1 (0
0
c)

This shows that Tan results will be abnormally affected; if measured at freezing temperature
because of 100:1 ratios. Tan should not be measured at freezing temperature.
FACTORS AFFECTING TAN DELTA MEASUREMENT
TEMPERATURE
HUMIDITY
SURFACE LEAKAGE
INTERFERANCE
NEGATIVE TAN DELTA


4. Study of Partial Discharge Measurement on Electrical Equipments
The normal practice in the electrical engineering industry is to subject the apparatus to an over
voltage proof tests for a specified duration to detect the isolated weak spots or defects in the insulation.
Such over voltage tests do reveal fully reliable as the failure may occur soon after these are not these
tests are go and no-go tests as usually no other monitored during the tests. Moreover it is now well
especially to the equipment in operation do consume certain life of the insulation. Therefore there has
been an increasing demand from consumers for non-destructive tests to predict the condition of the
apparatus at nominal over voltage. Partial discharge tests have assumed greater significance generally at
1.25 to 1.5 times the working voltage only. Partial discharge tests are being conducted on
Power Cables .
Power capacitors.
Bushings & insulators.
Transformers.
CTs & PTs
Stator coils of motors & generators.
Type of Partial Discharges
Electric Discharges which do not bridge electrodes are called partial discharges. A sound
dielectric is present between a discharge and one or both electrodes in this form of solid, liquid or
gaseous insulation.Fig 3.1 shows a cavity I in which discharge between electrodes is shielded by a solid
insulation from the bottom electrode.
The discharge of type I & II in Fig 3.1 are called internal discharges in cavities present in the
dielectric and are caused by the radial component of the electrical field.



The second type of discharges occur on the surface of the dielectric and are called surface discharge as
shown in Fig 3.2
In this case at least one electrode is shielded from the discharge by a solid. These are many
times caused by tangential component of the field in the electrical apparatus.
The third type of discharge occur around a sharp point which is at high voltage. Such discharge is
called corona discharges. Fig 3.3 shows such type.
In corona discharges , the discharge is shielded from one electrode by a column of non-ionized
gas . these discharges arise due to inhomogeneous field as the sharp points act as field concentration
point.
The above type of discharges , either singly or in combination are present in many electrical
apparatus. As the electrical apparatus ages in operation, such discharges can arise. Although the
magnitude of discharges is usually small, these discharges cause progressive deterioration and ultimate
failure of the insulation of the equipment.

Mechanism of damage due to PD.
The deterioration take place in each cycle of the applied voltage. The mode of deterioration
depends upon the type of dielectric and is different for different dielectrics.
Due to the breakdown in the gas cavity , large no. of dielectrics in the energy range 0-14 ev are
liberated. Some of the highly energetic electrons break chemical bonds of the insulation surface
particularly C-H bonds. Thus a small volume of insulation is destroyed. Similarly ions cause local
bombardment and consequently raise the temperature of the surface. The effect of all this is that gas
path goes on increasing in length and this finally cause breakdown.
The chemical products formed during PD activity are injurious to insulation. If oxygen gas is
present in the cavity it gets converted to ozone under the action of electrical discharges. this is a
powerful oxidizing agent and strongly attacks the surface of the insulation.

Nitrogen oxide compounds result from the ionization of the air. These combine with water to form acids
according to equation 3NO
2
+ H
2
O

---> 2 HNO
3
+ No.

The acids attacks not only organic compounds but also corrode metals.


In polyethylene, deterioration is due to thermal process while in Mica & glass , deterioration
occurs due to ion-bombardment. The deterioration in impregnated paper is due to carbonized tracks.
Cellulose is weakened mechanically due to carborised tracks. Cellulose is weakened mechanically due to
PD and the destroyed. Resins are deteriorated due to forms of nitric acid.
The rate of deterioration increases with the increase in stress. For many forms of insulation, life
is found to be proportional to ( V
1
/V
0
)
n

where n varies from 3 to 10 , depending upon the type of
insulation and ambient condition.
(V1

- PD inception voltage, V
0
voltage across object)
Analogue Circuit of cavity in insulation.
The cavity in the dielectric is represented by analog circuit as shown in fig. 3.4 , called as abc
diagram.
The portion I of the dielectric is a faulty portion containing void of capacitance C. the
capacitance of the sound portion in I without void is represented by capacitance b.
The portion II of the dielectric corresponds to the sound part of the dielectric.
All other types of discharges can also be represented by similar abc diagram.
Fig 3.5represents the scheme of recurrence of partial discharges.
Vc represent the voltage across cavity of capacitance c and Va represent the voltage across the
specimen. U
+
& U
-
levels represent the break down voltage of the cavity reaches U
+
& U
-
level, sudden
voltage drop occurs. Such a voltage drop takes place in a time less than 10
-7
second. This sudden voltage
drop represents a step function.



The discharge recurrence frequency is usually much greater than that predicted by the above
model as ther are usually several discharge sites even in the small cavity.

Internal discharge Inception Voltages
The internal discharges occur in the inclusion of low dielectric strength. The material in inclusion
e.g. air or gas breakdown at a stress which is low compared with B.D strength of surrounding dielectric.
The dielectric constant of material in inclusion is lower than that of dielectric, so stress in inclusion is
higher than in dielectric and inclusion breaks down even earlier.
In general if flat cavity is perpendicular to the electric field, stress in cavity is Dielectric constant
(K) of the surrounding solid times the average stress (EO) in the material surrounding the cavity. If the
cavity is spherical,
3K
Stress ------- EO 1.5 times the average dielectric stress.
1+2K



the dielectric strength of cavity depends upon the kind of gas in the cavity , the gas pressure and
its dimensions. PD in the cavity bounded by insulation occurs at approximately same voltage as between
equally spaced metal electrodes.
For a sheet insulation between plane electrodes of thickness h, if a void of thickness h1 is
present, then stress in gas
V
E
G
= ---------------
h1 + h h1
-------
K
If electric stress of Eg is attained at a voltage Vi say, then V1 = E
G
( h1 + h-h1/k), would be the
discharge inception voltage of the cavity.
Similarly for a void of thickness h1 at radius r
1
between concentric cylindrical conductors of r
and r + h,
1+ h1 h
V
1
= E
G
r
1
( 1 1/k) Ln{ ( ---------) ( 1+ -----)
1/k-1
}

r
1
r
as an example , discharges in air gaps 4 mil or 0.1 mm thick at atmosphere pressure occur at 100
KV/cm peak stress, with such cavities in polyethylene for which
K = 2.3, discharges may begin when the stress in polyethylene is only 28 kv/cm rms, while in many
thermoset mouldings where K = 8, discharges may begin when the stress in the insulation is below 10
kv/cm rms.

Discharge may also occur as a result of intence stress concentration at the sharp edges of
conducting inclusions in insulation.

Magnitude of Discharges
If U
+
is inception voltage and after discharge the voltage drops to V
+
Then V = U
+
- V
+
= Vc is the voltage change across cavity as a result of discharge. Refer fig. 3.6.


The circuit in fig 3.6 may be rearranged as shown in fig. 3.7
If sample is large with small cavity , charge transfer in cavity.
q = V ( b+c) , where V is the voltage change across cavity.

This nature of discharge magnitude unfortunately this cannot be measured practically.
As b <<a , the abc diagrame may be drawn as approximation in fig 3.8.
Now let us refer to fig. 3.9.
The quantity of charge b V will flow in a & b and cause a voltage drop across the sample i.e.
across a b V/a+b



Thus charge apparently displaced across a,
b v
q
a
= a ------
a + b

And as a b,
qa = b V
Most discharge detector respond to the voltage drop and are capable of measuring q .
However q = b V is not determined by the dimensions of the cavity as b is affected by the
thickness of insulation.
The circuit in fig. 3.9 can be replaced by following fig. 3.10.
Here Eq = V & Cq = b of fig. 9.
The value of cq must be chosen to be small compared with a or the approximation made above would
not be valid.
Thus fig.3.10 represents discharging sample a having a
discharge magnitude eq cq.
Discharge Energy
If a b,
Discharge Energy W = 1/2 (b+c) [(U+)
2
- (v+)
2
]
= 1/2 (b+c) (U
+
+ v+) (U
+
- v
+
)
= 1/2 (b+c). V. (U
+
+ V
+
).If V
+
is neglected,
w = 1/2 (b+c) V U
+
.


At the moment of first breakdown, no residual charges are present.
b
and U
+
= --------- Vi, where Vi is inception voltage
b+c
b
Thus W = ( (b+c) V------V
1

b+c
= b V Vi
= q Vi.
In volts rms, W = 0.7 q V
1 .



Thus discharge energy is related to apparent charge transfer and universally adopted for
caliberation and measurement of magnitude.
Detection of PD
PD: give rise to many phenomenon which may be used for detection.
1) Electrical phenomenon.
a) Dielectric loss
b) Electrical impulse
2) Electromagnetic relation.
3) Light picked up by photomultiplier tube.
4) Heat picked up by thermocouple, hot spot.
5) Noise Accompanied by hissing, contact microphone.
6) Gas pressure and chemical transformation.

Out of all these methods, the measurement of electrical impulses has been developed quite
extensively. The basic circuit is shown in fig.3.11.
If the capacitance ca of the sample is small , i.e. 100 to 1000 Pf and discharge inception voltage
between 1 and 10 KV , discharges of 10
-8
joule generated pulses of
2-200 mv. These can be readily detected by using resistance as detection impedance.
it has been established that the optimum signal/noise ratio and thus the greatest sensitivity can
be obtained by concentrating most of the overall selectivity in the input circuit. i.e. the band width of
the amplifier should be much greater than that of the input circuit. In practice this is achieved by
replacing the input unit impedance Z by a tuned circuit. The inductance of the tuned circuit in
combination with the object and coupling capacitor and inbuilt capacitor getstuned to a certain fixed
frequency given

1 1
f = ------ \ ------
2 LC

Thus for different range of objects , different inductance & range of input units are used. The out put
frequency band is around 20-200 kc/s and sensitive amplifiers in the detection band amplify the input
signal and the same.


In practice the test voltage across the object is increased gradually and the display observed. As
the display shows a pulse, the voltage at which PD pulse appear and the disappear are observed on
reduction of voltage. Thus discharge inception and extinction voltages are observed.
For evaluating the discharge magnitude eq a calibration pulse of known magnitude is fed
through the calibration capacitance eq

is adjusted to match the PD pulse from the object. The discharge
magnitude at any given voltage then is calculated using the following equation.

Ca
q = Eq Cq [

1 + ------ ]
Cb

For maximum sensitivity the coupling capacitance Cb should be larger than the test capacitance.



5. Study of Insulating Oil Testing

Liquid as an Insulator:

As liquids are 10
3
times denser than gases, hence their dielectric strength should be much greater (10
7

V/cm) as according to Paschens law *V = f (pd)+ But in actual practice the dielectric strength of liquid is
obtained as 100 KV/Cm.
Liquids like gases fill up the complete volume to be insulated and dissipate heat by convection.
Liquids to be used as a dielectric should be free from impurities like dust, dissolved gases and
moisture. Dust particles when present become charged and reduce the B/D strength.
Gases like Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide also reduce the breakdown strength of liquids (E = o / e
0
for
gases, E = o / e
0
e
r
for liquids).
Ionic impurities like water vapour which easily dissociates and increases the conductivity and
liquid gets heated due to conduction of current when electric field is applied.
Dust is removed by using mechanical filters and other types of filters like spray, electrostatic
filters, centrifuging, and distillation and by chemical treatment (adding ion exchange materials such as
alumina etc.)
Gases are removed by distillation and degassing. Water vapors are removed by using drying
agents or by vacuum drying.
Electrical properties that are considered in determining the dielectric performance of the
liquid dielectric etc.
1) Its capacitance.
2) Resistivity.
3) Loss angle or dielectric loss.
4) Dielectric strength.
The other properties which are essential in the choice of the liquid dielectric for a given application are
1) Chemical stability.
2) Viscosity.
3) Thermal stability.
4) Flash point.
5) Specific gravity.
6) Susceptibility to the environment influences and
7) Saving of space: For the same application the space required for liquid dielectric is less
than that for the gaseous dielectric.



Transformer Oil: Liquid dielectrics are classified as organic liquids (either natural or artificial) and
inorganic liquid dielectric. Transformer oil is a natural organic dielectric. It is a mineral oil. It is a cheapest
and is most commonly used.
The presence of even 0.01% of water in transformer oil reduces its dielectric strength to 20% of dry oil
value.
Every large organization operating on bulk electrical supply has to install transformer for
converting system voltage to suit the requirement. Large transformers are always oil cooled. The oil
acts as an insulting medium between the two conductors. It also acts as cooling medium to cool the
transformer windings and core. Transformer oil consists of mixture of hydrocarbons, which include
paraffin, is oparaffin naphthalene and some % of aromatics.
When in service the transformer oil is subjected to prolonged heating at high temperature at
about 95C. Due to heating the oil becomes darker due to formation of acids and sludge. Some acids
are corrosive to the solid insulating material and metal parts in the transformer and there is reduction
in breakdown strength of the transformer oil.
The factors which reduces breakdown strength of the oil are
1) Acidity,
2) Sludge formation,
3) Atmospheric condition,
4) Presence of moisture,
5) Operating temperature.
The Specifications of Transformer oil recommended by IS. BS and IEC standards are as follows

CHARACTERISTIC DENSITY
IS-335 (1995) at 9.5
0
C 0.89 gm/cm
3
at 29.5
0
C Max
IEC-296(Class-I)
0.895 gm/cm
3
at 20
0
C Max
IEC-296 (Class-II)
0.895 gm/cm
3
at 20
0
C Max
BS-148
0.895 gm/cm
3
at 20
0
C Max
CHARACTERISTIC Kin. Viscosity,CST
IS-335 (1995)
27 max at 27
0
C
IEC-296(Class-I)

16.5 max at 40
0
C
800 max at 15
0
C


IEC-296 (Class-II)
11.0 max at 40
0
C Max
BS-148
16.5 max at 40
0
C,800 max at 15
0
C
CHARACTERISTIC Interfacial Tension N/m (min)
IS-335 (1995) 0.04
IEC-296(Class-I)
Not Required
IEC-296 (Class-II) Not Required
BS-148 Not Required
CHARACTERISTIC
Flash Point.
0
C (min)
IS-335 (1995) 140
IEC-296(Class-I) 140
IEC-296 (Class-II) 130
BS-148 140
CHARACTERISTIC
Pour Point
0
C(Max)
IS-335 (1995) -6
IEC-296(Class-I) -30
IEC-296 (Class-II) -45
BS-148 -30
Motorized oil test set for Testing the Breakdown strength
The components and their functions are as follows:
1) Main Switch: This is 2 pole ON-OFF switch that controls input power to the unit.
2) Fuse: 5A capacity to protect the unit
3) Main Pilot Lamp: This neon lamp of 230 V indicates the condition of energisation.
4) Push to Operate: Push button is dual deck type button, which controls the signal to HT
contactor, motor of motorized control and stirrer circuit.
5) Motor Control Switch: This is 3 pole, 2 way with center off toggle switch and is used to
change / govern the direction of motor and hence to increase or reduce the output
voltage.
6) Control Knob: In manual mode knob is rotated by hand to change the output voltage. In
Motorized mode the same is driven by the motor.


7) Voltmeter: Voltmeter connected on primary side of H.T. transformer and marked in kV to
indicate output voltage across electrodes. The reading of voltmeter is R.M.S. of output
across electrodes.
8) HT on pilot lamp: indicates than high tension is on when HT contactor (CHT) is energized.
9) Control transformer: is used to get desired output voltage. Its position is changed by
manually or by motor. It is autotransformer.
10) Tripping Current Transformer: It senses the primary current of HT transformer and trips the
CB, which in turn switches off HT supply. The primary current increases at the time of
breakdown down of gap.
11) Zero Start Switch: Because of this unit cant be energized unless control transformer is at
zero position.
12) H.T. Transformer: It is a step-up transformer. It is oil cooled. The transformer is designed as
per IS 6792/1972.
13) Raise/ Lower Limit Switch: Because of this motor is isolated when there is over travel of
control transformer.
14) CB: This is a dc relay. It trips the HT contactor when gap breaks down.
15) HT contactor: This is a contactor, which allows the power to flow to the high voltage
transformer.
16) Door Switch: Due to door switch high tension cant be switched ON when hood of chamber
is open.
17) Stirrer: It is small Teflon coated magnetic paddle and placed in test cell. The stirrer
operates on the principle of utilizing the rotating field from a balanced permanent magnet
to include variable speed stirring action.

Preparation of sample:
The sample of oil shall be drawn from bulk container or from the transformer or switchgear
and for this purpose a physically and chemically clean sampling tube is recommended. It is
recommended that undisturbed oil, which has been undisturbed, under container for more than 24 hr.
is preferred. The minimum volume required is 400 ml. For the one test and to obtain the correct
reading the sample volume of 2000 ml. is recommended. Care should be taken to bring that sample of
oil, which is unexposed to air, until the sample achieves the room temperature where test is operated.

Preparation of apparatus:
Clean and dry the test cell and electrodes. Unless the cell has been previously used for testing
set or dirty oil pour a little of the oil to be tested over the electrode. Swill it round the cell and pour it
away; carry out this operation twice before oil is finally poured in for testing. If more thorough
cleaning is necessary, use benzene (C
6
H
6
) followed by the rinsing process described above. Between
the tests, pour away the oil and leave the cell in an inverted position to exclude dirt and moisture or
alternatively fill the cell with oil having high electric strength and cover it suitably.
Shake the oil-sampling bottle gently and pour some of the oil over the lip of the sampling
container to clean it. Then decant the oil under test into the cell with a minimum of splashing until the


oil level is 40 mm. above the electrodes and allow it to stand for 10 min. to permit air bubbles to
escape.
Preparation of Cell:
The cell has been selected to suit the I.S. 6792/1072 and as per BS 148/1972. The sphere
electrodes are of polished surface and the polished surface should not be damaged by application of
mechanical tools or by excessive and continuous sparks.
By use of 2.5 mm gauge adjust the gap 2.5 mm. between the electrodes.
Operation:
After the test cell (cup) with oil is placed on overhangs in the unit. Feed the unit by appropriate
Voltage (1 phase ac with earth system by means of 3-pin duly wired up plug).
1) Switch on the mains of main switch. The condition will be indicated by means on pilot lamp.
2) Keep motor switch in decrease position.
3) Press operate push button. The motor will start operating and control knob will move
anticlockwise tending towards zero position. This operates push button will also
simultaneously operate stirrer for stirring the oil. The stirrer will operate as long as push
button is kept pressed. Keep operate push button pressed till the control knob comes to
zero. At this position the zero start switch will switch on HT transformer.
4) Toggle motor switch in increase position. The motor will start operating and voltmeter will
start reading the voltage generated by HV transformer and control knob will start moving
clockwise. The rate of voltage rise is 2 kV/sec. approximately.
5) Test the sample at desired voltage by toggling the Motor switch in off position. The voltage
will automatically increase or decrease depending on motor switch position. If sample fails it
will trip HT contactor. The voltmeter will indicate at which sample has failed.
6) Average of fire reading is taken.
Manual control: The unit can be used as manually controlled unit for controlling the voltage.


Circuit Diagram: Power Circuit Diagram of Transformer Oil Test Set



6. Study of Condition Monitoring of On-Load Tap Changers

On Load Tap Changer (OLTC) is a device used to regulate the output voltage of the transformer
to a required level. Study on failure statistics of Power Transformers reveals that 40% of its
failures are due to malfunction of OLTCs and hence a proper diagnostic tool for OLTCs in
necessary. Conventional tests on OLTCs like winding resistance and Differential Temperature
measurements are not sufficient to properly diagnose the OLTC problems.
Recently Dissolved Gas Analysis of OLTC oil and Dynamic Resistance Measurement
tests are proved to be successful to indicate the OLTC contact problems. Motor torque and
Acoustic methods are at present in a nascent stage and further work is necessary to interpret it
properly.
This paper discusses in brief the construction and operation of OLTCs, and deals in
details all the above techniques with case studies and concludes with the future work required.

1. Introduction
A tap changer is a device fitted to power transformers for regulation of the output voltage to
the required levels and this is normally achieved by changing the turns ratio of the transformers. Tap
changers can be On-load or Off-load. Today all transformers above 10MVA ratings are incorporated
with on load tap changers (OLTCs) for voltage regulation [1].
2. General Construction of OLTC
Generally all power transformers are In-tank types OLTCs. Figure 1 shows the general arrangement
of In-tank type OLTCs in a transformer. It consists of
i) Tap selector
ii) Diverter switch
iii) Driving Mechanism
The diverter switch and tap selector assembled to form a single unit, are housed in the transformer tank
to allow for tap lead being as short as possible between winding and tap-changer, refer figure 1.
Tap selector unit shown in figure 2 consists of tapping points where the tap leads from the
winding are connected. The function of tap selector unit is to pre select the desired tap. The Diverter
switch unit shown in figure 2 consists of main and transition contacts. It is an oil tight compartment,
which prevents the mixing of oil, in main Transformer tank. Since some amount of arcing takes place
during the switching operation from one tap to other, the oil inside the tap changer will deteriorate
faster.
Hence, this oil in tap changer chamber cannot be allowed to mix with the oil in the main
transformer. OLTCs are provided with a separate conservator, oil surge relay and also sometimes
with filter unit.


Figure 1 In Tank OLTC along with Transformer



Diverter Switch Unit Tap Selector Unit

Figure 2 Diverter and Tap Selector Units of OLTC
3. Principle of Operation of OLTC
The tap changer is driven from the motor drive box by interconnecting shafts, bevel gears and
the upper gear unit.


When a tap change is initiated, the Tap-Selector pre-selects the desired tap on the
regulating winding of the transformer. The Diverter Switch then transfers the current from the
in service tap to pre-selected tap.
During diverter switching operation two taps will come in contact with each other. To avoid
short circuit between these two taps, a resistor is connected across it. This resistor is called Transition
Resistors. Time taken for OLTCs to change from one tap to another tap is in the order of 5 to 15
Seconds. Out of this time, time taken for diverter switch operation (during which arcing occurs) is about
50ms.
3.1 Operation Sequence: Refer Figure 3
Sequence 1:- The main contact H is carrying the load current. The transition contacts M1 and M2 are
open, resting in the spaces between the fixed contacts.
Sequence 2:- The transition contact M1 has made on the fixed contact 2, and the main switching contact
H has broken. The transition resistor and the transition contact M1 carry the load current.
Sequence 3:-The transition contact M2 has made on the fixed contact 3. The load current is divided
between the transition contacts M1 and M2. The transition resistor limits the circulating current.
Sequence 4:-The transition contact M1 has broken at the fixed contact 2. The transition resistor and the
transition contact M2 carry the load current.
Sequence 5:-The main switching contact H has made on the fixed contact 2. The transition contact M1
has opened at the fixed contact 3. The main contact H is carrying the load current.

Figure 3 Operation Sequence of OLTC



4. Cigre Survey on failure statistics of OLTCs
According to the results of an international survey on power transformer failures [2], OLTCs
cause more failures and outages (40% of power transformer failures are due to malfunctions of
OLTCs) than any other components of a power transformer. It is therefore important to assure
the reliability of tap changers as cheaply and reliably as possible.
5. Common OLTCs Problems
i. Open Circuits in Diverters
The most likely cause of tap changer faults is burnt-out or otherwise disconnected transition
resistors. An open circuit inside the diverter will cause arcing in the oil, and, if not corrected, will
cause the oil surge relay to disconnect the transformer.
ii. Excessive Wear of Diverter Moving Contacts
Modern tap changers are designed for very large number of operations typically 5,00,000 without
excessive wear. However, older designed are less resistant. Furthermore, even modern contacts which
have tungsten contact faces, could reasonably be expected to show signs of wear at some time over an
expected transformer life of 30 to 40 years. Excessive contact wear will cause arcing in the oil, and if not
corrected, will cause the oil surge relay to disconnect the transformer.
iii. Weakening of Springs in Diverters and Selectors
Weakening of the springs will result in poor contact pressures in the switches, promoting
overheating of contacts, increased contact resistance and degradation of OLTC oil.
iv. Degradation of Diverter Compartment Oil
If the degradation of the diverter compartment oil is not corrected in time, the overall diverter
insulation will break down, causing serious damage to the diverter switch, and disconnection of the
transformer.
6. Preventive Maintenance Procedure [3]
The following maintenance procedure will be followed when number of operations exceeds 5000
operations or once in a 6 months whichever is earlier.
- Removal and reinstallation of the diverter switch unit
- Cleaning of the diverter switch oil compartment, diverter switch unit and the oil
Conservator tank
- Changing of the switching oil
- Checking the mechanical and dielectric condition of the diverter switch and the
oil compartment


- Determination of contact wear and if necessary replacement of the arcing contacts
- Measurement of the transition resistors
- Checking of the tap-change monitoring circuit, protective relay, drive shaft, motor drive unit and
where present - the oil filter unit

7. Diagnostic Technique in Vogue
7.1 Differential Temperature Measurements
Differential Temperature is a comparison of the OLTC tank temperature to the main transformer
tank temperature. Under normal condition, main tank temperature will be higher than OLTC tank
temperature. When contact problem is there, OLTC tank temperature will be more than the main tank
temperature.
7.1.1 Case Studies
Cases OLTC Tank
Temperature
Main Tank
Temperature
Difference
Case 1 41C 36C -5C
Case 2 31C 26C -5C
Case 3 33C 26C -7C
Case 1: Showed excessive amounts of sludging of the oil and severe coking and pitting of one set of
reversing contacts.
Case 2: Visual inspection shows oil contained sludge, but the contacts appeared to be in good condition.
Case 3: No indication of Abnormal Operation found during the internal inspection. It is not understood
why the OLTC was indicating overheating as all the contacts appeared to be in good condition with
minimal wear and the oil was in good condition.
These results made it apparent that differential temperature alone was not providing enough
information to determine the severity of a problem.
7.2 Dissolved Gas Analysis [4]
Dissolved gas-in-oil analysis is used as a diagnostic tool for determining the health of
transformers and electrical cables by evaluating their liquid and solid insulation. Over the last few years,
DGA is being used more and more to diagnose load tap-changers and other oil-immersed switchgear.


Acetylene, the key gas for arcing, is routinely found in OTC compartments and will vary with the
number of operations. Ethylene, methane and ethane, which are sometimes referred to as the hot
metal gases, are the key gases associated with pyrolysis or overheating. R. Youngblood [4] suggested
that the presence of high levels of methane, ethane and especially ethylene, would indicate overheating
of the OLTC contacts. He has also revealed that the levels of acetylene and hydrogen should not be
ignored since the concentrations of these gases in a problem OLTC are significantly higher than the
levels in a trouble free unit.
7.2.1 Case Studies
138KV/12KV 50 MVA Free Breather
Date: Feb. 25 1993
Date
C2H2 CH4 C2H6 C2H4 H2 CO CO2

02/25/93 0 5 1 4 34 71 350
This unit was determined to be operating properly. The low concentrations of hydrogen and
acetylene are considered normal for a free breathing unit. The unit was scheduled for annual testing.
Date: Feb. 25, 1994
Date C2H2 CH4 C2H6 C2H4 H2 CO CO2

02/25/94 44 1812 576 3143 149 33 645
Notice the high level of ethylene, which is the key gas for overheating. This shows unit was
already heavily coked. The unit was removed from service and repaired. The reversing switch and some
moveable dial contacts were replaced.
Date: Feb. 27, 1995
Date C2H2 CH4 C2H6 C2H4 H2 CO CO2

02/27/95 55 9 2 11 22 33 440
The unit is operating normally after the repairs were completed. The OLTC was placed
on a six-month test interval based on of its previous failure history.
7.2.2 Recommendations of DGA level


OLTC Monthly Watch Criteria
OLTC Type Hydrogen Acetylene Ethylene
Free or Dessicant Breather >1500 ppm >1000 ppm >1000 ppm
Sealed >5000 ppm >9000 ppm >1200 ppm
Vacuum >10 ppm >5 ppm >100 ppm
7.3 Special Gas in Oil Monitoring
To identify the contact wear of the diverter switch, KEMA started a "gas-in-oil" program, not based
on the usual gases (above gases) of the transformer oil analysis, but on the measurement of some other
special gases, formed in oil due to the switching arc energy released in the oil. The following
requirements are desired for the special gases.
i. Should be chemically stable
ii. Should have good solubility in oil even at 100
o
C
iii. Must not react with the other components in the oil
iv. Production of gas must be linear with the switching arc energy released in oil.
7.3.1 Special Gases identified
i. Benzene
ii. Toulene
iii. Ethyl-benzene
iv. Xylene
The rate of generation of above gases is proportional to switching arc energy, which in turn
proportional to arcing current and hence contact erosion.
It was ensured by experiments that these gases are not affected by the temperature variation of
oil in OLTC.
Presently work is going on to fix the limits of these parameters.
7.4 Dynamic Resistance Measurements: KEMA
7.4.1 Principle
The principle of this technique is based on the fact that when a transformer is short-circuited on
one side, the time taken for the DC current on the other side to reach its stable value is dependent on
Leakage Impedance of the transformer. Therefore time taken for the resistance measurement is very less
(in the order of mS) compared to conventional resistance measurement. The test is normally carried out in
the 100 1000 mA range.


Figure 5 Dynamic Resistance Measurement
Figure 5 shows the connection arrangement for the Dynamic resistance measurements for both
single phase and three phase transformers.
It can be seen from the figure 5, that DC supply is given to the winding where tap-changer is
connected through a series resistor. The other winding is short-circuited.
The DC current response is shown in the figure 6 [5]. The variation of the DC current between 2
to 4 is due to the transition resistor switching in and out and variation of current after 4 to 5 region is
due to the series resistor switching in and switching out. Defects in the diverter-switching unit will be
revealed in the portion 2 to 5 whereas defects in the Pre-Selector unit will be revealed in the portion 1
to 2.
This method quantitatively determines the following in a single measurement
Total resistance of the winding
Contact resistance of the tap-selector contacts
Change in the contact resistance of the diverter contacts
It can also indicate
Diverter switching time
Problems in the transition resistors


Figure 6 Typical DC current Response

Figure 7 Healthy and Faulty Diverter Responses
7.4.1Case Study
Figure 8.1 shows the Dynamic Resistance responses for an OLTC whose fixed contact was having a Problem. After replacing faulty
contacts, the response is shown in figure 8.2


Figure 8.1 Dynamic Resistance Response of an OLTC with contact pitting problem

Figure 8.2 Dynamic Resistance Response of an OLTC after replacing the faulty contacts
At present, this method is considered as one of the efficient method for detecting contact
problems in OLTCs.
7.5 Motor Torque Measurement
Motor Torque measurement is used for evaluation of mechanical condition. The power for the
excitation of the complete mechanism of an OLTC is taken from the electrical supply via the motor-drive.
During the switching cycle of an OLTC the required mechanical torque (Newton-meter) varies
considerably, depending on the action performed. This torque can be measured on the shaft of the
driving motor by torque indicators. Most of the time this is not possible for OLTCs in service. The only
way to measure the variable need of mechanical energy during a switching cycle is to measure the
voltage and current from the electrical supply side and calculate power from it. (Power of a motor is
nearly proportional to the torque of the output shaft in the motor if the number of evolutions is nearly
constant).


Figure 9 Motor Torque Results
Figure 9 shows the motor torque signals measured from both torque indicators and Motor V-I
measurements. The two signals coincide very well with one another.
More work is necessary to interpret the above results and also to fix the limits.
7.6 Acoustic Measurements
The acoustic signature as a diagnostic tool has been applied successfully on circuit breakers [6].
In a similar way, a record of the acoustic waves created by a tap changer operation should reveal many
different aspects and phases of operation. Acoustic signature can be picked up either by sound pressure
sensitive devices such as hydrophone or a motion sensitive transducer such as an accelerometer on the
OLTC tank wall. Figure 10 shows the typical acoustic wave of an OLTC.
The operation of the tap selector and diverter switches has vastly different time scale;
therefore the sound from each of them should be studied separately. From the selector, relatively
weak acoustic signals are obtained during about 3.5 seconds before the diverter switch operates.
These signals consist of a continuous mechanic sound of a rather constant level to which are
added a few more intensive pulses, refer figure 10. The frequencies emitted are quite low, in the
100 Hz ranges, with the impulses having higher frequencies than the continuous sound.
As seen in figure 10, the sound from the diverter switch is of much higher amplitude and shorter
duration than the sound from the tap selector. The frequency content of the diverter sound is very wide.
Indeed it contains frequencies up to the frequency limit of the hydrophone, about 100 kHz.


Figure 10 Acoustic Wave Signature
7.6.1 Simulation Case Studies[7]
i. Weak springs
The construction of the studied diverter switch is such, that even if the driver springs are
weakened, the switching time can be more or less unchanged. With weak springs, however, the
force holding the contacts in position is smaller, therefore a contact bounce may occur as shown
in figure 11.
Figure 11 Acoustic signals for normal and weak springs
ii. Worn Contacts
The presence of worn-out contacts in the diverter switch is cause for refurbishing. Thus a
possibility to recognize worn contacts without opening the tap changer should be of great value. This is
quite possible with acoustic diagnostics as shown in figure 12, where a record with normal contacts is
compared to a record with worn contacts.
Figure 12 Acoustic Signal for normal and worn contacts
Thus the acoustic record from a tap changer operation provides a wealth of information on the
mechanical events that take place during the operation. Therefore, normal, detrimental and faulty
conditions can be distinguished by acoustic diagnosis. This technology is also suitable as a base for low-
cost on-line monitoring of the tap changer.
8. Future work
Preliminary studies on Motor Torque and Acoustic Measurements shows it can reveal problems
in mechanical arrangement and contact wear and tear. These two methods are essentially a pattern
matching techniques, so it is necessary to take a fingerprint of OLTC when it is in new condition or at


least when it is in a normal working condition. Further work is necessary to fix the amount of deviation
allowed.
9. Conclusion
On Load Tap Changers is an importance accessory of power transformer, whose health is to be
ensured and maintained properly. Conventional diagnostic methods like winding resistance and
differential temperature measurements are not sufficient to properly diagnose the problem in OLTCs.
DGA and Dynamic Resistance methods are proven to be powerful in detecting contact problems. Motor
torque and Acoustic measurements are still in development stage and further large amount of work is
necessary.



7. Testing and conditioning monitoring of LT Switch Gears
Practices and trends
Introduction:- Condition monitoring or so called conditioning based maintenance has been in use for
over a decodes. Now is considered as a powerful technique in modern maintenance management.
Speaking to practical engineers, it is evident that the Indian Industry is yet to pickup seriously this art of
maintenance technology. Condition monitoring has developed both as a service and management
requirements with regards to techniques, cost benefits etc.
Condition Monitoring Techniques:-The maintenance method based on the accurate determination of
equipments condition is called condition monitoring involves the measurement or checking of all vital
primary and secondary parameters or signals given out by the equipment during its operation.

Following are the monitoring techniques are listed below.
Visual Monitoring: - Inspection by means of visual testing.
Smell tests: - Qualitative interference can be sometimes made from smell Such as
burning of insulation etc.
Sound Monitoring:-The noise given out from equipment contains useful diagnostic data
for condition assessment. Experience personnel can make judgment by direct listening
the sound and measurement.
Vibration Monitoring:- The existence of a problem can be detected from overall
vibration levels
Corrosion Monitoring: - Electrical resistance method, which makes the use of the fact,
that change in area due to material loss, Changes electrical resistance.
Performance Trend Monitoring:- Monitoring the trend in the performance
characteristic such as temperature ,etc can assess the condition of equipment.
Non Destructive and Destructive testing:-Non Destructive testing involves radiography,
ultrasonic flow detection magnetic particle test etc, Destructive testing covers
measurement of performance test i.e. Current time char ,etc.

L V Switchgear:-
Low voltage switches and rewirable fuses are used for opening and closing electrical circuit and
for over current protection switchgear is a general term covering a wide range of equipment concerned
with switching and protection. In addition to circuit breaker and protective relays, the associated
equipment for controlling regulating and measuring can also be considered as switchgear devices. It
includes switches, fuses, circuit breakers, lightening arrestor, C T and various associated equipments.
Switching equipments up to 1000 volts comes under LV Switchgear. The Indian standard for LV
Switchgear is IS -13947.



Operating capability of various Switchgear devices: -

Devices Rated current Over current Short Circuit Current
M C B M C B M C B
Switches
Isolators
Contactors
Fuse - - - -
Starters
C. B.

M- Ability to make, C-Ability to carry.
B-Ability to break , -Capable.
X- Not Capable, -Limited capable
- - Not applicable.
Mechanical life as a function of frequency of operation LV Switchgear devices
Product Mode of operation Typical range of
machine life
Frequency of
operation
Contactors and
starters
Electrical
Pneumatic
Local / Remote 10 Lacks to 15
Lacks
Very frequent
Small Switches Manual Local 10 Lacks to 15
Lacks
Very frequent
Switch fuse and
combination
unit
Manual Local 1000- 10,000 Frequent
C. B. Manual Local / Remote 500 20,000 Less frequent


Switching and protection of various switchgears devices: -
Product Switching function Protection function
Relay X
Contactor X
H. R. C. Fuse X
Starter
Switches X
S. F. U & F. S. U.
A. C. B.

Indian and IEC standard for low voltage switchgear and control gear.
IS Number Title
IS 13947-1993/ Specification for low voltage Switchgear and Control gear
IEC 60947
Part 1 General Rules.
Part 2 Air circuit Breakers and Moulded Case Circuit Breaker up to 1000 V
Part3 Switches, Disconnectors, Switch disconnectors and fuse combination units
Part 4 Contractors and motor starters
Part 5 Control circuits devices and switching elements.
Part 6 Multiple function switching Devices.
Part 7 Ancillary equipment.



IS 13703/IEC 60269 Low voltage HRC fuse links
1011 8-1982 Code of practice for selection Installation and maintenance of switchgear
and control gear
Part 1 General
Part 2 Selection
Part 3 Installation
Part 4 Maintenance
IS 8623-1993 Specification for low voltage switchgear and control gear assemblies.
IEC 60439

Part 1 Requirements for tested and partially type tested assemblies.
Part 2 Particular requirements for bus bar trunking system.
IS 12021- 1987 Specification for control transformers for switchgear for voltage not
exceeding 1000 VAC
IS 8828- 1978
IEC 60898 Miniature air-break circuit breakers for voltages not exceeding 1000VAC
IS 2147-1962
IEC 60529 Degrees of protection provided by enclosures for low voltage switchgear
and control gear.
IS 13234-1992
IEC 60909 Guide for short circuit current calculation in phase low voltage A C system.
IS 2824-1975 Method of determining comparative tracker Index of solid insulating
materials and under conditions



Contactor:-
To begin with, Let us concentrate the switching device of switchgear i.e.contactor. It is an
electromagnetically operated switch which is made on/off remotely (Not operated by Hand). It is the
voltage applied across a coil energizing an Electromagnet system comprising of fixed and moving
electromagnets, the moving electromagnets thus electric circuit is complete through its contact system.
When voltage decreases coil deenergise and circuit breaks.
It is designed to carry, break normal and specified current.
Utilization categories for contactor
AC-1
AC-2

AC-3
AC-4

AC-11

DC -1

DC-2

DC-3

DC-4

Resistive load slightly inductive load, slip ring
IM, plugging

High inductive load, Sq.cage IM
Inching of highly inductive load, crane etc.

Control for AC electromagnet

Non inductive or slightly ind, load.

Shunt motor starting, switching off motor
during running.
Shunt motor starting, Plugging , inching.

Series motor starting, switching off motor
during running condition.

Series motor starting, plugging
2.5 Ist

10 Ist
Continuance Making and
breaking current so 6
times current will be there



DC-5

Advantages of Contactor--
- Remote operation.
- Frequent operation.
- Speed operation.
- High current handling capacity.
- Life expectancy is very high 120 operations / Hour.
- No volt protection.
Limits of operation
Pickup 85% to 110% of rated voltage
Dropout 75% to 20% of rated voltage for A.C
And Dropout 75% to 10% of rated voltage for D.C
Testing of Contactors
- Visual Inspection
- Smell test
- Listening the noise
- Check the arc chute
---Broking Housing
---Dirty de ion plate


- Check the contact condition
---Fixed main contacts
---Moving main contacts
- Cleaning of contacts
---Remove dust from contacts
---Clean contacts from C T C
---Spray CRC-2 20 after cleaning with CTC
Note dont use sand paper/ file for Cleaning contacts.
- Check magnetic pole surface use CTC for Cleaning
- Check the coil of contactor
--- Open ckted.
--- Burnt
--- Mechanically damaged
--- OK
- Check housing of contactors
--- Cracked or broken
--- Dusty
--- Clean
Note: - Clean by dry piece of cloth if it is broken replace it.
- Insulation resistance test
----- Insulation resistance test with 500 V megger. The minimum insulation resistance
should be 1 M O



- Performance test on contactor: -
Reliability of contactor pick up depends on voltage available across the coil terminals.
Contactors are design operate between 85 to 110 % (as per IS -13947-part 4) of the
rated coil voltage. Contactors are also designed to drop off when the voltage dips to a
low level i.e. 75 % to 20 % for A.C. Coil.
Pick Up: It is the voltage at which coil energies without humming. Adjust the voltage to
coil of contactor equal to 85% or rated voltage, switch on the voltage and check
whether the contactor energies without any humming.
Drop Off: -
Apply rated voltage across the coil terminals gradually reduced the voltage and note
down the value of which contactors open without humming.
Termination Test : -
It is very important test, proper termination of cable, bus bar and crimping of cables can be
tested by measuring milli volt drop across them. If termination is not good i.e. loose / unclean/ less
contact area then joint resistance increases. The voltage drop across such joints will be more as compare
to good joints.
Condition of Contacts of any switchgear can be tested by measuring mv drop across them. If the
contacts are unclean then contact resistance increases, so we get high mv drop across them

Give rated supply to coil and energize the contactor
Pass the rated current of contactors through the main pole of the contacts
Measure the milli volt drops by making good and bad termination and compared the result with
the standard values
Manufactures dont supply data on contact milli volt drop, since we are interested only in
relative value to check for any deterioration. Record the value at the time of installation and
study any difference during periodic maintenance.
Relay :-
Main factors leading to overheating are



Overload
Supply variations
Single phasing
Locked rotor
Faulty bearing and improper cooling
Heavy starting
High duty factor
High starting frequency
Cooling system failure

The devices normally used for motor protection are
Temperature sensing
Current sensing
Voltage sensing

Thermal bimetallic relays:
These are most economical devices of all protective devices that are available. Relays offer protection
both against single phasing as well as overloads & thus are one of most popular device for most popular
device for motor protection.
Specification:- IS-8544 lays down the specification that are to be satisfied by thermal bimetallic relays.



For all currents, under A the relays shall should not trip for 2 hrs. Afterwards for all currents, under B
the relay shall trip before 2 hours.
IS recognizes that to generate a force for tripping the relay two bimetals will require a 10% higher
current than 1.2 of rated current i.e. it is 1.32 of rated current.
Backup fuse: backup fuse for instantaneous trip are needed to protect not only the motor but also the
relay against the effect of short circuit. It is clearly mark on the relay as maximum backup fuse.
However lower rating fuse can be selected to minimize the damage to the contactors.
Testing of Thermal Over Load Relay
Check continuity of auxiliary contacts & main poles
Overload test adjust the current to 200 % of rated current and 600% of rated current and note
down the trip time. After each test, cool the relay for minimum 10 Minutes, otherwise relay will
trip earlier and we will not get correct result.



Single Phasing Test

Circuit breaker
It is mechanical switching device capable of making, carrying and breaking circuit under normal
circuit conditions and also making, carrying for specified time and breaking current under specified
abnormal conditions.
Types of Circuit Breaker
Air Circuit breaker ( A.C.B)
Vaccum C.B (VCB)
Bulk oil C.B (BOCB)
Minimum oil C.B
SF-6 C.B
Air blast C.B



In low voltage, only OCB and ACB are used. The BOBC has also got out of service because of fire hazard
and requirement of oil cleaning.
Types of L.V Circuit Breaker:-
1. manually operated -fixed & D/O (Drawout )
2. electrically operated- fixed & D/O (Drawout )
ACBs are normally available from 400 Amp. To 6400 Amp.

Accessories :-
Protective release :- used for against overload and shortcircuit fault. There are different types of
release
- thermo magnetic
- solid state
- Microprocessor based.

Under voltage release this release gives protection against under voltage or no voltage. it is
available as instantaneous or with fixed time delay. Coils of under voltage release are
continuously rated.
Shunt Release: - it is used for remote tripping of breaker. The coils of shunt release are short
time rated
Earth Fault Release :- used along with thermo magnetic release and there are two versions 10%,
20% rated current & 30%, 40%, 50% of rated current ( i.e. CT tapping)
Micro Switches :- it is used to indicate various positions
Auxiliary Contacts:- no. of control contacts can be wired through the set of contacts.
Safety Shutters :- required only in case of d/c to breaker provide protection against accidental
contact with power ckts where breaker is isolated.
Testing of Different Kind of Releases
1. Under voltage release trip test
- give variable voltage to under voltage release. Increases the voltage gradually and check at
what voltage under voltage release energizes, that voltage is called as pick up voltage.
- Switch on a C.B, gradually reduce the voltage and check at what voltage breaker trip. This
voltage is called as drop off voltage.
2. Shunt Release Trip Test :-



- Close the ACB, gradually increase the voltage to shunt release , till ACB trips. The voltage at
which the ACB trips is called operating voltage of shunt release.
Maintenance:
The frequency of maintenance depends on service conditions
- Frequency of operation
- Tripping on fault.
- Relative humidity
- Presence of dust & reactive gases.
Maintenance Schedule :-
After every 3000 mechanical operations or
After six months, if exposed to dust or
After an idle period longer then 6 month or
every year.

Safety Precautions: -
- Before starting any maintenance activity on C. B. ensure the circuit Breaker is completely deenergized.
- Dont put your hand s inside C. B. when main spring is charged.
- While Tripping the breakers manually, ensure both of your hands are free and away from the breaker
mechanism.

Arcing Contact Maintenance: -
- Check the arcing contact for any sign of erosion, pitting etc.
- Measure the thickness of arcing contact buttons if thickness of arcing button is reduce to 0.5 mm
replace both fix and moving arcing contacts.

Adjust arcing contact gap
Close the ACB


Lock the breaker in on position
Measure the gap between fixed and moving arcing contacts with filler gauge it should be 0.9
+/- 0.1 mm
Keep equal gap in all arcing contacts of the same poles.
Tighten the screw fixed arcing contacts.

Arc Chute Maintenance: -
The maintenance is necessary if breaker as completed
- It is electrical life of arcing contacts.
- 25 make brake operation at six times the normal current.

Maintenance:-
- Dismantle arc chute clean the housing, de ion plates with dry piece cloth and CRC2-26.
- Check auxiliary contacts for proper changeover.
- Check continuity of CT.
- Check control wiring of A. C. B. for proper connection.
Overload and short circuit Testing of ACB: -

- Test the C. B. by secondary injection method, dis connect all the wire from magneto thermal
release.





- Set the relays at point 1.0 for all three phases as shown above.
- Wire No auxiliary contact of ACB in series with test panels auxiliary contacts (This is to cut of the
current flow through the relays as soon as ACB Trips.)
- Find the related C. T. secondary current for example L & T make ACB has rated CT see current as
8.75 Amp.
- For overload testing we have to pass current between T1 and T2 terminals of relays and note down
tripping time it should be between 14 second to 40 sec. for 200 % overloading.
- For short circuit pass the six times the rated current between S and M1 or M2. The tripping time
should be between 1.2 to 3 sec.



8. Study of monitoring of High Voltage Breakers

High voltage circuit breakers are used to switch on/off different kinds of current loads. In
case of failures in the electrical network, circuit breakers have to interrupt short circuit current.
Contact electrodes and nozzles are designed to extinguish the electric arc and interrupt the
current. In open condition they have to isolate the contact electrodes, until disconnectors are opened
The insulating media inside the circuit breaker used for current interruption for arc extinction
and for insulation are liquids or gases. While oil circuit breakers are disappearing and breakers operating
with compressed air are still in operating, SF
6
circuit breakers are frequently used these days.
Stresses acting on circuit breakers.

The main stresses acting on the circuit breaker are :
Electrical stresses, due to
- Ac rated voltage and temporary over voltage.
- Transient recovery voltage (TRV) after opening of short circuits.
- Lightning impulses & BIAS, where SI & AC are superimposed.
- Very fast transients (VFT) with disconnector operation.
- DC from trapped charges after opening CB or Disconnectors.
Mechanical Stresses, Due to
- Forces consequent to driving operations ( rods, pipes)
- Forces created by short circuit currents.
- Gas shock waves & hot gas streams from power arcs.
- Tensions from internal gas pressure.
- Subsonic oscillation with earthquakes.
Thermal Stresses Due to
- Temp rises due to high currents
- High ambient temp.
- Temp. Difference between inside & outside the breaker.
Chemical Stresses due to
- Hot gas stream of by products during switching operation.
- Dust & powder produced by arc-erosion during switch operation.
- Additive moisture in combination with by-product.
Deterioration factors & failures mechanisms
The withstand voltage of a breaker insulation can be reduced in service due to the effects as
follows.
Insulation failures inside the breaker can be determined by
- Aggressive chemical by-products.


- Conductive particles.
- Defects in solid dielectric e.g. voids, poor adhesion, crack, humidity, conductive particles.
The first two items produce conductive areas on insulators surfaces or protrusions on
Conductors, leading to local field enhancement & finally to a flashover. The third item creates PDs,
which are activated from service stress and may lead to a breakdown.
The dielectric properties of compressed air are also reduced by moisture.
The wear of contacts in the circuit breaker interrupting chamber produces rough electrode
surfaces, which can reduce the breakdown voltage across the contact gap. The melted contact material
can produce dust, metallic particles and conductive layers on the surfaces of insulators.
Abnormal operation of mechanical elements can cause dielectric failures e.g. slow movement of
contacts can cause increased arcing time and if switching contacts are not in full open position, reduced
insulation gap gives a lower breakdown voltage.
Overheating can also be the origin of dielectric breakdown.
Monitoring
Monitoring circuit breakers involves mechanical and electrical integrity of circuit breakers. The
mechanical condition is monitored by means of a dedicated transducer, which records the travel of
breaker contacts. The electrical integrity of breaker can be monitored by using the data on the
cumulative I
2
t value, which is an indication of the wear of arching.
Mechanical Monitoring
Fig.10.1 shows a plot of the travel of moving contacts where time to corresponds to initiation of
tripping order.



The reference points defined in fig 10.1 are measured during normal operation and stored in the
memory of the monitoring system for time values obtained under field conditions.
The contact travel detecting system consists of a thin metal plate attached to the
moving rod of the hydraulic drive mechanism, which interrupts an infra red bream between electrodes
of photocell. During the opening and closing operation, the detecting times when the moving contacts
passes in front of the three reference points mentioned above are compared with standards values. If
the measured times are greater than highest values ( t
1
max, t
2
max and t
3
max), reliability is in doubt.
Synchronism between breaks
The synchronism between the breaks of the same pole is monitored. The time
difference between the breaks dt
1
, dt
2
and dt
3
of a pole are compared with the reference values( 3ms).
Synchronism between the poles.
In this case synchronism between the three phases or poles of a breaker during
opening or closing operation is checked. The measured values should not exceed 5 ms of reference
value.
Pressure Monitoring
Drive mechanism fluid.
The pressure transducers mounted for the purposed of monitoring the pressure of
the operating fluid will generate alarms to start up the pump that will restore the pressure or interlock
on operating sequence according to the pressure level.
Gas Pressure
Adequate pressure of the interrupting gas medium is crucial for the operation of any
interrupter. The pressure in the gas chamber is monitored by means of pressure transducers. The
pressure has to be corrected for the operating temperature. Deduction in pressure due to leakage has to
be checked and corrected.
Vibration response of high power circuit breakers
Mechanical defects e.g. fatigue failure may be undetectable except by closest visual
examination. The operation of wide variety of breaker can be monitored by measurements of the
mechanical vibration response as signaled at key locations on the outer structure of a circuit breaker. By
using proper different frequencies, has been useful for detecting such probles.
Electrical Wear Monitoring
Cumulative I2t
One of the major factors affecting the service life of a circuit breaker is its electrical
wear due to interruption phenomenon. The parameter that determines the amount of erosion of the
electrical contacts is I
2
t , where I is the value of interrupted current transformers. The signal is taken via
an isolation amplifier and I
2
t computed using microprocessor.


The cumulative I
2
t over a period of time has to be obtained and if this cumulative
value exceeds a particular threshold, an alarm is generated to take up the maintenance of the
interrupter.
Dynamic Contact Resistance
Another method of contact wear monitoring is by checking the contact
resistance during an opening operation. Also the interval between the opening of the main
contacts and the arcing contacts gives a measure of the remaining metal on the arcing contacts.
A DC current of 1000-2000 A is passed through the circuit breaker in the initially
closed position. The current rises at a rate determined by the circuit inductance. A contact voltage of
100-200 milli volts is produced. As the breaker begins to open, the voltage remains low with an
occasional perturbation.
The method of dynamic contact resistance measurement can give an externally
available indication of the remaining life.



9. Study of Testing and conditioning monitoring of Cables
Two types of test done on cables. Routine tests are carried out by manufactures on all finished
cables lengths to demonstrate the integrity of the cables to be delivered to the customers for use. Type
tests are required to be performed before a manufacturer supplied finished cables in order to
demonstrate satisfactory performance characteristics which comply with the intended application.
Tests are required to be done to check all components of cables and would include: -
a) Tests on conductor.
b) Physical test on insulation .
c) Resistivity test for semi conducting layers (HV Cables)
d) Tests for concentric metallic screen.
e) Thickness of metallic sheath.
f) Test for armouring material.
g) Physical test for other sheath i.e. for PVC PE Sheath.
h) Flammability test.
i) Water tightness test.
j) Thermal ageing on complete cable sample followed by tensile strength elongation and
break for insulation and outer sheath and resistivity test for semiconducting layer.
k) Bending test followed by PD Test.
l) Dielectric power factor and capacitance measurement at ambient temp.
m) Dielectric power factor measurement at elevated temp.
n) Load cycle test followed by PD measurement.
o) Impulse withstand test followed by HV test.

The methods of performing the test are covered in I. S. 10810, which has about eighty parts, each
part covering one test relevant cable specification. Separate specifications exist for PVC
elastomeric, PILC and XLPE cables.



Significance of tests
Conductor:
The test on conductor material basically reveals the purity of the material and mechanical
Strength of the material.
Electrical resistance of the conductor checks the cross sectional area which determines the
Current carrying capacity and also the voltage drop.
As the conductor of cable is subjected to twisting and bending, it is necessary that it should be
flexible enough to take any desired bend without breaking. Anneling test is performed on the conductor
material before stranding and takes in to consideration the extend of work hardening which may cause
during a stranding and laying of process.
The test specimen is fixed between to the heads of the tensile testing machine by means of
grips. The load is applied gradually and uniformly to the wire having original gauge length of 250 mm till
it get fractured. The rate of elongation or rate of separation of two heads shall not be grater than 100
mm per minute. The elongation is measured on the gauge length after the fractured ends have fitted
together.
The percentage elongation at the fracture shall not less than the minimum values specified in
the products. Specification for the corresponding diameter range.
Tensile test is performed on the conductor material to determine the strength of the material
when subjected to tensile stress. Since cable conductors are to be pulled from one end along trenches
and are to considerable force during pulling as well as during manufacture, it is necessary to ensure that
the conductor material has adequate tensile strength.
The gauge length should be 250 mm. Cross sectional area of wire is to be measured. Breaking
load in kg is measured using tensile testing machine. Breaking load per unit area of cross section of wire
is to be determined and should be less than the specified value.
Wrapping test brings out the property of the material which checks its suitability for winding
and twisting. Cable conductors during the process of manufacture as well as during installation are
subjected to Torsion due to axial twist an might break if the material is not sufficiently ductile.
The wire used for conductor shall be wrapped round its own diameter to form closed helix of
eight turns. Six turns shall then be unwrapped and closely rewrapped in same direction as before. The
wire shall not break during this test.

INSULATION THICKNESS :


The dielectric strength of cable depends upon its thickness. Thickness of minimum value
is to be scanned and measured. Presence of eccentricity of core can caused reduction of thickness at
some point and this has to be checked with good care. The use of profile projector for such
measurement is very helpful.
Tensile strength and elongation at break of insulation
Insulating paper and also polymeric insulation should have adequate strength and elongation at
to satisfy the properties required in service.
The insulation is to be required to be cut in to dumbbell shape as in figure 20.1
Mean area of the gauge portion that is portion between marker line is to be determined by using
following relation
1000 x m
A = --------------------- mm
2

S x L
Where m = the mass of specimen in gms. , after test accurately cut along the middle of gauge mark,
L = its length and
S = Density of the material in gms/cm
3

Ageing Test :
This test determines the thermal effect on the physical and chemical changes in insulation and sheath of
thermo plastic and elastomeric material. The test is carried on each core specimen with conductor in
place.
The specimen is weighed carefully and then it is suspended in an oven at a temp. of 80 +/- 1
0
c
for 120 hours. It is then cooled to room temp. and weighed. The loss in weight of insulation and sheath
and elongation is measured after ageing. Dumb bell specimen are required for elongation
measurements.
Shrinkage test: -
The extracted polymeric material may have residual strain which is relieved on heating causing
shrinkage. The purpose of this test is to determine such shrinkage so that this may not cause any
problem in termination when cable gets heated due to elongation.
Shrinkage means the decrease in original length of the test specimen after heat treatment and it
is expressed as percentage of the original test of the test specimen.


The sample of cable about 220 mm in length is taken and kept horizontally in an oven at a temp.
of 150
0
+/- 3
0
for 15 minutes in the oven. After this period, the specimen is cooled to room temp. and
its length and shrinkage measured. Longitudinal shrinkage shall not exceed 4 % of the original length
and no cracks shall be observed in the insulation or sheath visible to necked eye.
Heat shock test for thermoplastic and elastomeric insulation
During services the cable is likely to get overheated either due to overloading or due to short
circuit occurring in the system. This will lead to degradation of the insulation and will reduce its life. The
immediate failure of cable can occur if overheating causes cracking of insulation.
The specimens are prepared by winding the test piece for three turns in a close helix round a
circular mandrel whose diameter of the test specimen or as indicated in the relevant standard. Test
specimen is placed in an oven at a temp. of 150 +/- 3
0
for one hour. After that the sample is cooled and
examined while it is on the mandrel and no cracks should be observed.
Hot deformation test for thermoplastic and elastomeric insulation: -
Thermoplastic compounds tend to soften when maintained at high temp. over a sufficient
period. In that condition when they are subjected to mechanical pressure, They have a tendancy to get
deformed at the location of pressure resulting in reduction in thickness.
Apparatus for exerting pressure on the test specimen is shown in fig. 20.2. It consists of a
rectangular blade with an edge 0.70 +/- 0.01 mm wide which can be pressed against the test specimen.
Specimen of 50 mm to 100mm are taken. A blade is placed over the specimen in the test frame
to which load is connected. Total weight of the frame and load is measured.



The compressing force as given in the relevant specification is applied. The specimen with the
frame is put in an oven at temperature 70
0
to 85
0
C as required for different compounds for 4 to 6 hours.
The specimen is then cooled in a cold water within ten seconds. The thickness retained at the point of
impression i.e. indentation is measured. It should not be less than 50% of the initial thickness.
Oxygen bomb (oxygen pressure) Test
This method covers. estimation of relative resistance of vulcanized rubber in a high pressure
oxygen environment to deterioration.
This ageing test of rubber consists of subjecting test specimen having previously determined
properties to control deteriorating influence for known periods after which the physical properties are
again measured and the change noted. The test involves exposure of specimens to an elevated
temperature and elevated oxygen pressure. The physical properties used to measure the deterioration
of rubber include visual inspection, tensile strength and ultimate elongation.
Hot Set Test: -
One of the important test for XLPE insulation is the degree of cross linking. Improvement in
operating temperature and some other characteristics of XLPE. over PE is strongly dependent on the
degree of cross linking which is checked by hot set test. Dumbbell specimens are cut from the insulation
and arranged in an oven. Mechanical force is applied by attaching weight at the lower end of the
specimen. After conditioning, the percentage change in elongation is noted and should not exceed the
stipulated values.


Void & Contaminant test
For Extra High Voltage Cables, a new test on insulation is void and contaminant test, which
involves preparation of wafer thin smooth specimen of insulation and examination under transmitted
light with a minimum of 15 power magnification. As the operating stress increases, presence of
contaminants and voids bigger than specified dimension is certain to cause reduction in operating life of
the cables.
Semi-conducting shields. Metallic screens
Semi-conducting screen provided at the conductor insulation and insulation-metallic screen are
of vital importance for HV cables as these screens suppress partial discharges etc. in them. To be
effective for this role, the resistivity of the screen has to be low. The maximum values of resistivity of
such screens have therefore been prescribed in the specification.
The efficacy of concentric metallic screen is dependent upon the resistivity of the material,
whose maximum values are prescribed.
Armour
The mechanical properties of the armour material are of importance because of its intended
function of providing mechanical strength. Besides than armour also in conjunction with metallic screen
shares the fault current. Thus, its resistivity and continuity are of significance.
Flammability
Flammability test has gained importance due to fire havoc caused by any problem. Improved fire
behavior of PVC materials as a result of different formulation which have been developed is checked by
flammability test in which flame of specified intensity is impinged on the cable and extent of burning
and time of burning after the flame is extinguished is checked. This test is particularly important for the
sheath of cable.
Water tightness test
One of the reported problem for XLPE insulated cables is the reduction in life of such cables due
to presence of tree like pattern which appear as branches of tree or bow-tie etc. while intensification of
local stress due to void or contaminant can result in generation of electrical trees in insulation,' presence
of water in insulation which operates under electrical stress can cause water trees. Both these types of
trees reduce the operating life of the cables while the presence of voids and contaminants is checked by
visual examination and sensitive electrical tests, water tightness of a cable can eliminate the ingress of
water and formation of water trees in insulation. Special water barrier materials have been developed
and are used by most manufacturers of HV cables to ensure that water does not penetrate into the
insulation. The efficacy of such construction is checked by Longitudinal and radial water tightness test.


The test involves removal of all coverings over the moisture barrier in a cable test piece so that the semi
conducting layer over the insulation is exposed 'and relevant interstices are exposed to water pressure
of 1m height. The cable is then subjected to heating cycles. The requirement is that water should not
penetrate the cable.
Compatibility: -
The compatibility of various components of the cable materials is checked by thermally ageing
the complete cable sample and then checking the tensile strength and elongation at break of insulation
and outer screen and also the resistivity of the semi-conducting screen layer.
Electrical tests
Bending test is a mechanical test aimed at proving that the cable is capable of withstanding
without damage the bending stresses to which the cable may be subjected during laying. As such test
can cause deformities in the semi-conducting screens and metallic screens, stipulation of PD test which
checks such deficiencies has been made after bending test.
Several characteristics which playa vital role in .the long term behavior of HV cables are checked
by Dielectric Power factor and capacitance measurements at ambient and elevated temperatures. These
constitute presence of moisture in minute quantities, purity of materials, degree of homogeneity,
dielectric losses at ambient and operating temperature and possibility of thermal run away conditions
etc.
Another test which is useful in predicting behavior of cables in service is the Heating cycle/Load
cycle test. This test is critical as dielectric, thermal and mechanical stresses experienced during service
are simulated in the laboratory and performance of the cable predicted by additional PD measurements.
The cable is laid in a U bend heated to a steady state temperature not less than 10 degree C and not
more than 150C above the maximum rated temperature of the insulation in normal operation for 8
hours and then cooled for 16 hours while a voltage of 2Uo is continuously applied for 20 cycles, each of
1 day duration. No failure of the cable is permitted. Further PD levels should not exceed the normal
unaged cable.
The purpose of the lightening impulse test is to confirm the ability of the cable system to meet
the requirement of the insulation coordination and to withstand the occurrence of lighting impulse
voltages. As the strength is dependent upon the temperature, the tests are specified at the rated stress
and load. cycle temperature to check the capability of insulation under conditions similar to normal
operation.
The satisfactory performance after impulse test is checked by power frequency withstand test of
the sample.


One aspect of PD measurements on cables needs special emphasis. PD detectors which is
suitable for measurements on small length of cable required under type test may not be suitable for
drum lengths required for routine test unless special precautions are taken. The detectors employ a
number of different detection frequencies and use various components such RC and LCR as detection
impedances and both narrow band and broad band amplifiers. It has been "recognized that PD
measurements in equipments with lumped circuit parameters such as small lengths of cables and
capacitors is different than in other equipments and long lengths of cable with distributed parameters.
Measurements in circuits with distributed parameters must recognize the time domain characteristics of
discharges occurring at various locations in the cable. These pulse discharges divide their charges in half
and travel in each direction at a velocity of approximately 199 meter millisecond. They are minute
traveling pulses on the conduct6r, which are greatly distorted in magnitude and shape and are reflected
from an open ended termination.
The PD pulses arriving at the detector during time intervals because of reflection from open
ended terminals etc. at different time intervals can cause serious errors in measurements. There are
known as superposition errors. In the most serious case, some detectors may have a measurement from
the first pulse completely canceled by a second pulse arriving at a later time interval. To check and
overcome such problem, the response characteristics of PD detector is to be checked. Among the
remedies available, the simplest solution is to terminate the far end of the cable into its characteristics
impedance so that reflection of pulse does not occur.
Another aspect is the development of termination for laboratory tests. provision of
inadequate terminations can lead to failures and misleading information.

Cable Insulation Resistance
Insulation resistance is the most commonly measured parameter to check the health of
Electrical Insulation. In case of cables the IR differs from cable to cable depending upon the length of
cable, insulation thickness and type of cable. For example IR value of 1 meter cable and IR value of 100
meter of same cable are not comparable in absolute term as the later value will be 100
th
of the former.
This study tries to answer most commonly asked questions such as:
1. What should be the megger voltage?
2. What should be the sample length?
3. What are the limiting values?
4. What is the governing IS?

1. Insulation Resistance
The insulation resistance is defined as the Quotient of applied voltage divided by the current
measured at a given time from the start of electrification. We normally measure the insulation
resistance by had driven megger. Initially when we start rotating the instrument, the capacitance across
the insulation gets charged due to which the initial current is high thus giving impression of low IR.


When the megger is uniformly driven at constant speed for a definite time (1 Min), the voltage applied
across the insulation becomes constant and capacitance gets fully charged. The current passing through
the insulation gets stabilized to steady state ohmic current and we get constant value of insulation
resistance.
2. Voltage and Sample Length for IR measurement
If we go through the IS specification for various types of cables i.e XLPE cable, Elastomeric cable
and PVC insulated cable, we will find that the test method for insulation resistance for these cables is as
per IS 10810 part 43-1991. This IS deals with the measurement of the insulation resistance of the cables.
As per above IS the voltage for IR measurement should be 300 +/- 30 or 500 +/- 50 volt dc.
As this point there is always one question whether HV cables are to be tested by 300+30 and
300-30 or 500+30 and 500-30 volt d.c. IR meter then the answer is yes. If we go through the IS of cables
even for HV cable the test method is as per IS 10810 part 43. and this IS specifications the voltage for
the measurement of IR. Thus the voltage rating of cable has no relation to the voltage to be applied for
the measurement of IR
As far as the sample length is concerned as per the relevant IS i.e. IS 10810 part 43 it should be full
drum or not less than 3 meters
3. LIMITING VALUES
Once we are measuring certain parameter to check the condition of insulating material or for that
matter for any system we must know the limiting values. Limiting values means what is the acceptable
limit and that is the governing specification. Since we are discussing here the insulation resistance
parameter for the cable then we must know the limiting values for this governing specification.
Before going to the parameters some fundamental observations regularly made in the measurement
of IR of cable, needs to be discussed.
Let us take a condition where we are carrying out the measurement of two cables of same type
and size but with different length say 100 m and 10 m. The measured IR comes same say 5 M ohm then
which cable insulation strength is better. The next question comes if one is better then how much
better.
Take another condition in which the length of cable is same say 100 m in both the case and type
i.e. material of the cable is also same but size is different. In this case also if the measured IR value is
same say 5 M ohm then which cable is better.
If we go through the IS for cables we will find that the limiting values for insulation resistance is
not given directly. Instead in these IS specifications the limited values for insulation resistance constant
or the volume receptivity is given. These parameters take into account the above factors i.e. the size of
the cable and the length of cable.



3.1 Insulation Resistance constant and Volume receptivity
The insulation resistance constant and volume receptivity parameters are defined as under:
Insulation Resistance Constant =
) / ( * 1000
*
10
d D Log
R L

( M ohm Km)

Volume Receptivity=
) / (
10 * * * 2
8
d D Log
R L
e
t

( ohm.cm)

where R = Measured Resistance ( M ohm)
L = Length of Cable (m)
D = Diameter over the insulation excluding screen if any (mm)
d = Diameter over the conductor excluding screen if any (mm)

In case of shaped conductor D is to be replaced P and d is to be replaced by p where
P= Perimeter over the shaped insulated core (mm)
p= Perimeter over the shaped conductor (mm)
Let us take the same condition, which has been discussed in para 3. two cables of same type and
same size but of different length i.e. 100 m and 10 m are showing the same value of insulation
resistance ( 5 M ohm The IR constant for these two cases will be
IR constant for cable with 100 m length = 100 5/1000 log
10
(D/d)
= 0.5 / log
10
(D/d)
or say =0.5 C ( C is constant )

IR constant for cable with 10 m length = 10 5/1000 log
10
(D/d)


or say =0.5 C ( C is constant )

we can see here a distinct difference in the health of two cable, which were showing apparently same
value of insulation resistance i.e. 5 M ohm. Similarly we can take the second condition in which the cable
size is different but all other parameter like type of cable and length of cable is same. Even if it is
showing same value of IR, the IR constant will be different for different size of cables, because of IR
constant for cable with 100 m / log
10
(D/d) factor. We will be able to differentiate between the healths
of two cables which apparently showing the same value of IR.
3.2 Limiting Values as per some ISs
Now we have reached to a point where we can discuss the limiting values of IR constant and
volume receptivity of some of the cables.
XLPE Cables
Types of Cable Governing IS Test Method Volume Receptivity (ohm.cm)
XLPE insulated
PVC sheathed up
to 1.1 KV
IS 7098 part I
1997
As per IS 10810
Part 43-1991
At C20
0
C
110
14

XLPE insulated
PVC sheathed
3.3 kV to 33 kV
IS 7098 Part 2
1988
At 90
0
C Under
consideration
At 27
0
C
110
14

At 90
0
C
110
12

Elastomeric Cable ( IS 6380-1984)
Test Method As per IS 10810 Part 43-1991
IE1 IE2 IE3 IE4 IE5
IR constant
( Min) At 27
0
C(
M ohm km)

700 3670 3670 10 870


IR constant (
Min) at
maximum optg
tep. ( M ohm
km)
- 3.67 3.67 - -

IE1 to 5 are the types of cables.

PVC insulated cables ( IS 694-1990 ) and 5831-1984)
Test Method As per IS 10810 part 43-1991

Type A Type B Type C
IR constant (Min) At 27
0
C( M
ohm km)

36.7 36.7 36.7
IR constant at maximum
optg temp.(Min) ( M ohm
km)
0.037 0.37 0.37

Where type A,B,C are the type of cable.
From the above it can be seen that the minimum value of IR constant or volume resistivity of the
cable is specified in the specification of the cable. Also the test methods for these cable are as per the IS
10810 part 43 1991.
For better appreciation the IR min value of 1 m length has been calculated (annexure A) for
certain typical cables from the limiting values of IR constant and volume resistivity as per the
corresponding IS. In all these cases circular cable has been assumed and the nominal thickness of
insulation has been taken as the insulation thickness.

Conclusion


The main objective of this study is to emphasize upon the finer aspects of the insulation
resistance, which is most commonly, used electrical parameter for checking the insulation strength. The
following conclusions can be derived.
1. The cable insulation resistance is to be measured with 300 30 or 500 50 volt dc supply.
2. The sample length should be full drum length or minimum 3 piece.
3. Based on the IS by which the particular cable is governed IR constant or the volume resistivity is
to be calculated and then the strength of the cable is to be judged.

ANNEXURE A

These values are for 1 m length cable. To find out IR for any other length divide the IR min value
by the length of the cable.

All cable cores have been assumed circular in shape.
PVC insulated cable voltage up to 1100 voltage governed by IS 694-1990 and IS 5831-1984

Size of cable
(Sq.min)
Nominal
thickness of
insulation (mm)
d(mm) d(mm) IR min ( M ohm)
16 1.0 4.51 6.51 5845
25 1.2 5.64 8.04 5648
50 1.4 7.98 10.78 4793

XLPE cables 7098 Part 2 1988 6.35/11 kV cable
Size of cable
(Sq.min)
Nominal
thickness of
insulation (mm)
70 3.6 9.44 16.64 90241
150 3.6 13.82 21.02 66764


185 3.6 15.35 35.55 61240
240 3.6 17.49 24.69 54912
400 3.6 22.57 29.77 44083

Elastomeric Cable up to 1100 volt type IE4

CONDITION MONITORING OF POWER CABLES

Power cables are essentially used in the distribution and transmission network. There are
following main types of cables used in the network.
1. Paper insulated cables
These cables are electrical grade paper impregnated with high quality resin and the insulation is
then covered with lead sheath. These cables have been used up to 33 kv system voltage abundantly.
2. Oil filled cables.
This cable consists of lapped paper layers filled with low viscosity mineral oil or now a day
frequently used synthetic oil at a small overpressure. The insulation is enclosed by a lead or aluminum
sheath in case of self-contained oil filled cables, by a steel pipe at a high overpressure in case of pipe
type oil filled cable. Such cables are for voltage beyond 33 kv and can be up to 750 kv class.
3. Extruded polymeric cables
such cables have a dielectric of polymeric material e.g. PVC, PE, XLPE, EPR etc. around the
conductor , generally in combination with semi conducting layer at the conductor-insulation interface
Size of cable
(Sq.min)
Nominal
thickness of
insulation (mm)
6 1.0 2.76 4.76 2364
10 1.2 3.57 5.97 2233
16 1.2 4.51 6.91 1851
25 1.4 5.64 8.44 1750
50 1.6 7.98 11.18 1464


and insulation-metallic screen interface made by an extrusion process. Such cables are made from low
voltage to very high voltage range e.g. 400kv.
Stresses acting on cables
During service, the cable is subjected to following stresses.
Thermal 1 :- Due to operating current under normal and abnormal (emergency ) conditions. The
maximum operating temperature depends on the insulating material and operating
conditions.
Electrical :- Due to operating voltage under normal and abnormal
conditions. The maximum
operating stress depends essentially on the voltage level..
Ambient:- Due to environmental conditions and parameters such as corrossivity of
soil,
resistivity of water, presence of U.V light etc.
Mechanical :- Due to mechanical for instance in bends and/or
tehrmomechanical stresses
( cyclic and short ckt behavior). The maximum stress
depends on the
installation and operating conditions.
Deterioration factors and failure mechanism
Oil impregnated paper
Deterioration of paper oil dielectric because of thermal or electrical ageing can result into
failures. The metal enclosed of this type of cable is vital importance to avoid water penetration into the
dialectical and to maintain the over pressure in oil filled cables.
In case of over ground installations U.V light may cause stress cracking of the outer jacket (PE)
with increased risk of corrosion of metal sheath.
Extruded Polymeric cables
The main factors which cause deterioration is higher thermal loading, effect of partical
discharges and presence of moisture.
The effect of water in combination with electric stress appears to e a very serious deterioration
factor resulting in the formation of so called water-tress and subsequent failures.
Diagnostic Techniques
Following diagnostic techniques are employed for power cables.


a. Measurement of leakage current.
b. On-line measurements of insulation resistance.
c. Analysis of the impregnate oil filled cables.
d. Measurement of DC component in Ac charging current
e. Measurement of PD
f. Measurement of dissipation factor.

Measurement of leakage current

The measurement of leakage current of the PILC power cables helps to check the condition of
cables insulation in service. The leakage current should be measured immediately after the
installation of the cable and subsequently at different intervals following a well-defined
schedule. Fig 8.1 and Fig 8.2 show the test records of two similar under ground cables.
Fig. 8.1 shows that the leakage current with this cable increased gradually and in approximately
equal increments from the time of installation. Fig. 8.2 shows a disproportionate increase from the
seventh to ninth year test.
The cable in Fig.8.1 should be judged satisfactory while not in fig8.2. A typical faculty cable plot
is shown in Fig 8.3.
If at any point particularly within the working voltage stress, the current begins to increase the
cable has to be diagnosed as faulty.
On line Measurement of insulation resistance
An on-line technique of measurement of insulation resistance is shown in fig8.4. The method
can be applied to distribution system with grounding potential transformer (GPT).
A DC source- 50kv is connected between the neutral point of GPT and the ground through a
capacitor, a blocking coil and switching for the purpose of applying the negative DC signal voltage to an
AC cable without turning off the AC.



The device is mainly composed of a measuring circuit for the insulation resistance and a device
for discriminating stray ground current. Based on the data, the tentative criteria for the insulation
diagnosis of XLPE cable, have been proposed as follows.
Insulatic resistance Judgment Remarks
>1000 Mega ohm Good
1000-100 Mega ohm Cautionary Follow up at shorter intervals
100-10 mega ohm Cautionary (serious) Prepare new cable
< 10 Mega ohm Bad To be replaced.



Analysis of imp regnant of oil filled cables.
A new diagnostic method for the oil filled cable insulation using analysis of insulating oil
sampled from the splices or the end-sealing box has been in use. For this purposed, sample of
insulating oil from splices are carefully extracted without contaminating the oil. For detecting the
deterioration of oil, measurement of dielectric dissipation factor, specific volume resistivity,
moisture content is made. Gases are extracted from the oil and diagnosis made on the basis of
following table1.
Table 1.
Criteria for diagnosis of oil of cable
Items
TCG
Threshold Level
1500 PPM
Remarks
H
2
500 PPM
C
2
H
2
Trace
CO 100 PPM H
2
corona discharged
CO
2
1000 PPM C
2
H
2
-Arc
CH
4
200 PPM CO, CO
2
-over heating
C
2
H
6
200 PPM CH
4
, C
2
H
6
-C
3
H
8

C
2
H
4
200 PPM Decomposition of oil at low
temp
C
3
H
8
200 C
2
H
4
, C
3
H
6
-Decomposition
of oil at high temperature
C
3
H
6
200PPM

T. G 10,000 Air Tightness

Total Acid 0.02 KOH mg/g Chemical Degradation.

Moisture 10 PPM Air tightness
Content Insulation performance.

Items
TCG
Threshold level
1500 PPM
Remarks
SP volume 110
13
ohm cm Insulation performance



Resistivity
Dielectric Insulation Performance
Dissipation 2%
Fach. Value
TCG = Total combustible gas.

TG = Total Gas
Measurement of Dc components of AC charging Current.
The existence of DC component in the Ac charging current has been reported to check the
existence of water trees in cable insulation.
The measuring circuit is shown in Fig.8.5
Fig. 8.5 measuring circuit of dc component of XLPE cable in field.
SW- switch, GPT, Grounding Potential Transformer.
M.D Measuring device of DC component
A measuring device MD is connected between one end of metal
shield/screen of the cable and ground. A switch SW is connected between the other end of the
metal shield for the purpose of disconnecting it form ground during the measurement. When the
switch is opened , a closed circuit is formed by connecting the measuring device to the ground
lead and the DC component in the Ac charging current is measured as using a DC current meter.
.

It has been observed that dc components have good correlation with the length of water trees.
Following criteria has been in use for diagnosis of XLPE cable.
DC Component Judgment
Idc
Less than 1 nA Good
Between 1nA-100nA Cautionary



> 100 nA Bad.
Measurement of PD
Measurement of PD particularly in polymeric cable has been in use to check the condition of
cable. The onset of tree growth and tree length is related to PD magnitudes.
The measurement at site involves connection of a coupling capacitor with the cable and a
suitable PD detector. Care has to be taken to minimize the surrounding environment interference.
Progressive increase of magnitudes of PD does provide indication of the healthiness of
cable but the technique has so far not been commonly applied in this country due to non-
availability of portable partial discharge measurement instruments.

Measuring of dissipation factor
Loss angle measurements have also been found useful in diagnosing the condition of PILC and
XLPE cables.
While in PILC and oil filled cable , increase of dissipation factor indicates degradation of
insulation, ingress of contaminants, enset of ionization , deterioration of oils etc. in XLPE cable, the
increase of tan delta is an indication of ingress of moisture, growth of electrical and water tress in
insulation etc.
The use of this technique may sometimes involve sectionalized long lengths. Prediction of
general condition is possible in most situations, although location of specific defective sites would not be
possible using such techniques.


10. CONDITION MONITORING through Thermography

C CO ON ND DI IT TI IO ON N M MO ON NI IT TO OR RI IN NG G R RO OL LL L O OF F I IN NS ST TR RU UM ME EN NT TA AT TI IO ON N

Condition Monitoring is essential for well being of men & machine. If both are well then the
entire process will be well.

What is condition monitoring?

In general condition monitoring is selected measurements conducted on a routine basis.
Measurements can range from simple areas such as temperature, pressure and flow to complex data
such as vibration and waveforms. In all of these cases, the objective is to determine what is normal,
how much change is allowable, and what the changes indicate.
The two most important elements of information derived from condition monitoring are diagnosis
and prognosis.As the process of condition monitoring relates to machines and/or equipment, this
process done correctly, can accurately show the condition of the machine or equipment. With this
knowledge, specific preventative maintenance programs can be initiated. This action may result in
increased productivity and lower costs.

Condition Monitoring Benefits

Condition monitoring is essential to implementation of a maintenance strategy. The resulting
maintenance planning and scheduling will contribute to a real asset management effort. Fully
implemented, these combined steps would enable and support operational decisions and prioritized
maintenance actions based on economic impact. In addition, decisions on machinery upgrades or
revamps would benefit.
Condition monitoring also plays a role in alerting to impending failure. If that were not benefit
enough, condition monitoring also identifies the adequacy of preventive maintenanceMost experts in
the field of maintenance management systems judge maintenance planning & scheduling as a
critical function for success in any business operation. That is, many believe that the most potential
benefits to a successful operation may be gained at the planning & scheduling stage.Planning is best
described as all the work you do in order to prepare for a job. These preparations include numerous
important considerations including safety requirements, workforce planning, maintenance training
and spare parts inventory management to name just a few. Scheduling is the act of determining
when the job will be initiated and who will do it.What is difference between

Conditioning monitoring and preventive maintenance

For Preventive maintenance you must know the possible cause of failure. Then it can be rectified at
early stage before failure takes place.
How you would know the cause that could lead to failure ?
An organized technique of monitoring the healthiness, may be of man or machine with supportive
aids viz. Scans, Graphs, imaging etc. associated with defined deterioration from past experience or

specifications from the manufacturer (viz. Lamp life of this projector) used as a diagnostic tool
know the cause that too well in time and well in advance is known as
CONDITION MONIITORING !
Various sensors, PLCs, IR scanners etc. are used in industrial application.
ECG, EEG, EMG, Endoscopies, CAT Scan, MRI, Pathological tests etc. are used for human
condition monitoring.

All the equipments described earlier use various electronic devices. But how to monitor the
condition of components used in them. Viz. Ics , Resistors, condensers etc. ?
Say a simple IC 7107 works well for 20 min then stops suddenly. This repeats every time you switch
ON at certain intervals of ON and OFF.

IR imaging is most reliable method to achieve this.

It is essential to detect and analyzing problems before something costly and catastrophic happens
should be your primary goal. And, being able to see more than just a thermal anomaly gives you the
power to act before you need to react to a severe problem when it happens.
Quality IR cameras with high-resolution visual output give you that added advantage. The IR Image
Gallery presents a wide array of sample infrared images that demonstrate both how you can use your
infrared camera, as well as the visual output quality of an IR camera.

AREAS OF APPLICATION
ASPHALT
AUTOMATION / OEM
BUILDING DIAGNOSTICS Historic places, Bridges etc.
FOOD
LAW ENFORCEMENT
MANUFACTURING
MARINE SURVEYOR
PETROCHEM
PREDICTIVE MAINTENENACE
PULP & PAPER
R & D TESTING
ROOFING
STEEL
UTILITY MARKET
VETERINARIAN
MEDICALThermography A powerful toolThermography (infrared; thermal scans) uses
specially designed infrared video or still cameras to make images (called thermograms) that show
surface heat variations. This technology has a number of applications. Thermograms of electrical
systems can detect abnormally hot electrical connections

or components. Thermograms of mechanical systems can detect the heat created by excessive
friction. Energy auditors use thermography as a tool to help detect heat losses and air leakage in
building envelopes. Home energy audits sometimes include a thermographic inspection.
Infrared scanning allows energy auditors to check the effectiveness of insulation in a buildings
construction. The resulting thermograms help auditors determine whether a building needs
insulation, and where in the building it should go. Because wet insulation conducts heat faster than
dry insulation, thermographic scans of roofs can often detect roof leaks.
In addition to using thermography during an energy audit, you should have a scan done before
purchasing a house; even new houses can have defects in their thermal envelopes. You may wish to
include a clause in the contract requiring a thermographic scan of the house. A thermographic scan
performed by a certified technician is usually accurate enough to use as documentation in court
proceedingsThermographic scans can be done inside or outside a structure. Exterior scans, while
more convenient for the homeowner, have a number of drawbacks. Warm air escaping from a
building does not always move through the walls in a straight line. Heat loss detected in one area of
an outside wall might originate at some other hard-to-find location inside the wall. Air movement
also affects the thermal image. On windy days, it is harder to detect temperature differences on the
outside surface of the building. The reduced air movement and ease of locating air leaks often make
interior thermographic scans more effective.
To prepare for an interior thermal scan, the homeowner should take steps to ensure an accurate
result. This may include moving furniture away from exterior walls and removing drapes.
The most accurate thermographic images usually occur when there is a large temperature difference
(at least 20 F [14 C ) between inside and outside air temperatures. In northern states,
thermographic scans are generally done in the winter. In southern states, however, scans are usually
conducted during warm weather with the air conditioner on.
The cost of a thermographic inspection ranges from Rs.10,000 to 25,000, depending on the size of
your home and the services provided. Copies of the thermographic image, recorded on videotape,
may cost extra. IR imaging can be used in all fields and for all applications.
Being a Non Contact, Non destructive method of Monitoring during the actual working stage of the
system / equipment / component, it is possible to know the condition very close to reliability. Thus
we can get the warning well in advance and take corrective or preventive steps.
This can avoid major failures, down time and costly replacement associated with production loss by
way of quantity and quality.
At times there can threat to human life working / staying around. Or could be hazards to the building
or machines around. In the event of disaster the loss is limitless.
It is always best to avoid it !!!

I.R. Imaging THERMOGRAPHY- presents you a new dawn of latest technology for
Condition Monitoring.
CONDITION MONITORING
ROLL OF THERMOGRAPHY
With case studiesCONDITION MONITORING case studies from various fields
Air Conditioner
Jet Engine
Computer Chip
Crystal Growth
Microresistor
Microcircuit
PC Board
PC Board Hot Spot
Wafer Board
Fuses
Bolted Bus Connection
Breaker Connection
Bushing Connection
Connection in a Substation
Connection or Bushing Problem ?
Main Power Transformer
Motor

Motor Shaft End Bearing
Un Interrupted Power Supply (UPS)
Throughput Obstructed by Steam
Wind Shield Washer Fluid Pump
Liquid Storage Tank
Freezer
Heater Shell
Heat Signature of Foot Prints
Suspect Hiding in Darkness
Infrared Detection for the Building Diagnostic
Interior Roof Survey
Building Energy Audit
Boat
Food Processing
Hoof Imbalance

A\C unit overheated and shut down after running for approximately 30 min. After visual inspection
from ground level maintenance was unable to pin-point trouble. A decision was made to use infrared
thermography to determine the reason for overheating. After taking a thermal image of the A\C unit,
it was determined that there was excessive heat build-up at the connection of the HI pressure line to
the condenser. This in turn created excessive pressure in the compressor causing the over temp
switch to kick off. Visual inspection verified there was a crushed HI pressure tube at the condenser.
Repair: Evacuated A\C system and replaced HI pressure line from Condenser to Compressor,
recharged system with 6.50 LBS of Freon 22.
Total Parts & Labor: Rs.1850



Jet Engine

Computer Chip This is a computer chip under test.
ThermaCAM imaging radiometers provide instant
identification of a fault.

Crystal Growth
Measuring crystal growth at 1300
0
C through
an IR transparent window.

Micro resistor Micro resistor with faulty element

Microcircuit :ThermaCAM image of a microcircuit showing
7 micron leads. Faults even smaller
than 7 microns can be detected. ThermaCAM systems can
measure very small targets. Even if you knew where a hot
spot was on something this small, you couldnt measure it
with a thermocouple, since the heat would sink away.


Infrared Detection for the Utility Market Industry FusesFor utilities, failure is not an option. That's
why infrared thermography has become the core of utility predictive maintenance programs in the
U.S. and around the world. For over 30 years, thousands of utilities worldwide have used infrared
thermography to avoid costly failures, improve service reliability, and prevent electrical fires.
Today, Thermography offers the world's most advanced infrared camera lines to support the
condition monitoring infrastructure that keeps the electrical power grid up and running.
Fuses

PC Board PC board with overheating
component

PC
Board Hot Spot Obvious hot spot on a PC board

Wafer Board


Bolted Bus Connection

Breaker Connection

Connection in substation :This thermal image shows a hot connectionmeasuring 437F when viewed
with a telescope lens in a substation that supplied power to a hospital and nearby residential
neighborhood. The infrared camera pinpointed the anomaly immediately. An electrical connection had
'blown off' during a lightening storm and had re-welded itself to the support bracket of the insulator.



Bushing Connection

Connection or Bushing Problem
Is this a connection or a bushing problem, or
both?
We have to learn how to analyze images like this
at an Infrared Training Center Thermography
Course.

Main power transformer :Overheating contacts inside this load tap changer on a main power transformer
has caused a dramatic increase in the temperature of the oil inside, posing a potentially dangerous situation. A
normal load tap changer is usually cooler than the main tank.

MOTOR
Internal winding problem on motor.

Motor Shaft End Bearing
Motor shaft end bearing failure detected by
thermography and vibration analysis


Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) Series 300 UPS (new)/175 KVA Battery Terminal-2nd row, middle
batteryLoad bank test: 98% load for 15 minutes.



Throughput obstructed by steam With infrared,
you'll be able to see through darkness, steam,
smoke or fog

Windshield Washer Fluid PumpIt appears the coupling
has failed or is out of alignment.

Liquid Storage tank Determination of liquid level

Heater Shells Internal refractory damage



Infrared Detection for the Building Diagnostics Industry Moisture in building materials can destroy
structural integrity and nurture mold. The first step in moisture problem remediation is to quickly
and accurately locate and remove all sources of moisture. Infrared cameras instantly show you
what's wet and what's dry. IR cameras can instantly find the ultimate source with little or no physical
disassembly of the premises and minimal disturbance of inhabitants.

Freezer :Poor insulation in a walk-in cooler

Heat signature of footprints
The Scout infrared camera can see the "heat signature" of the suspect's footprints during rapid pursuits,
providing the officer with an advanced level of suspect track-ability. Without the Scout, the officer wouldn't
know which way the criminal ran.

Officer peers atop ceiling panels and sees suspect hiding in near complete darkness, clutching building
rafters.



Infrared cameras are the inspection assets preferred by building experts for fast, reliable, accurate
building diagnosis in the entire range of building problems,

Interior infrared survey conducted during daytime hours reveals central area saturated with moisture and in need of
immediate repair.

Building Energy Audit The occupant complained about a cold spot in this living room in a home that was
insulated by a blow-in process from outside.The thermo gram at left clearly identifies the source of the cold air
as an uninsulated stud bay. By insulating the empty bay, the occupant can save significant costs in heating energy.

Boat : FirstMate can detect alterations made to vessel structure. Image shows a plate welded to the hull

Hoof Imbalance: These images show hoof imbalance, a common problem. Note the increased heat in the
lateral right front where the break over is across the right quarter and toe. In identifying the physiologic
imbalance in the hoof, appropriate shoeing changes can be made to improve performance and hoof comfort.

CEE Term Work Master

Transféré par

Informations du document

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

CEE Term Work Master

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

A Practical Lab Manual of

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi