Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Personal health
- Exercise
Community Health
Types of diseases
Routes of entry
The ways that disease causing organisms are spread and access to human tissues :
- Sexual contact
Venereal diseases : spread only through sexual contact (homosexual or
heterosexual)
STD (sexually transmitted diseases) : causative organisms are spread
by contact during
sexual intercourse
eg: Gonorrhoea, Syphilis, AIDS
- Contact
Contagious diseases
Fungal spores touching skin (skin to skin or skin and clothes)
Eg: tetanus causing bacteria can get into the body when contact with
broken skin
Disease
Disturbance to the healthy state usually brought about by a disturbance of
homeostasis
Pathogen
Disease causing organisms
Eg : bacteria, viruses, fungi
Protoctists (single celled organisms such as plasmodium-causing malaria
and amoeba-causing amoebic dysentery)
Vector
Disease (disease causing pathogen) carrying organism
Transmits the disease without suffering from it
Eg : mosquito malaria
lice typhus
Transmission
How the disease is spread from one to another
Eg: droplet infections
Contaminated food and water
Sexually
contact
Incubation Period
Time interval between entry of the pathogen and the time taken to show signs and
symptoms.
Signs – What the doctor sees (eg rashes, enlarged tonsils, fever)
Infective Period
Period in which the patient is infective to others (the patient is still shedding
the pathogen to others).
Notifiable disease
A disease of worldwide importance where the WHO must be informed of every case in
order to control its spread.
Eg : cholera
AIDS
SARS
Bird flu
Endemic disease
Disease that is prevalent (common) at all times, but the number of
sufferers is
low (eg Malaria in Sri Lanka)
Epidemic disease
Sudden outbreak of a disease in a localised area where the number of sufferers is
high (eg Cholera outbreak in Colombo in 1999)
Passive immunity
Immunity a person is born with (acquired via placenta and lactation)
Active Immunity
Immunity brought about by infection and vaccines which results in the formation
of memory cells.
Immunisation
Vaccination of a dead or weakened pathogen
This ‘tricks’ the immune system to produce
-antibodies
-memory cells
This is a form of active immunity
Usually gives lasting protection against disease.
Antibiotic
Used against bacterial infections
Eg : Penicillin from Penicillium fungi
Prophylaxis – Prevention
1. The skin
- physical barrier
- dead outer layer, cells contain keratin/cornified cells
- waterproof
- impenetrable to microbes
- secrete sebum; has antiseptic properties-kills bacteria
2. mucous membranes
- especially in mouth, vagina, nose
- epithelium of trachea produces mucus
- traps bacteria
- cilia beat and move mucus to throat
3. stomach has enzymes and acids (pH =2.0)
4. Tear glands
- secrete tears
- have anti-bacterial properties
5. Blood clotting
- heal wound
- prevent entry of pathogens through open skin
6. Phagocytes
- engulf bacteria
Why it is difficult to control the pathogens inside the body (problem for the
army) :
- microorganisms breed very rapidly / metabolism is very rapid
- blood is the ideal medium for pathogens to thrive and multiply (due to ideal
temperature and plenty of food)
while pathogen multiply, they produce toxins, poisons and waste products
onset of signs and symptoms of disease. Eg :fever
the correct lymphocyte clones itself as an attempt to increase its numbers to that
of the enemy
memory cells and antibodies remain to give lasting immunity against that pathogen
memory cells allow future antibody production to occur sooner, faster and in
greater quantity
Questions
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b) (i) Describe how microorganisms that do succeed in gaining entry to the body
are then able to produce signs and symptoms of disease. (3)
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(ii) How does the immune system respond to an invasion of the body by
pathogens?
(8)
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total 20 marks
Q2) Some microorganisms cause disease in human and usually the person recovers
naturally from the disease.
i) Describe the stages in the course of a non-lethal bacterial disease and explain
what is occurring in the body at each stage. (from the time of entry of the
pathogen until normal health is restored) (15)
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ii) Explain why, having recovered from a bacterial disease, a person is unlikely
to suffer from the same disease on a future occasion. (5)
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total 20 marks
Bacterial Diseases
Bacteria
- Prokaryotic organisms
- No true nucleus/ genetic materials are not organized into chromosomes and
into nucleus.
- Have circular DNA-plasmids
- No membrane bound organelles such as mitochondria, ER, Golgi
- Cell wall is made out of murein
- May have flagella for movement
- Reproduce by Binary fission
- Advantages :
4. use in industry
eg : biogas (methane production)
producing antibiotics –
streptomycin
5. use in biotechnology
eg : producing Insulin (hormone)
- Disadvantages :
1. causing diseases
eg : cholera, tetanus, tuberculosis, typhoid, diphtheria,
gonorrhoea
2. spoil food
- Culturing bacteria
eg : spoiled food
TYPHOID
caused by :
Treatment :
Prevention :
iii) In kitchen ;
keep all garbage bins covered
throw all scraps of food
all prepared food should be covered
kitchen surfaces and utensils need to be washed and disinfected regularly
food handlers should wear gloves
separate knives and boards for meat and vegetables
washing hands after use of toilet
PHI paying regular visits to restaurants and hotels
Control measures :
Cholera
Caused by :
Motile bacteria, have flagellum
Tuberculosis (TB)
Caused by :
Pathology :
Bacteria settle in alveoli and bronchioles
Tubercles increase in number, eroding healthy lung tissue and may even rupture the
lung (lung collapse)
To compensate the body produces large amount of sputum in order to flush out the
bacteria (phlegm cough)
Diagnosis :
Treatment :
Problems have arisen due to resistance (by the bacteria) to the prescribed
antibiotic. For every TB patient WHO should be informed
Isolate patient and give them a well balanced diet
Prevention :
1. Immunisation programme : BCG vaccine (given at birth)
2. If there is an epidermic :
- Tuberculin test is carried out to check if the community has enough
antibodies. (inject a drop of dead bacteria under the skin and look for reaction)
- Mass chest x-ray
- Prevent overcrowding
- Public buildings and hospitals should be well ventilated
3. Bovine TB : Pasterisation of milk
Testing of cattle milk
Antibiotic theraphy
Diphtheria
Caused by : Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Immobile, curved rod shape bacteria
Diphtheria is an upper respiratory tract illness.
The tonsils are areas of lymphoid tissue on either side of the throat. Like other
organs of the lymphatic system, the tonsils act as part of the immune system to
help protect against infection. In particular, they are believed to be involved in
helping fight off upper respiratory tract infections.
Symptoms : sore throat
low fever
Difficulty in breathing
Adherent membrane on tonsils
Transmission : droplet infection
Pathology :
1 ) Bacteria reproduce rapidly on the fauces (is the posterior part of the mouth,
which leads into the pharynx) of the throat, releasing a grey exudate that is
thick and sticky.
This exudates coats the faucess and spreads rapidly so that it may block the
airways
Prevention :
1) immunization programme
“Triple” vaccine (DTP) – Diphtheria, Tetanus, Pertussis (whooping cough)
The vaccine consists of a series of five shots, typically administered
in the arm or thigh, and is given to children at ages: 2, 4, 6, 18 months and 4-6
years. Adults at 10 years intervals.
2) Prevent overcrowding
isolation of patient
informing WHO
Gonorrhoea
Sexual transmitted disease
Pathology : In male
When the penis comes in contact with the bacterium in the
urethral opening.
Bacteria multiply causing inflammation and discomfort.
As the bacteria multiply the infection spreads up
The urethra causing swelling and strictures (narrowing)
Long term effect – infertility
In female
Vagina and urethra get infected, but it rarely causes discomfort
But bacteria multiply and spread easily during sexual
intercourse.
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ii) List four precautions that can be taken to prevent typhoid being transmitted
from one person to another. For each precaution, explain how it prevents the
transmission of typhoid. (8)
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iii) Some people carry Salmonella typhi in their body but show no symptoms of the
disease. Why could it be especially dangerous if such a person worked in a hotel
kitchen. (3)
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b) Some species of Salmonella cause food poisoning. Describe and explain two
precautions which should be taken during the preparation of food to ensure that
the food is safe to eat. (4)
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(Total 20 marks)
Viral Diseases
Virus
Structure :
- no cytoplasm
- no cell membrane
- no nucleus
- no cellular organization at all
- Protein coat around a DNA or RNA strand
- Out side a host cell no living characteristics
- Within host cell show reproduction only
- Obligatory parasite – need a host cell to survive
- Disease transmission – by water eg: polio
By droplet: flu
By vector: yellow fever
- Antibiotics are not effective for viral diseases
Reproduction of viruses
Influenza (flu)
In humans, influenza's effects are much more severe and last longer than those of
the common cold. Recovery takes about one to two weeks. Influenza, however, can be
deadly, especially for the weak, old or chronically ill. The flu can worsen
chronic health problems. People with emphysema, chronic bronchitis or asthma may
experience shortness of breath while they have the flu, and influenza may cause
worsening of coronary heart disease or congestive heart failure. Smoking is
another risk factor associated with more serious disease and increased mortality
from influenza
Transmission :
Pathology :
The virus binds to receptors on T lymphocytes. Viral RNA is then injected into the
cell and copied to DNA by the enzyme “Reverse Transcriptase”. The viral DNA or
VDNA enter the lymphocyte nucleus and become attached onto human DNA as a
permanent part. As the lymphocyte divide so does the VDNA and the spread is rapid.
The VDNA can stay dormant for up to 6 years. When replication occurs, the VDNA
shuts down the effector T and helper T cells. So these cells can not produce
lymphokines nor can they help B lymphocytes to produce antibodies. This erases
all immunity to previous diseases and the body immunity system is severely
damaged.
When the T lymphocytes are affected, the immune system is destroyed and previous
memory cells and antibodies are all wiped out. So a patient with AIDS has no
effective immune system and may even die of a simple cold.
- The typical picture of AIDS is a collection of rare diseases that are usually
not seen together.
Eg : A rare form of skin cancer (Kaposi’s sarcoma)
Severe diarrhea all at the same time
Severe blood poisoning
Traetment :
- Drugs that inhibit the enzyme Reverse Transcriptase can help reduce the
spread of the virus.
Eg : Zidovudin
- Symptomatic treatment
Treat the symptoms as and when they occur and try to manage the patient
- Treatment of secondary infections with antibiotics
Prevention :
Poliomyelitis
Phase 2 : -Virus attacks the grey matter of the spinal cord mainly in the region
where the motor neurones (cell bodies of motor neurone)
- killing motor neurones cause paralysis
Fungi
Structure
- Eukaryotic organism
- consist of multicellular filaments called hyphae
- hyphae forms mycellium
- cell wall is made out of chitin
- some fungi are single celled organisms eg : yeast cell
- eg : moulds (moulds on bread- Rhizopus, mould on dung – mucor)
mushrooms
yeast
- Reproduction :
Asexual reproduction – by spores produce from sporangium
Sexual reproduction
- Nutrition :
Saprophytic – depent on dead organic matter
Hyphae of fungi secrete enzyme on to dead matter
and absord soluble molecules
Parasitic
- Importance of fungi :
Helpful
1. Decay fungi (decomposers) – release nutrient for green plants from dead
organic matter
2. Yeast – respire anaerobically
Use Co2 for bakers (yeast act on sugar in dough, making it rise)
Use alcohol for brewers and wine-makers
Gasohol is ethanol brewed from sugar cane
3. Produce antibiotics – eg : Penicillium produces Penicillin
4. As Food
Natural – mushrooms
Certain yeasts, grown in fermenter vessels containing solution of
ammonium and other salts which is bubbled through with natural gas, are harvested
to give “single cell protein (SCP)” , very cheaply to feed cattle for more growth
Harmful
1. Decay fungi – spoil food
2. Plant diseases – eg : potato blight
3. Dry rot – destroy house timber
4. animal diseases – eg : athlete’s foot
Athlete’s Foot
a) describe how the fungus causing athletes foot obtain its food. (6)
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b) describe how athlete’s foot is passsed from one another. (4)
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c) describe measures that can be taken to prevent spread of athlete’s foot. (4)
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**** Thrush is common in women as the moisture and pH of vagina favour the growth
of fungus.
Typhus
Transmission : spread by lice bitting scalp to suck blood and droppings enter
wound
Treatment : anti lice shampoo and specific combs to comb out eggs
Worm infections
Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia)
Schistosoma is a parasytic flat worm called a blood fluke because it lives in the
blood vessels of the intestine wall or the urinary bladder wall. The eggs are
layed in smaller blood vessels and the egg use their spines to vibrate and drill a
hole through the gut wall.
Therefore the eggs leak into the intestine where they are expelled along with the
faeces.
Within the human, the larvae enter through the lymph vessels. It first infects the
liver where the larvae develop into the adult worms. The adult worms then enter
the circulation and live in brances mainly of the hepatic portal vein.
transmission
Malaria
Transmission :
Mosquito’s adaptations : - pairs of peircing stylets (to pierce skin)
- proboscis to suck blood
- antennae to detect food source
- light body and quick reflexs to escape
When a mosquito bites a malaria victim, it suckes up the blood containing the
paracyte. The paracyte then lives in the salivary glands of the mosquito where it
undergoes developmental changes and matures
When the mosquito bites its next victim, it pierces the skin using its stylets and
first secretes a drop of saliva. The saliva contains an anti- coagulent that
prevents clotting so that the mosquito can suck up a liquid meal. That drop of
saliva would contain the parasite and mosquito allows it to gain direct access to
the blood circulation.
Pathogenesis :
- parasyte first infects the liver where it lives for upto 10 days
- then they re-enter the blood, where they infect the red blood cells
- development takes place within RBC’s, causing RBC’s to burst, releasing
parasites and toxins
- the bursting of RBC’s give rise to very high fever
- the fever takes place approximately every 48 hours
Complications of malaria :
- liver damage
- anemia
- cerebral malaria (one species of parasite plasmodium falciparum infects CSF
and brain)
- fever, vomiting, headache the persist due to dehydration and build up of
toxins
Prevention :
Life cycle of mosquito
physical/barrier method
chemical methods
- Use DDT/ insecticides on adult mosquito
- Insect repellant
- Mosquito coils, oils, tablets