Dharma-Chapt-09 - Sistemas de Comunicaciones Moviles-2002

Chapter 9
Mobile Communication Systems
Copyright 2002, Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved.
Outline

Cellular System Infrastructure Registration Handoff Roaming Multicasting Security and Privacy
Cellular System
Base Station System BTS MS BTS BTS BTS BTS BTS Base Station System
Copyright 2002, Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 3
VLR HLR
BSC
AUC EIR MSC
MS
BSC
Gateway MSC MSC
PSTN/ISDN
VLR/HLR
VLR contains information about all visiting MSs in that particular area of MSC. VLR has pointers to the HLRs of visiting MS. VLR helps in billing and access permission to the visiting MS.
Redirection of Call to MS at a Visiting Location
Call routed as per called number to MS
Home MSC
Visiting MSC
Cell where MS is currently located BS
HLR
VLR
MS
Registration
Wireless system needs to know whether MS is currently located in its home area or some other area (routing of incoming calls). This is done by periodically exchanging signals between BS and MS known as Beacons. BS periodically broadcasts beacon signal (1 signal per second) to determine and test the MSs around. Each MS listens to the beacon, if it has not heard it previously then it adds it to the active beacon kernel table. This information is used by the MS to locate the nearest BS. Information carried by beacon signal: cellular network identifier, timestamp, gateway address ID of the paging area, etc.
6
Using a Mobile Phone Outside the Subscription Area
Authentication request
xc al e rr h e ang at ion
3
Authentication response
4
B
1 2 5
o eac Re
n sig
qu e
fo est
str i g e je /re
th Au
tio a c i nt
ct
MS
Visiting BS
Home BS
Steps for Registration
MS listens to a new beacon, if its a new one, MS adds it to the active beacon kernel table. If MS decides that it has to communicate through a new BS, kernel modulation initiates handoff process. MS locates the nearest BS via user level processing. The visiting BS performs user level processing and decides:

Who the user is? What are its access permissions? Keeping track of billing.
Home site sends appropriate authentication response to the current serving BS. The BS approves/disapproves the user access.
8
Handoff
Change of radio resources from one cell to an adjacent one. Handoff depends on cell size, boundary length, signal strength, fading, reflection, etc. Handoff can be initiated by MS or BS and could be due to

Radio link Network management Service issues
Handoff (Contd)
Radio link handoff is due to mobility of MS. It depends on:

Number of MSs in the cell Number of MSs that have left the cell Number of calls generated in the cell Number of calls transferred from the neighboring cells Number of calls terminated in the cell Number of calls that were handoff to neighboring cells Number of active calls in the cell Cell population Total time spent in the cell by a call Arrival time of a call in the cell etc
10
Handoff (Contd)
Network management may cause handoff if there is drastic imbalance of traffic in adjacent cells and optimal balance of resources is required. Service related handoff is due to the degradation of QoS (quality of service).
11
Time for Handoff

Factors deciding right time for handoff:

Signal strength Signal phase Combination of above two Bit error rate (BER) Distance Signal strength CIR (carrier to interference ratio).
Need for Handoff is determined by:

12
Handoff Initiation
Signal strength due to BSi Signal strength due to BSj
Pi(x)
Pj(x)
E
Pmin
BSi
X1
X3
MS
X5
Xth
X4
X2
BSj
13
Handoff initiation (Contd)
Region X3-X4 indicates the handoff area, where depending on other factors, the handoff needs to be performed. One option is to do handoff at X5 where the two signal strengths are equal. If MS moves back and forth around X5, it will result in too frequent handoffs (ping-pong effect). Therefore MS is allowed to continue with the existing BS till the signal strength decreases by a threshold value E. Different cellular systems follow different handoff procedures.
14
Types of Handoff
Hard Handoff (break before make)
Releasing current resources from the prior BS before acquiring resources from the next BS. FDMA,TDMA follow this type of handoff.
Soft Handoff (make before break)

In CDMA, since the same channel is used, we have to change the code of the handoff, if the code is not orthogonal to the codes in the next BS. Therefore, it is possible for the MS to communicate simultaneously with the prior BS as well as the new BS.
15
Hard Handoff
BS1 MS
BS2
BS1
MS
BS2
(a). Before handoff
(c). After handoff
BS1
MS
BS2
(b). During handoff (No connection)

Soft Handoff (CDMA only)
BS1
MS
BS2
BS1
MS BS2
(a) Before handoff
(c) After handoff
BS1
MS
BS2
(b) During handoff

Roaming
To move from a cell controlled by one MSC area to a cell connected to another MSC. Beacon signals and the use of HLR-VLR allow the MS to roam anywhere provided we have the same service provider, using that particular frequency band.
18
Roaming
Home MSC Visiting MSC Home MSC Visiting MSC
BS1
MS
BS2
BS1
MS
BS2
19
Handoff Scenarios with Different Degree of Mobility

PSTN MSC1 MSC2 MSC3 MSC4
MS
Paging Area 1 Paging Area 2

Possible Handoff Situations
Assume MSC1 to be the home of the MS for registration, billing, authentication, etc. When handoff is from position a to b, the routing can be done by MSC1 itself. When handoff is from position b to c , then bi-directional pointers are set up to link the HLR of MSC1 to VLR of MSC2. When handoff occurs at d or e, routing of information using HLR-VLR may not be adequate (d is in a different paging area). Concept of Backbone network.
21
Information Transmission Path when MS Hands Off from b to c

Information to MS being sent
MSC1 HLR
Initial path of information transfer
MSC2 VLR
Path after handoff
MS
22
Illustration of MSC Connections to Backbone Network and Routing/Rerouting

From rest of the backbone
R1 R2 (a,b,c,d) R5 R3 R4 (a,b) (c) MSC 2 MSC 3 MSC 1 (a,b) (c) (d) Paging area 1 (PA1) (e) R6 R9 (d) R8 R11 R13 (a,b,c,d,e) R7 R10 R12
Router MSC
MSC 4 Paging area 2 (PA2) (e)

23
Backbone Network
Routing done according to the topology connectivity of the backbone network. The dotted lines show the possible paths for a call headed for different MS locations. One option is to find a router along the original path, from where a new path needs to start to reach the MSC along the shortest path.
24
Home Agents (HA), Foreign Agents (FA) and Mobile IP
Two important software modules are associated with routers, home agent (HA) and foreign agent (FA). MS is registered with a router, mostly a router closest to the home MSC can be used to maintain its HA. A router other than closest one could also serve as an HA. Once a MS moves from the home network, a software module in the new network FA assists MS by forwarding packets for the MS. This functionality is somewhat similar to HLR-VLR.
25
Home MSC and Home Agent (HA) for the Previous Network
Home MSC Selected router for maintaining its home agent MSC1 R3 MSC2 R4 MSC3 R6 MSC4 R9
26
Call Establishment using HA-FA
Whenever a MS moves to a new network, it still retains its initial HA. The MS detects the FA of the new network, by sensing the periodic beacon signals which FA transmits. MS can also itself send agent solicitation messages to which FA responds. When FA detects a new MS, it allocates a COA (care of address) to the MS, using dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP). Once MS receives COA, it registers its COA with its HA and the time limit binding for its validity. Such registration is initiated either directly by MS to the HA of the home router or indirectly through FA.
27
Call Establishment (Contd)

HA confirms its binding through a reply to the MS. A message sent from an arbitrary source to the MS at the home address is received by the HA. Binding is checked, the COA of the MS is encapsulated in the packet and forwarded to the network. If COA of the FA is used, then packet reaches FA, it decapsulates the packet and passes to MS at the link layer. In an internet environment it is called Mobile IP. After binding time, if MS still wants to have packets forwarded through HA, it needs to renew its registration. When MS returns to its home network, it intimates its HA.
28
Registration Process Between FA, MS, and HA When the MS Moves to a Paging area
HA MS 1 FA Beacon Signal (Any one new)
1 I am new here 1 OK, send information 2 Here is my HA and binding infomation. 3 4 COA or C-COA created
Here is COA or co-located COA (C-CoA) for this MS 4 Same as step 4
4 Same as step 4 Acknowledge Registration + binding

Message Forwarding using HA-FA Pair

Incoming message for MS HA Encapsulation HA CoA/C-CoA Source To MS Payload Data Forwarding through intermediate router if C-CoA used Source To MS Payload Data
FA
Forwarding through intermediate router if CoA used Decapsulation
Source
To MS
Payload Data
MS
Decapsulation done at MS
30
Routing in Backbone Routers

How FA finds HA of the MS ? One approach is to have a global table at each router of each MSC so that the route from FA to HA for that MS can be determined. Disadvantages: Information too large, one network might not like to give out information about all its routers to any external network (only gateways information is provided). Use of Distributed Routing Scheme.
31
Illustration of Paging Areas (PAs) and Backbone Router Interconnect

Network 1 Router W PA1 PA2 Router X Router Y
MS moves
PA3
PA4
Router Z
PA5 Network 2
Distributed Routing Table and Location PAs

Table at router Table at router Table at router Table at router W X Y Z
Route to PA 1 2 3 4 5 Next hop X X X X X Route to PA 1 2 3 4 5 Next hop Y Y Y Route to PA 1 2 3 4 5 Next hop X X Z Z Z Route to PA 1 2 3 4 5 Next hop Y Y -
33
Multicasting
Process of transmitting messages from a source to multiple recipients by using a group address for all hosts that wish to be the members of the group. Reduces number of messages to be transmitted as compared to multiple unicasting. Useful in video/audio conferencing, multi party games.
34
Multicasting
Multicasting can be performed either by building a source based tree or core based tree. In source based tree , for each source of the group a shortest path is maintained, encompassing all the members of the group, with the source being the root of the tree. In core based tree, a particular router is chosen as a core and a tree is maintained with the core being the root. -- Every source forwards the packet to a core router, which then forwards it on the tree to reach all members of the multicast group.
Multicasting
Bi-directional Tunneling (BT) and Remote Subscription approaches have been proposed by IETF for providing multicast over Mobile IP. In BT approach, whenever a MS moves to a foreign network, HA is responsible for forwarding the multicast packets to the MS. In Remote Subscription protocol, whenever a MS moves to a foreign network, the FA (if not already a member of multicast group) sends a tree join request.
36
Multicasting
Remote Subscription based approach is simple and prevents packet duplication and non optimal path delivery. It can cause data interruption till the FA is connected to the tree. It results in a number of tree join and tree leave requests when MS are in continuous motion. In contrast, in the BT approach, the HA creates a bi-directional tunnel to FA and encapsulates the packets for MS. FA then forwards the packets to the MS.
37
Multicasting
BT approach prevents data disruption due to the movement of MS. But causes packet duplication if several MSs of the same HA, that have subscribed to the same multicast group move to same FA. Also causes Tunnel Convergence Problem, where one FA may have several MSs subscribed to the same group, belonging to different HAs and each HA may forward a packet for its MSs to the same FA.
38
Packet Duplication in BT Tunnel Approach
Multicast packets from the multicast tree MS1 MS 1
HA
MS2
FA
MS 2
MS3
MS 3
39
Tunnel Convergence Problem

Multicast packets from the multicast tree HA 1 MS 1 FA HA 2 CoA (MS2) MS 2
CoA (MS1)
HA 3
CoA (MS3) CoA (MS4)
MS 3 MS 4
40
Multicasting
To overcome Tunnel Convergence Problem, MoM protocol is proposed wherein the FA selects one of the HAs, called the Designated Multicast Service Provider (DMSP), from the HA List for a particular group. The remaining HAs do not forward packets to FA.
41
Illustration of MoM Protocol

Multicast packets from the multicast tree MS 1 HA 1 Stop CoA (MS1) Forward HA 2 CoA (MS2) DMSP Selection Stop CoA (MS3) MS 4 CoA (MS4) FA MS 3 MS 2
HA 3
42
Security and Privacy

Transfer through an open air medium makes messages vulnerable to various attacks. One such problem is Jamming by a very powerful transmitting antenna. Can be overcome by using frequency hopping. Many encryption techniques used so that unauthorized users cannot interpret the signals.
43
Encryption Techniques
Permuting the bits in a pre specified manner before transmitting them. Such permuted information can be reconstructed by using reverse operation. This is called Data Encryption Standard (DES) on input bits.
44
Simple Permutation Function
W 1 I R E 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 W 5 2 6 3 7 4 8 L I E R S E S
Input
L E S S
Output
45
Bit Patterns before Transmission and after Reception using DES

57 49 41 33 25 17 9 1 61 53 45 37 29 21 13 5 58 50 42 34 26 18 10 2 62 54 46 38 30 22 14 6 59 51 43 35 27 19 11 3 63 55 47 39 31 23 15 7 60 52 44 36 28 20 12 4 64 56 48 40 32 24 16 8 (a) Permutation before transmission 8 24 40 56 16 32 48 64 7 23 39 55 15 31 47 63 6 22 38 54 14 30 46 62 5 21 37 53 13 29 45 61 4 20 36 52 12 28 44 60 3 19 35 51 11 27 43 59 2 18 34 50 10 26 42 58 1 17 33 49 9 25 41 57 (b) Permutation after reception
46
Encryption Techniques
A complex encryption scheme involves transforming input blocks to some coded form. Encoded information is uniquely mapped back to useful information. Simplest transformation involves logical or arithmetic or both operations.
47
A Generic Process of Encoding and Decoding
Encoding Information block at transmitter Encoded signal
Received signal Encoded Transmitted signal signal
Decoding at receiver Information block (Original)
48
Permutation and Coding of Information

Input (64 bits) Initial Permutation (IP) 32 bits Left half: L1
+ f
32 bits Right half: R1 Key K1
Left half: L1 = R1
+ f
R1 = L1 ++ f(R1, K1)
R16 = L16 ++ f(R15, K16)
Left half: L16 = R15
Inverse initial permutation (IP 1)
Coded Output
Authentication

Making sure user is genuine. Using a Hash Function from an associated unique identification of the user (not full proof) Another approach is to use two different interrelated keys. One known only to system generating the key (private key) , other used for sending to outside world (public key). RSA algorithm (best known public key system)
50
Public/Private Key Authentication Steps

(2) Send Public Key
System
(1) Compute Public Key for User i from its private key.
User i
Save Public Key
usually done off line
System
(4) Verify using private key of User i.
(3) ID, Signature
User i
on-line test
Use public key to generate signature. (5) Authentication Result
System
User i
51
Authentication (RSA Algorithm)

In RSA method 2 large prime numbers (p,q) are selected. n = p*q A number e is selected to use (n,e) as the public key and is transmitted to the user. User stores this, whenever a message m< n needs to be transmitted, user computes c = me| mod n and sends to the system. After receiving c, the system computes cd|mod n where d is computed using the private key (n,e) cd|mod n = (me|mod n) d |mod n = (me)d |mod n ed| m = mod n To make this equal to m, ed should be equal to 1. This means e and d need to be multiplicative inverse using mod n (or mod p*q) This can be satisfied if e is prime with respect to (p-1)*(q-1) Using this restriction original message is reconstructed.
Message Authentication using Public/Private Keys

Base Station Select p and q as two prime numbers n = p*q 1<e<n
Public Key (n,e)
Mobile Station Save public key (n, e)
Base Station Compute d from e (n,d) private key Receive c Base Station Compute cd|
mod n
Mobile Station Message m < n Sent as c = me|mod n
mde|
mod n
=m
Authentication
Mobile station OK
If de = 1
Authentication of a MS by the BS
(ID)e|mod n Base Station Authentication (a) Authentication based on ID (ID)e|mod n
R: Random Number as a Challenge
Mobile Station
Base Station
Send Re|mod n Authentication (b) Authentication using a challenge
Mobile Station
54
Wireless System Security

Basic services of security: Confidentiality Non-repudiation: sender and receiver cannot deny the transmission. Authentication: sender of the information is correctly identified. Integrity: content of the message can only be modified by authorized user. Availability: resources available only to authorized users.
Wireless System Security

Security Mechanisms: Security Prevention: Enforces security during the operation of the system. Security Detection: Detects attempts to violate security. Recovery: Restore the system to pre-security violation state.
56
Cost Function of a Secured Wireless System

Cost
Expected total cost
Expected total cost with violations
Cost for Security enhancing mechanisms
Optimal Level
100%
Security Level
57
Security Threat Categories (Types of Attacks)

S S
Message Source
I D
Intruder
D S
Destination
Message
Message
I
Interruption Interception
Message
D
Message
S I
Message
I
Modification
Fabrication
58
Wireless Security
Active Attacks: When data modification or false data transmission takes place.

Masquerade: one entity pretends to be a different entity. Replay: information captured and retransmitted to produce unauthorized effect. Modification of message Denial of service (DoS)
Passive Attacks: Goal of intruder is to obtain information (monitoring, eavesdropping on transmission)

59

Dharma-Chapt-09 - Sistemas de Comunicaciones Moviles-2002

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Chapter 9

Mobile Communication Systems

AUC EIR MSC

Gateway MSC MSC

Redirection of Call to MS at a Visiting Location

Call routed as per called number to MS

Cell where MS is currently located BS

Using a Mobile Phone Outside the Subscription Area

Steps for Registration

Radio link Network management Service issues

Radio link handoff is due to mobility of MS. It depends on:

Time for Handoff

Need for Handoff is determined by:

Handoff initiation (Contd)

Soft Handoff (make before break)

(a). Before handoff

(c). After handoff

(b). During handoff (No connection)

Soft Handoff (CDMA only)

(a) Before handoff

(c) After handoff

(b) During handoff

Handoff Scenarios with Different Degree of Mobility

Paging Area 1 Paging Area 2

Possible Handoff Situations

Information Transmission Path when MS Hands Off from b to c

Illustration of MSC Connections to Backbone Network and Routing/Rerouting

MSC 4 Paging area 2 (PA2) (e)

Home Agents (HA), Foreign Agents (FA) and Mobile IP

Call Establishment using HA-FA

Call Establishment (Contd)

Here is COA or co-located COA (C-CoA) for this MS 4 Same as step 4

4 Same as step 4 Acknowledge Registration + binding

Message Forwarding using HA-FA Pair

Forwarding through intermediate router if CoA used Decapsulation

Routing in Backbone Routers

Illustration of Paging Areas (PAs) and Backbone Router Interconnect

Distributed Routing Table and Location PAs

Packet Duplication in BT Tunnel Approach

Multicast packets from the multicast tree MS1 MS 1

Tunnel Convergence Problem

CoA (MS3) CoA (MS4)

Illustration of MoM Protocol

Security and Privacy

Simple Permutation Function

Bit Patterns before Transmission and after Reception using DES

A Generic Process of Encoding and Decoding

Encoding Information block at transmitter Encoded signal

Received signal Encoded Transmitted signal signal

Decoding at receiver Information block (Original)

Permutation and Coding of Information

32 bits Right half: R1 Key K1

R16 = L16 ++ f(R15, K16)

Left half: L16 = R15

Inverse initial permutation (IP 1)

Public/Private Key Authentication Steps

usually done off line

(3) ID, Signature

Use public key to generate signature. (5) Authentication Result

Authentication (RSA Algorithm)

Message Authentication using Public/Private Keys

Public Key (n,e)

Mobile Station Save public key (n, e)