LECTURE 10 PN JUNCTION DIODE Static and dynamic resistance Reverse breakdown Avalanche breakdown Zener breakdown I-V characteristic

ic of a real pn junction diode Junction capacitance

1 2

Diode resistance
eV I = I s [exp( ) 1] kT
I / mA
5 4 3 2 1 0.4

Notes
Diode Resistance The static resistance, Rs ,of the diode is just the DC resistance we would calculate from measurement of the current through and voltage across it. This will vary depending on where we are on the I-V characteristic.

V Static resistance: Rs = I
Dynamic resistance:
1

Rs =

V I

V I I V
0.8 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5

Is

V / volts

dV dI = rd = dI dV kT = eI 26 = I (mA)

The dynamic resistance, rd , of the diode is its small signal AC resistance and also depends on the point on the characteristic where it is measured. An expression for rd can be found by differentiating the approximate diode equation for V >> 26mV with respect to V.

rd =

dV dI = dI dV 26 = I (mA)

kT
eI
for V >> 26mV, I in mA T = 300K and assuming 1.

I / mA

For V >> 26 mV, I in mA and assuming T = 300 K and  = 1

Note that the diode quantities Vo, Is and rd all depend on temperature. 4

Reverse Breakdown
I / mA

Notes
Reverse Breakdown The reverse current in a diode does not remain constant at Is as the reverse bias is increased indefinitely. At a critical voltage, VBD , breakdown occurs and the reverse current increases very rapidly large currents can flow with little further increase in voltage (see Fig. 58). VBD is termed the REVERSE BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE.

Fig. 58

VBD V / volts Diode equation prediction

In a real device BREAKDOWN occurs: VBD the BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE

5 6

Reverse Breakdown
Breakdown occurs as a result of a high E field in the depletion region.
p Depletion region + + E + + + W n Drifting electrons

Notes
Reverse Breakdown (continued) Breakdown occurs as a result of the high electric field in the depletion region. E = dV/dx so for the depletion region of a diode |E| will be given approximately by (VB V)/W, where V is the terminal voltage (V is ve for reverse bias), VB the barrier potential and W the width of the depletion region. Hence the strength of the field will be large if a large voltage is applied across the device or if the depletion region is very narrow. As forward voltages are typically limited to <1V, breakdown mainly occurs under reverse bias. The width of the depletion region is usually < 1m (10-6 m), so even modest reverse biases can produce electric fields in the depletion region of over 106 Vm-1 (see Tutorial 1, question 4). As breakdown occurs under reverse bias, only drifting carriers are involved (under reverse bias the height of the energy barrier is increased and this stops the diffusing carriers from crossing the junction). These drifting carriers are accelerated by the field in the depletion region and so gain energy from it as they move across.

Drifting holes W = width of depletion region V = applied bias

E=

dV V V B dx W

If V is large or W is small, E will be large

Breakdown occurs only under reverse bias, so only drifting carriers are involved. These are accelerated by the field, i.e. they gain energy from it.7

Fig. 59(a) Si

Avalanche Breakdown

Notes
Reverse Breakdown Mechanisms There are 2 breakdown mechanisms: avalanche and Zener. 1). Avalanche Breakdown In this case the electric field in the depletion region becomes so large that the electrons drifting across are accelerated to such high kinetic energies that they are able to ionise lattice atoms if they collide with them i.e. knock electrons out of the bonds, thereby creating electronhole pairs (see Fig. 59(a)). These new carriers are also accelerated to high energies and cause further ionising collisions. This results in avalanche multiplication of the current. Avalanche breakdown occurs for fields greater than about 0.5x108Vm-1. Unless the reverse current is limited, the excessive device heating (IREV x VREV) will destroy the device. However, if dissipation is limited, the breakdown region of the characteristic is reversible, so that if |VREV| is reduced below |VBD|, IREV = Is again.

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si
VREV e E e Energy of drifting carriers 9

Strong E field in depletion region

10

Zener Breakdown - Electrons torn directly from bonds by the high E field Fig. 59(b) Si Si Si Si

Notes
2). Zener Breakdown As well as depending on applied bias, the width, W, of the depletion region depends on the doping densities in the p and n material the higher the doping density, the narrower the width. If the doping density is very high (> 1024 m-3) the depletion layer will be very narrow, so a very high field exists across the junction (E = dV/dx). Zener breakdown will occur if the field is so strong that it is able to tear electrons in the covalent bonds out of the bonds and accelerate them into the n-type region (see Fig. 59(b)). Zener breakdown occurs for fields greater than 108Vm-1. Like avalanche breakdown, Zener breakdown is also reversible provided thermal limits are not exceeded, i.e. provided power dissipation is limited to avoid overheating the device.

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Strong E field in depletion region

11

12

Both effects are perfectly reversible provided power dissipation in the device is limited. I / mA

VBD operating point can move back to normal region provided overheating is avoided V / volts

VBD depends on temperature.

13

14

Temperature Dependence of VBD

Temperature Dependence of VBD

Notes
For avalanche breakdown the magnitude of the breakdown voltage, |VBD| , increases as the temperature increases. Remember from the section on mobility that the carriers are scattered as a result of collisions with phonons, i.e. lattice vibrations. As temperature increases, there are more phonons around and so the average distance between collisions with the phonons decreases. If the distance between collisions is less, the drifting carriers have less time to obtain energy from the field and hence a larger reverse bias is required in order to compensate for this reduction in the energy acquired. (The carriers must have a minimum energy of Eg in order to rupture a bond.) For Zener breakdown the opposite occurs: |VBD|decreases as temperature increases because the energy gap, Eg, of the semiconductor decreases with increasing temperature (see Fig. 19), so less energy is required to rupture a bond. For diodes in which both effects occur, the two different temperature dependences can cancel so that |VBD| can be independent of temperature. However, |VBD| will be limited to around 6V in this case. 16

AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN: |VBD| INCREASES as temperature increases because: More thermal vibrations (phonons) around at higher temperatures Carriers make more collisions So there is less time between collisions for them to get energy from the E field So the E field and hence VBD must increase to compensate for this.

15

ZENER BREAKDOWN: |VBD| DECREASES as temperature increases because To rip an electron directly out of a bond requires an energy equal to the energy gap, Eg Eg decreases as temperature increases

ELECTRON ENERGY

As temperature increases, structure expands Applying pressure compresses structure Energy levels of the isolated atom

Valence electrons

Equilibrium spacing

INTERATOMIC SPACING

Fig 19: Variation of the energy bands with interatomic spacing for silicon (and also germanium and carbon).
17 18

Fig. 60 The range of voltages over which Zener

and avalanche breakdown occur:
Avalanche breakdown Zener breakdown
200 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Notes
Breakdown Voltage Range For Si devices, Zener breakdown occurs for |VR| values above about 2V. Between 4.5 and 7V both Zener and avalanche effects occur. Above 7V avalanche breakdown predominates (see Fig. 60). Avalanche breakdown voltages up to several hundred volts are obtainable by appropriate doping. Zener Diodes

VBD (volts)

N.B. In this voltage range both mechanisms occur simultaneously, so the different temperature effects cancel and |VBD| can be independent of temperature.

Zener Diodes:

Fig. 61

The breakdown effect can be used as the basis of a voltage reference diodes designed for this application are termed Zener Diodes Diodes
19

Because the characteristic in the breakdown region is almost vertical (i.e. V is essentially constant) the breakdown phenomenon in diodes can be used to provide a voltage reference. Diodes which are specifically designed for this application are termed Zener diodes and have a special symbol (see Fig. 61). By altering the doping levels in the diode the manufacturer can tailor the breakdown voltage to almost any value, and Zeners in the range 2-200V are readily available. (Note that if VBD > 7V the device is still termed a Zener diode even though the breakdown mechanism will be avalanche rather than Zener.) The breakdown voltage is referred to as the Zener voltage, VZ , for these devices. The characteristic of a Zener diode does have a slight slope in the breakdown region and the inverse of this slope is the Zener resistance, RZ. 20

Fig. 62
Characteristic for real device ______

I / mA
100

Characteristic predicted by the diode equation - - I = I s [exp( eV ) 1] kT

-10 -5 50

1.Characteristic 1.Characteristic becomes more linear at large forward voltages due to resistance of p and n regions (R1 and R2)
0.4 0.8

Is

V / volts

-50

(a)

-100

I / nA
21 22

Fig. 63
p

Depletion region

Notes
Characteristic of a Real pn Junction Diode The I-V characteristic of a real diode differs in three important respects from that predicted by the diode equation.

contact

contact

junction R1 Rs R2 Rs is the resistance of the Static resistance: Rs = V depletion region this is given I I / mA by the diode equation.
50

R1 & R2 represent the resistances of the actual semiconductor material in the p and n regions outside the depletion region: typically R1 & R2 are ~5.

V
30 10

Rs small I V / volts 23

(1) The diode equation ignores the resistance of the actual semiconductor material the diode is made from and any resistance due to the metal contacts at the ends of the device. The total resistance of the diode can be modelled by three resistors in series as shown in Fig. 63. R1 and R2 represent the resistances of the semiconductor material and contacts on the p and n sides respectively: R1 and R2 are typically ~5. Rs is the diode static resistance and represents the resistance of the pn junction; it is given by the diode equation. For low currents Rs is large (the pn junction is almost like an open circuit) so Rs >> R1 and RS >> R2 , and the I-V characteristic is effectively that given by the diode equation. However as the current increases, Rs becomes steadily smaller, eventually becoming comparable with and then smaller than R1 and R2. Then R1 and R2 (which are constant) are dominant and the characteristic becomes linear, as shown in Fig. 62(a).

Rs large
0.4 0.8

24

4. Diode bulk resistance In a diode for which  =1, bias voltages of 0.18 V and 0.29 V produce forward currents of 1 mA and 10 mA respectively. What is the bulk resistance of this device if it can be assumed that this resistance has negligible effect on the current for bias voltages below 0.2 V?

Fig. 62
Characteristic for real device ______

I / mA
100

Characteristic predicted by the diode equation - - I = I s [exp( eV ) 1] kT

-10 -5 50

Is

0.4

1.Characteristic 1.Characteristic becomes more linear at large forward voltages due to resistance of p and n regions (R1 and R2). 0.8 V / volts

2. Slope due to surface leakage.

-50

(b)
25

-100

I / nA
26

Fig. 64
Reverse bias:
Some current manages to leak around the corners of the pn junction at the surface.

Notes
Characteristic of a Real pn Junction Diode (continued) (2) According to the diode equation, under reverse bias the current should rapidly approach a constant value Is, so that the characteristic is horizontal, i.e. I is independent of V. However, in reality some current leaks around the edges of the pn junction at the surface of the device, as shown in Fig. 64, so there is effectively a high resistance path in parallel with the junction. The current taking this path will be proportional to the reverse voltage, so the total reverse current will not be independent of the reverse voltage, as shown in Fig. 62(b). (3) Breakdown eventually occurs at some critical voltage VBD and the reverse current increases rapidly (see Fig. 62(c)). Breakdown is not predicted by the diode equation.

-ve
SiO2

p-type n-type
Aluminium

+ve
27 28

Fig. 62
Characteristic for real device ______

I / mA
100

Characteristic predicted by the diode equation - - I = I s [exp( eV ) 1] kT

50

VBD

-10

-5

Is

0.4

1.Characteristic 1.Characteristic becomes more linear at large forward voltages due to resistance of p and n regions (R1 and R2). 0.8 V / volts

(c)

2. Slope due to surface leakage.

-50

-100

3. Breakdown occurs at VBD

I / nA
29 30

Diode Capacitance Fig. 65(a)

depletion region W -- ++ -- ++ -- ++ -- ++ -- ++ junction A = plate area; = permittivity of medium between the plates CJ is the junction capacitance capacitance K = a constant; VB = barrier potential V = applied bias ((-ve for reverse bias) n = for an abrupt junction parallel plate capacitor d + n
Diode Capacitance

Notes
As well as having a resistance associated with it, the diode also has a capacitance. The two layers of space charge which form the depletion region on either side of the junction are analogous to the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor (see Fig. 65(a)). For such a capacitor:

C=

A
d

where A is the plate area, is the permittivity of the medium between the plates and d is the plate separation. Hence the capacitance, CJ, of the pn junction will depend on the width, W, of the depletion region:

d 1 CJ W CJ = K (VB V ) n
31

C=

CJ

1 W

As we have already seen, W depends on the applied voltage, becoming smaller as V becomes more positive (i.e. as the forward bias is increased) and larger as V becomes more negative (i.e. as the reverse bias is increased). Taking account of this dependence, it can be shown that: VB is the barrier potential K CJ = V is the applied bias ( V +ve or -ve for (VB V ) n forward or reverse bias respectively) K is a constant; n= for abrupt junction 32

Notes Typically: 1pF < CJ < 1000pF The varactor or varicap diode is a diode designed specifically for use as a voltage-controlled capacitor:
Circuit symbol: or
Diode Capacitance (continued) Note that the exponent n in the formula for CJ depends on the way the junction is made: n= for an abrupt junction but is closer to if there is a more gradual changeover from p-type to n-type material. The dependence of CJ on applied bias can be exploited: a special type of diode the varactor or varicap diode is specifically designed as a voltage-controlled capacitor. Such devices are used in, for example, TV tuning circuits. Their circuit symbol is a combination of a diode and capacitor, as shown in Fig. 65(b). The magnitude of CJ at zero bias is typically in the range 1pF - 1000pF. Note that the depletion layer capacitance appears in parallel with the pn junction.

Used in e.g. tuning circuits:

=
C'

1 LC {C = C' CJ)} C'CJ/(C'+ /(C'+C

Fig. 65(b): + Tuning circuit incorporating varactor diode

L V
33 34

5. Diode capacitance The capacitance of a Si pn diode depends on the reverse voltage, V, as shown in the table below. Determine K and n in the expression for CJ and calculate the value of V for CJ = 4pF. V (volts) -2 -5 CJ (pF) 8 6
V I
5 4 3 2 1 0.4

SUMMARY STATIC & DYNAMIC RESISTANCE

Rs =

rd =

dV kT 26 = = dI eI I (in mA )
I / mA
5

for T = 300K, = 1

I / mA V I Is
-1 -2 -3 -4 -5 0.8 V

4 3 2 1 0.4

I V
0.8 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5

Is

/ volts

V / volts

35

I / mA

I / mA

36

REVERSE BREAKDOWN MECHANISMS AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN carriers drifting across depletion region collide with electrons in the bonds, knocking them out and creating more carriers. ZENER BREAKDOWN electrons are pulled directly out of the bonds. Both mechanisms are reversible provided excessive device heating is avoided. VBD depends on temperature For avalanche breakdown: |VBD| as T For Zener breakdown: |VBD| as T
37

I-V CHARACTERISTIC OF A REAL DIODE The I-V characteristic for a real pn junction diode differs from that predicted by the diode equation in several respects: It is more linear at high forward currents because of series resistance.
Fig. 63 62 Fig. I / mA The reverse Characteristic for real current is not device Characteristic predicted constant but by the diode equation - - depends on the eV I = I [exp( ) 1] kT reverse voltage V because of leakage I around edges of the 2. Slope due junction. to surface
______ 50
s

100

BD

-10

-5

0.4

1.Characteristic 1.Characteristic becomes more linear at large forward voltages due to resistance of p and n regions (R1 and R2). 0.8 V / volts

-50

Breakdown occurs at VBD.

leakage.

-100

3. Breakdown occurs at VBD

I / nA

38

DIODE CAPACITANCE The diode has a capacitance CJ associated with it due to the space charge in the depletion region.
Fig. 65(a)
depletion region W -- ++ -- ++ -- ++ -- ++ -- ++ junction parallel plate capacitor d + n

CJ =

K (VB V ) n

CJ depends on the applied reverse bias, V, and the way the junction is made (through n )

Varactor diodes are specifically designed to act as voltage-controlled capacitors.

39