Geoghraphical Information System and GIS in Civil Engineering

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Amin Moradi & 2P.Sravana

Master of Technology in Transportation Engineering, Iran 2 Transportation Engineering, India e-mail: moradi_amin85@yahoo.com

Abstract - Civil engineering is about developing and sustaining infrastructure.The profession covers many areas of interest and a broad range of expertise. As a result, civil engineers work with a voluminous amount of data from a variety of sources. Geographic information system (GIS) technology provides the tools for creating, managing, analyzing, and visualizing the data associated with developing and managing infrastructure. GIS allows civil engineers to manage and share data and turn it into easily understood reports and visualizations that can be analyzed and communicated to others. This data can be related to both a project and it broader geographic context. It also helps organizations and governments work together to develop strategies for sustainable development. Thus, GIS is playing an increasingly important role in civil engineering companies, supporting all phases of the infrastructure life cycle. Keywords-geoghraphic; GIS; manage; civil; develop.

Spatial Data Management GIS organizes and manages geographic information to support fast and efficient visualization and analytic applications, regardless of the amount of data held within an organization. Agencies securely store and manage vast amounts of spatial information and propagate data changes between multiple data sources.

I. Why GIS?

INTRODUCTION

GIS software is interoperable, supporting the many data formats used in the infrastructure life cycle and allowing civil engineers to provide data to various agencies in the required format while maintaining the datas core integrity. GIS technology provides a central location to conduct spatial analysis, overlay data, and integrate other solutions and systems. Built on a database rather than individual project files, GIS enables civil engineers to easily manage, reuse, share, and analyze data, saving time and resources. Spatial Analysis GIS provides tools for modeling information to support more intelligent, faster decisions; discover and Characterize geographic patterns; optimize network and resource allocation; and automate workflows through a visual modeling environment.

Planning It contains high-level planning functions for site location including environmental impact mitigation, economic analysis, regulatory permitting, alternative siting analysis, routing utilities, what-if scenarios, visualization of concept options, data overlay, modeling, and benefit/cost alternatives analysis.

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International Journal on Advanced Computer Theory and Engineering (IJACTE)

Data Collection It has specific functions to collect precise site data used for predesign analysis; design; and calculations including field survey, topography, soils, subsurface geology, traffic, lidar, photogrammetry, imaging, Sensitive environmental areas, wetlands, hydrology, and other site- specific design-grade data. Environmental Analysis It provides analysis to support design including hydrology analysis, volume calculations, soil load analysis, traffic capacity, environmental impact, slope stability, materials consumption, runoff, Erosion control, and air emissions. During environmental analysis, view project maps, site photos, CAD files, survey measurements, and 3D renderings. Analysis of the environment with a GIS allows you To view patterns, trends, and relationships that were not clearly evident without the visualization of data Design It allows creation of new infrastructure data for new civil works including grading, contouring, specifications, cross sections, design calculations, mass haul plans, environmental mitigation plans, and equipment staging. This includes integration with traditional design tools such as CAD and databases for new design capabilities. Data Collection As-Built Surveying GIS provides the tools to collect precise site data and document existing conditions. With as-built surveying infrastructure data, operators use defined, operational, industry-standard data models. As-built surveying with GIS technology permits the surveyor to deliver data into operational GIS, eliminating costly data conversion and reducing errors. Operations/Maintenance It models utility and infrastructure networks and integrates other related types of data such as raster images and CAD drawings. Spatial selection and display tools allow you to visualize scheduled work, ongoing activities, recurring maintenance problems, and historical information. The topological characteristics of a GIS database can support network tracing and can be used to analyze specific properties or services that may be impacted by such events as stoppages, main breaks, and drainage defects. Construction It provides the mechanics and management for building new infrastructure including takeoffs; machine control; earth movement; intermediate construction, volume and material, and payment calculations;

materials tracking; logistics; schedules; and traffic management. II. MICROWAVE IMAGING SENSORS The microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum includes radiation with wavelengths longer than 1 mm. Solar irradiance in this region is negligible, although the Earth itself emits some microwave radiation. Antenna size The basic (approximate) relationship between wave- length and antenna size is D (radians) where is the angular breadth of the main beam between the 3dB points and D is the maximum dimension across the antenna aperture. An aperture of 10 wavelengths will give a beamwidth of about 6. At low frequencies the wavelength is large, implying a large antenna. As the frequency increases the antenna size reduces for a given beamwidth but the attenuation of the atmosphere increases. A compromise must be made. Note that atmospheric attenuation is not a problem for satellite tosatellite links, so these may involve mm-wave frequencies and very small antennas. Image data may include several bands of information. Each band is a set of data file values for a specific portion of the electromagnetic spectrum of reflected light or emitted heat (red, green, blue, nearinfrared, infrared, thermal, etc.) or some other userdefined information created by combining or enhancing the original bands, or creating new bands from other sources. Numeral Types The range and the type of numbers used in a raster layer determine how the layer is displayed and processed. For example, a layer of elevation data with values ranging from -51.257 to 553.401 would be treated differently from a layer using only two values to show land and water. The data file values in raster layers generally fall into these categories: Nominal data file values are simply categorized and named. The actual value used for each category has no inherent meaningit is simply a class value. An example of a nominal raster layer would be a thematic layer showing tree species. Ordinal data are similar to nominal data, except that the file values put the classes in a rank or order. For example, a layer with classes numbered and named 1 - Good, 2 - Moderate, and 3 - Poor is an ordinal system.

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International Journal on Advanced Computer Theory and Engineering (IJACTE)

Interval data file values have an order, but the intervals between the values are also meaningful. Interval data measure some characteristic, such as elevation or degrees Fahrenheit, which does not necessarily have an absolute zero. (The difference between two values in interval data is meaningful.) Ratio data measure a condition that has a natural zero, such as electromagnetic radiation (as in most remotely sensed data), rainfall, or slope.

Each satellite sensor detector is designed to record a specific portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. For example, Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) band 1 records the 0.45 to 0.52 m portion of the spectrum and is designed for water body penetration, making it useful for coastal water mapping. It is also useful for soil/vegetation discriminations, forest type mapping, and cultural features identification (Lillesand and Kiefer, 1987). The characteristics of each sensor provide the first level of constraints on how to approach the task of enhancing specific features, such as vegetation or urban areas. Therefore, when choosing an enhancement technique, one should pay close attention to the characteristics of the land cover types within the constraints imposed by the individual sensors.

Coordinate Systems The location of a pixel in a file or on a displayed or printed image is expressed using a coordinate system. In two-dimensional coordinate systems, locations are organized in a grid of columns and rows. Each location on the grid is expressed as a pair of coordinates known as X and Y. The X coordinate specifies the column of the grid, and the Y coordinate specifies the row. Image data organized into such a grid are known as raster data. Electromagnetic Radiation Spectrum The sensors on remote sensing platforms usually record electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is energy transmitted through space in the form of electric and magnetic waves (Star and Estes, 1990). Remote sensors are made up of detectors that record specific wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of electromagnetic radiation extending from cosmic waves to radio waves (Jensen, 1996). All types of land cover (rock types, water bodies, etc.) absorb a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, giving a distinguishable signature of electromagnetic radiation. Armed with the knowledge of which wavelengths are absorbed by certain features and the intensity of the reflectance, you can analyze a remotely sensed image and make fairly accurate assumptions about the scene. Figure 2 illustrates the electromagnetic spectrum (Suits, 1983; Star and Estes, 1990). Figure2

Source: Lillesand and Kiefer, 1987

Image Display When the Viewer performs dithering, it uses patches of 2 2 pixels. If the desired color has an exact match, then all of the values in the patch match it. If the desired color is halfway between two of the usable colors, the patch contains two pixels of each of the surrounding usable colors. If it is 3/4 of the way between two usable colors, the patch contains 3 pixels of the color it is closest to, and 1 pixel of the color that is second closest. Figure 3 shows what the color patches would look like if the usable colors were black and white and the desired color was gray.

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International Journal on Advanced Computer Theory and Engineering (IJACTE)

Figure 3

areas are distorted by both the curvature of the Earth and the sensor being used. This chapter covers the processes of geometrically correcting an image so that it can be represented on a planar surface, conform to other images, and have the integrity of a map A map projection system is any system designed to represent the surface of a sphere or spheroid (such as the Earth) on a plane. There are a number of different map projection methods. Since flattening a sphere to a plane causes distortions to the surface, each map projection system compromises accuracy between certain properties, such as conservation of distance, angle, or area. For example, in equal area map projections, a circle of a specified diameter drawn at any location on the map represents the same total area. This is useful for comparing land use area, density, and many other applications. However, to maintain equal area, the shapes, angles, and scale in parts of the map may be distorted (Jensen, 1996). There are a number of map coordinate systems for determining location on an image. These coordinate systems conform to a grid, and are expressed as X,Y (column, row) pairs of numbers. Each map projection system is associated with a map coordinate system. Rectification is the process of transforming the data from one grid system into another grid system using a geometric transformation. While polynomial transformation and triangle-based methods are described in this chapter, discussion about various rectification techniques can be found in Yang (Yang, 1997). Since the pixels of the new grid may not align with the pixels of the original grid, the pixels must be resampled. Resampling is the process of extrapolating data values for the pixels on the new grid from the values of the source pixels. Registration In many cases, images of one area that are collected from different sources must be used together. To be able to compare separate images pixel by pixel, the pixel grids of each image must conform to the other images in the data base. The tools for rectifying image data are used to transform disparate images to the same coordinate system. Registration is the process of making an image conform to another image. A map coordinate system is not necessarily involved. For example, if image A is not rectified and it is being used with image B, then image B must be registered to image A so that they conform to each other. In this example, image A is not rectified to a particular map projection, so there is no need to rectify image B to a map projection.
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If the desired color is not an even multiple of 1/4 of the way between two allowable colors, it is rounded to the nearest 1/4. The Viewer separately dithers the red, green, and blue components of a desired color. Color Artifacts Since the Viewer requires 2 2 pixel patches to represent a color, and actual images typically have a different color for each pixel, artifacts may appear in an image that has been dithered. Usually, the difference in color resolution is insignificant, because adjacent pixels are normally similar to each other. Similarity between adjacent pixels usually smooths out artifacts that appear. Pseudo Color View Layer When a raster layer is displayed as a pseudo color layer in the Viewer, the colormap uses the RGB brightness values for the one layer in the RGB table. This is most appropriate for thematic layers. If the layer is a continuous raster layer, the layer would initially appear gray, since there are not any values in the RGB table. Gray Scale View Layer When a raster layer is displayed as a gray scale layer in the Viewer, the colormap uses the brightness values in the contrast table for one layer. This layer is then displayed in all three color guns, producing a gray scale image. A continuous raster layer may be displayed as a gray scale view layer. True Color View Layer Continuous raster layers should be displayed as true color layers in the Viewer. The colormap uses the RGB brightness values for three layers in the contrast table: one for each color gun to display the set of layers. Rectification Raw, remotely sensed image data gathered by a satellite or aircraft are representations of the irregular surface of the Earth. Even images of seemingly flat

International Journal on Advanced Computer Theory and Engineering (IJACTE)

Georeferencing Georeferencing refers to the process of assigning map coordinates to image data. The image data may already be projected onto the desired plane, but not yet referenced to the proper coordinate system. Rectification, by definition, involves georeferencing, since all map projection systems are associated with map coordinates. Image-to-image registration involves georeferencing only if the reference image is already georeferenced. Georeferencing, by itself, involves changing only the map coordinate information in the image file. The grid of the image does not change. Ground Control Points GCPs are specific pixels in an image for which the output map coordinates (or other output coordinates) are known. GCPs consist of two X,Y pairs of coordinates: source coordinatesusually data file coordinates in the image being rectified reference coordinatesthe coordinates of the map or reference image to which the source image is being registered The term map coordinates is sometimes used loosely to apply to reference coordinates and rectified coordinates. These coordinates are not limited to map coordinates. For example, in image-to-image registration, map coordinates are not necessary Linear Transformations A 1st-order transformation is a linear transformation. It can change: location in X and/or Y scale in X and/or Y skew in X and/or Y rotation

Higher Order Polynomials The polynomial equations for a t-order transformation take this form:

Where: t is the order of the polynomial ak and bk are coefficients the subscript k in ak and bk is determined by: An example of 3rd-order transformation equations for X and Y, using numbers, is:

III. CONCLUSION ITS are integrated information technologies for monitoring and influencing a land-use/ transportation system through direct control (e.g., traffic signals) or indirect persuasion (variable message signage) Due to the use of powerful graphical display and analysis tools, GIS can serve as an integral component of future Executive Information Systems for cities and their transportation agencies. Comprehensive urban transportation and land use planning at a low cost, Capability of GIS technologies to serve as an "information hub" for the various existing databases, affording the opportunity to maximize the use of existing geo-coded data, IV. REFERENCES
1. Elachi, C. 1988. Spaceborne Radar Remote Sensing: Applications and Techniques. New York: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE) Press. ISSN (Print) : 2319 2526, Volume-1, Issue-1, 2012

The transformation matrix for a 1st-order transformation consists of six coefficientsthree for each coordinate (X and Y). A0 A1 A2 B3

B0 B1

Coefficients are used in a 1st-order polynomial as follows: X0=A0 +A1X+A2Y Y0=B0+B1X+B2Y Where: x and y are source coordinates (input) xo and y o are rectified coordinates (output) the coefficients of the transformation matrix are as above

International Journal on Advanced Computer Theory and Engineering (IJACTE) 2. Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC). 1997. Content Standards for Digital Orthoimagery. Federal Geographic Data Committee, Washington, DC. Freden, S. C., and F. Gordon, Jr. 1983. Landsat Satellites. Chapter 12 in Manual of Remote Sensing. Ed. R. N. Colwell. Falls Church, Virginia: American Society of Photogrammetry. Gonzalez, R. C., and R. E. R. Woods. 1992. Digital Image Processing. Reading, Massachusetts: AddisonWesley Publishing Company. Nichols, D., J. Frew et al. 1983. Digital Hardware. Chapter 20 in Manual of Remote Sensing. Ed. R. N. Colwell. Falls Church, Virginia: American Society of Photogrammetry. Jacobsen, K. 1994. Combined Block Adjustment with Precise Differential GPS Data. International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 30 (B3): 422. Dangermond, J. 1989. A Review of Digital Data Commonly Available and Some of the Practical Problems of Entering Them into a GIS. Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems: A Compendium. Ed. W. J. Ripple. Bethesda, Maryland: American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing and American Congress on Surveying and Mapping 13. 9. Carter, J. R. 1989. On Defining the Geographic Information System. Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems: A Compendium. Ed. W. J. Ripple. Bethesda, Maryland: American Society for Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing and the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping. Guptill, S. C., ed. 1988. A Process for Evaluating Geographic Information Systems. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 88-105. Remote sensing and image interpretation, Thomas M. Lillesand, Ralph W. Kiefer Center for Health Applications of Aerospace Related Technologies (CHAART), The. 1998. Sensor Specifications: IRS-P3. Retrieved December 28, 2001, from http://geo.arc.nasa.gov/sge/health/sensor/sensors/irsp3.ht ml Defense Mapping Agency Aerospace Center. 1989. Defense Mapping Agency Product Specifications for ARC Digitized Raster Graphics (ADRG). St. Louis, Missouri: Defense Mapping Agency Aerospace Center. Elachi, C. 1992. Radar Images of the Earth from Space. Exploring Space. Geological Remote Sensing Group. 1992. Geological Remote Sensing Group Newsletter 5. Wallingford, United Kingdom: Institute of Hydrology.

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