Microhydro System Design

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MICRO- HYDRO SYSTEM DESIGN

2.1 Power from water
Energy is generated from water since ancient time. In those days water wheels are normally used to
generate energy for grinding agricultural products. The efficiency for the production of energy in
those days were insignificants. Development has been done by many researchers in the generation of
energy from the water. According to the energy equation of Bernoulli, energy in the water is stored
in terms of pressure energy, velocity energy and elevation energy as shown in the equation below,

Power (energy/sec) = pressure energy/sec + velocity energy/sec + elevation energy/sec

P = + + z (1.1)

When there is the difference between the energy of water, the difference in the energy can be
efficiently converted into useable energy by using hydropower plant. The energy at the intake of
HPP will be high and the exist from the HPP will be low thus the energy from the water will be
obtain as follow.

Power (Energy/sec) = ( + + z)
intake
- ( + + z)
exit
(1.2)

There will be some loss of power during conversion from the available water energy by using
hydropower plant. Those loss are expressed in term of efficiencies. Finally the power that can be
generated by HPP is expressed as follow.

P = g H Q q (1.3)

Where,
P = electrical or mechanical power produced, W
= density of water, kg/m
3

g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s
2

H = elevation head of water, m
Q = flow rate of water, m
3
/s
q = overall efficiency of MHP system

Thus, equation shows that, power generated by the water available depends upon the amount rate
(flow rate of water), elevation head (elevation difference between intake and exist of water),
gravitation force, density of water and efficiency of the HP system. Thus by using HP plant,
available water energy will be converted to the useful mechanical/ electrical energy as an output.

2.2 Classification of hydropower and end uses
Energy available in water will be converted into useful energy like mechanical or electrical energy by
using Hydropower plant. HPP can be classified according the generation of electricity, type of
storage, type of distribution grid system, type of load capacity etc. There are wide variety of HPP it
can be classified in different ways.

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According to the electricity generation HPP can be classified according to following table 1.1. there
may be few variation in power generation range according to the useful situation and norms of the
particular country.

Table 1.1 Classification of HPP according to the power generation capacity

Power generation capacity Type of hydropower plant
Less than 100 KW Micro hydropower plant
100KW to 1000KW Mini hydropower plant
1MW to 10MW Small hydropower plant
10MW to 300MW Medium hydropower plant
300MW to above Large hydropower plant

According to the type of storage type HPP can be classified into storage type and run of the river
type. The storage type of HPP consists of dam to stop the flow of water in the river stream. There
will be big reservoir behind the dam to store water. The reservoir stores rain water too. This type of
HPP supplies water continuously to the plant and there will be no flow variation during dry season.
These plant are generally costly, complex to design. This is generally used for small to larger HPP.
For MHP storage type HPP is not used.

Run of the river type HPP does not stops the river stream but it diverts water into the water way of
HPP. There will not be any reservoir in these type of HPP. Flow of water in this type of HPP may
vary according to the seasons. These type of HPP is less costly and environmentally friendly. These
type of HPP is generally used for micro, mini and small HPP.
Forebay tank
Turbine
Pressure pipe leading
turbine (Penstock)
Diversion weir and intake
Canal for diverted water
Stream

Fig. 1.1(a) Run of the river type MHPP

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Storage reservoir
Dam with intake
Turbine enclosed

Fig. 1.1(b) Storage type MHPP

According to the distribution of grid system, HPP is classified into local grid and extensive grid. In
the local grid system the electricity generated from HPP will be distributed for the small locality near
by the HPP. Highly sophisticated and costly electro mechanical and distribution systems are not
necessary for local grid system. The generated power from this HPP may not be high grade of
standard.

In extensive grid or national grid system electricity generated by various HPP will be loaded into a
one type of grid system. The load distribution from this type of HPP will be wide . In small country
like Nepal, one National grid is used for all the different parts of the country. The electro mechanical
components for this type of the system are sophisticated and costly. The power generated should be
one of standard type. Generally larger HPP are made under this category.

According to the load capacity HPP is classified into base load plant and peak load plant.
base load plants are those which supply the base load of the distribution system. Such plants are
required to supply constant power when connected to the grid. This type of HPP generally, does not
consists of water storage reservoir system.

Peak load HPP are those which will supply power during peak load condition only. These HPP can
also be used for base load. This HPP generally consists of storage reservoir.

2.3 Main component of MHP plant
MHP plant is designed to generate electrical or mechanical power according to the demand of local
community. Main components of MHP plant are civil component, mechanical component,
electrical/electronic component. Civil components includes diversion, intake, de-sanding basins,
canal, fore-bay, spillway, penstock, power house, tailrace etc. These components are described in
preceding sub titles.

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Tailrace
River flow
Flood spillway
Intake
Wing walls
Sand trap
Regulating gates
Spillway drain
Channel crossing
Channel
Forebay tank
Penstock support
Penstock
Anchor
Power house

Fig. 2.1 Components of MHP plant

Diversion structure is a structure designed to raise the water level in the stream in order to enable
water to be diverted off the river. The weir may be of natural or an artificial weir (temporary or
permanent construction). In MHP, generally temporary structures are built for this purpose. These
structures are in most cases simply consists of boulder/mud piling resembling the diversion practiced
in traditional watermills. In some cases gabion weirs are also used for diverting water.

2.3.1 Intake
The receiving a flow from river in required quantity and that directing it towards the waterways of
a hydropower system with minimal structural interventions is called intake. It is the point from
where water flows from the river stream. Therefore intake is the beginning of the conveyance of
water diverted for MHP Types of intake structure are chiefly distinguished by the method used to
divert water from the river. In micro hydropower, mainly two types of intake considered are side
intake and bottom intake. Trashracks are placed at the intake to prevent logs, boulders and other large
water-born objects from entering the waterway.

1.3.2 Canal
The headrace of a micro-hydropower scheme is a canal or a pipe that conveys water from the intake
to the fore-bay. In MHP sometimes pipes substitute canals. Many types of headrace canal made of
different materials and using different methods of construction are used in MHP schemes. The types
and the design depends on site condition (seepage, land slide, crossing) and availability of material
and manpower. The common types of canal used in MHP plant are earth canal, stone masonry in mud
mortar canal, stone masonry in cement mortar canal, concrete canal, covered canals and pipes, Most
headrace pipes used in MHP are HDPE pipes. The length of headrace can be from a few meters to
over a kilometer. Generally small slopes are preferred for designing canals. The slopes are med just
enough for the flow of water in the canal. Higher slope means higher velocity of water in canal. This
not only erode canal surface, it also lose water energy available.

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2.3.3 De-sanding basin
Generally rivers carry relatively high amount of sediments owing to high erosion activities taking
place in the hills and mountains. The high sediment density rivers are Koshi in Nepal and Huangho
river in China. The sediment density fluctuates within the year. The sediment density is highest
during the high flow period. Sediments in river water have negative impacts for the MHP:

Sediments get deposited in the canal and fore-bay, which reduces carrying capacity of the canal. The
design canal capacity can be maintained only through frequent clearing, which is very expensive.
Sediment among others consists of hard silica compounds. These compounds erode the penstock and
turbine. This at the one hand increases the operating costs and at the other decreases efficiency of the
MHP.

The purpose of de-sanding basin is to trap sediments so that these do not enter the canal. The de-
sanding basin is, as a rule, built at the head of the canal and it is regarded as a part of the head works.
The de-sanding basin is wide and long pool designed to settle the sediments carried by the diverted
water through reduction in the speed of water. Most de-sanding basins are designed to settle particles
above 0.2 0.3 mm. De-sanding basin is provided with a sediment flush in order to reduce the cost
associated with its cleaning. During the rainy season daily flushing of the de-sanding basin may be
required.

Fig. 2.2 De-sanding basin

2.3.4 Spillway
Excess flow that enters into the intake during flood flow needs to be spilled as early as possible to
minimize foundation erosion, channel collapse in headrace canal. This is achieved by incorporating a
spillway close to the intake and easy access distance during flood condition. If the headrace canal is
long, numbers of spillway can be constructed in de-sanding basin and fore-bay. The excess flows
that are discharged via a spillway should be safely diverted into the stream or nearby gully such that
they do not cause any erosion or damage to other structures. Sometimes, this may require the
construction of a canal to the natural water course. Locating spillways close to a gully will save the
cost of canal construction.
Inlet
Settling
Outlet
Top view
Gate valve for flushing
Spillway drain
6

Fig. 2.3 Spillway
2.3.5 Fore-bay
A fore-bay is located at the end of headrace. A fore-bay is a wide and deep pool from which the
penstock draws water. The purpose of the fore-bay is to avoid air trapping by the water entering the
penstock, as the entry of air through the penstock may cause cavitation, which is a type of erosion
created by the explosion of trapped air bubbles under the high pressure, of both penstock and turbine.
It has air vet for the release of air. The water level at the fore-bay determines the operational
head of the micro-hydro scheme.

A small overflow is to be maintained from the fore-bay in order to avoid fluctuation of its level and
consequently the possible entry of air to the penstock. At the fore-bay to spill the entire design flow
in case of sudden valve closure at the powerhouse Such overflow may continue for long time if the
canal intake is not closed.

Fig. 2.4 A fore-bay

Sediments get settled down in the fore-bay, as the speed of water is much slower in the fore-bay
compared to that in the headrace. Therefore a sediment flush system is provided in the fore-bay. A
spillway is to be provided from the fore-bay for safe passage of sediment flush and overflow water to
the river. At the outlet of the fore-bay, which is inlet of the penstock a trash rack is provided to
Spillway
Air vent
Fine trashrack
Gate
Compact earth
Penstock
1
3
h
s
3
0
0

m
m
m
i
n
i
m
u
m
Design Flow
Flood flow
h
f
l
o
o
d
h
s
p
Cross section
Longitudinal section
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prevent the floating debris from entering the penstock. It has provided with a valve to regulate water
flow into the penstock pipe.

2.3.6 Penstock
A penstock is a close conduct pipe that conveys the flow from the fore-bay to the turbine. Penstock is
made of steel or HDPE, and rarely of timber. Recently PVC penstock has also been introduced. If
HDPE penstock is prevalent at lower heads, steel penstock is prevalent at higher heads. The MHP
head varies from a few meters to over hundred meters. Ghandruk MHP of Nepal, has a head of 220
m, which is the highest in Nepal among MHP. Mild steel and HDPE pipes are the most common
materials used for the penstock in MHP schemes. HDPE pipes are usually economical for low heads
and flows and are easy to join and repair.

The conversion of potential energy of water into kinetic energy takes place in the penstock. The
typical velocity of water in the penstock is around 3 m/sec. In order to reduce the head loss in
penstock it is desirable to make the penstock short and less bends. For this purpose penstock is
located in a steep slope, which is very often over 45 too. Above ground penstock pipes are
subjected to expansion or contraction in length as a result of changes in the ambient temperature. A
sliding type of expansion joint, is commonly used in MHP schemes. It can be placed between two
consecutive pipe lengths and can either be welded or bolted to the pipes.

Anchor blocks are used to holds the penstock to restrain the pipe movement in all directions. It is a
mass of concrete fixed into the ground. Support piers are short columns that are placed between
anchor blocks along straight sections of exposed penstock pipe. Support piers prevent the pipe from
sagging and becoming over stressed.
Valve
Power house
Pipe joint
Anchor block
Side block
Vent pipe
Expansion joint
Penstock gate

Fig 2.5 Components of penstock assembly

2.3.7 Powerhouse
The powerhouse accommodates electro-mechanical equipment such as the turbine, generator, agro-
processing units and control panels. Conversion of mechanical energy of water into electrical energy
takes place in the powerhouse. The main function of the powerhouse is to protect the electro-
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mechanical units from rain and other weather effects as well as possible mishandling by un-
authorised person.

2.3.8 Tailrace
The tailrace is the final civil structure that conveys the design flow from the turbine (after power
generation) back into the stream, generally the same stream from which the water was initially
withdrawn. Similar to the headrace, open channel or pipes can be used for the tailrace section.

2.4 Turbine
2.4.1 Introduction
A hydraulic turbine is a prime mover that uses the energy of flowing water and converts it into the
mechanical energy (in the form of rotation of the runner). Science ancient time turbines are used
under the name of water wheels, made out of wood. The water wheels have very low efficiency and
short life.

There are different types and sizes of turbine available but the particular type and size for the
particular site is determined by,

- Designed head and discharge at which the turbine is to operate,
- Availability and cost of the turbine
- Availability of skill man power after sales services and cost etc.

Particular speed of each turbine rotor at which it performs best is called its optimum speed. The
turbine needs to be operated at this speed at all loading conditions to get the maximum output.

2.4.2 Types of turbine
Principally, according to the working of turbine it can be categorized into two types, as impulse
turbines, and reaction turbines. Under these two main categories there comes many types of impulse
turbines which can be selected for given site.

- Impulse Turbine.
There are three types of impulse turbines known as Pelton turbine, Turgo turbine and Cross flow
turbine. In these turbines the rotor rotates freely in atmospheric pressure. The rotor is never be
submerged in water of the tail race. It is kept above the tail race water level and the nozzles of these
turbines are free jet type. In this turbine pressure energy in water is converted into kinetic energy
when water passed through nozzle. Free high velocity water jet impinge on the bucket mounted on
the periphery of the runner. Impulse force on the bucket rotates the runner and shaft of turbine.

- Reaction turbine
In reaction turbine s rotor remains immersed in water all the time and water acting on wheel is under
pressure which is greater than atmospheric pressure. Draft tube is an integral part of the reaction
turbine fitted at outlet. It runs by the reaction force of the exiting fluid. Potential energy and kinetic
energy of the fluid come to stationary part of turbine blades and partly changes potential energy and
kinetic energy. Moving part (runner) utilize both potential energy and kinetic energy of water.

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2.5 Design Parameter:
2.5.1 Hydrology and site survey
- Preparation for site survey
MHP plants are designed to produce electrical and mechanical power from water power. The power
is generated according to the demand of the local community. It is necessary to carry out survey to
collect information of power demand and willingness to pay for that. The sight survey should be
done for the MHPP potential to the demanded generation. Proper performance of the survey leads to
the success of the whole MHP schemes.

Adequate and accurate survey work is essential if the MHP project is implemented is to be
successful. Survey should included both technical and socio economical issues of the project.
Demand survey is mainly concerned with the counting of households and other potential consumers
(shops. lodges, offices, temples, schools, industry), who are ready to commit themselves to receive
power and pay for it, and with calculating the total demand for power. The survey can be conducted
before the comprehensive meeting or even before the reconnaissance of survey.

Appropriate time for survey should be selected. It is prepared to perform survey during dry period
with not much rain or cold or hot seasons or according of the specific site conditions. Documented
information about hydrology, geology, social structure of the selected site could be obtained from
different sources previous to the survey. It is very useful to acquire to collect topographical maps for
the project area. It is better to allocate experienced survey persons with helpers from the local
community. Generally the method to be used for survey should be done beforehand and list of
equipments for that should be carried or transported to the project site.

- Map study of site
The objective of field survey for MHP project is to obtain necessary data and information of the
identified hydropower site and the electricity supply area to carry out the technical feasibility and
financial viability of the project.

Maps help to develop ideas and methods for the technical survey. It helps to design and locate water
intake, water way, fore-bay, power house and transmission system. Accurately design and locate all
the components of MHP plant will be formed after different stages of survey. Maps, chart or data for
climatic condition, ground condition, plantation, government policies are important tools for the
success of the project.

- Meteorological data analysis
Power generated from energy plants mostly depends on flow conditions of the river streams. River
stream condition is affected by the meteorological condition of the site. Data obtained in the survey
is co-related with the previously existing data to develop data bank. More the wider data on the data
bank more will be reliability of the meteorological out put data. It is important to get meteorological
information of many years as possible.

2.5.1.1 Site survey
Site survey includes flow measurement (preferably during dry seasons), determination of head
needed to generate required rated power, land survey (including slopes and distances), location of
different civil components so that rated power could e generated.

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- Head measurement
The head in MHPP is determined by the location of he powerhouse and the fore-bay, which also
determine the route of the canal and intake. The surveyor should first calculate the value of gross
head required from the simplified power equation,

P = g H Q q (1.1)

Where,
P = minimum present power demand plus losses, W
= density of water, kg/m
3

g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s
2

H = elevation head of water, m
Q = flow rate of water, m
3
/s
q = overall efficiency of MHP system

The surveyor then starts by tentatively selecting a suitable site for the powerhouse and the fore-bay
and measuring the height and distance between the two. The process of 'determining the head'
involves a lot of surveying including measurement of distances (both horizontal and along a slope),
heights, and angles and bends. At the same time geological and other conditions of the selected
locations must also be examined and evaluated to ensure that they are fit for constructing such
structures and that no natural or human/animal damage will result

Once suitable locations have been selected for all the civil structures, the available head and the
distances between these structures should be measured. There are different method for head
measurement. The head can be measured using one or two of the following methods. Some common
types generally used for MHP plant are as follows:

(i) Abney level (Clinometers)
Hand-held Abney level (sighting meters) measures angle of inclination of a slope. Since the method
demands that the linear distance along the slope is recorded, it can have the advantage of doubling as
a measure of the length of penstock pipe too.
Height is calculated as,

H = L sine (1.2)
Where,
H = height, m
L = linear distance, m
= angle of inclination, degree

Other equipment needed are a measuring tape, two graded rods, marking pins pegs etc.
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H
1
H
2
H
3
H
4
L1
L2
L3
L4

Fig. 1.1 Measuring head by Abney level (Clinometers)

ii) Water filled tubes
This method is useful for low head sites, since it is cheap and reasonably accurate. It consists of a
transparent plastic pipe (diameter between 4 and 10 mm is convenient) of both ends open. In this
pipe the water is filled. With the help of water level the height is measured. Other equipment needed
area transparent pipe (20m long and 4 to 10mm diameter), two graded rods, measuring tape marking
pins pegs etc.

Y
1
Y
2
Y
3
Y
4
Y
5
B
1
A2
X
Y

12

H
1
H
2
H
3
H
4
H
5
X
X
Bubble
error

Fig. 1.2 Measuring head by water filled tubes

(iii) Altimeter
New digital altimeters are easier to use and increasingly safe in inexperienced hands for initial and
rough measurements, specially for high heads. The method of measurement with an altimeter simply
involves taking the readings wherever needed, say at the site of the turbine, the fore-bay, and the
intake, and using the differences in readings to calculate the head, gradient, and other desired
quantities. The principle of the altimeter is that it measures the atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric
pressure gives elevation of the corresponding position. The readings of altimeter are affected by
changes of temperature and humidity.

Fig. 1.3 Measuring head by Altimeter
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(iv) Other methods
There are many other methods that can be used to measure the head. Professional surveyors would
have no problem using them. For example, a simple plank to which a spirit level has been attached
can be used together with two graded rods to measure height differences between two positions.
Similarly, more accurate and expensive levels and theodolites can be used, but these require
considerable practice and skill to master. Consequently, the Abney level and water-filled tube
methods, which are fairly accurate, cheap, and easy to use, are probably the best methods for MHP
schemes with heads of less than 100m.

2.5.1.2 Flow measurement
Amount of water flow in one of the prime factor for generation of power using MHPP. Flow
measurement method for specific size and location of MHPP depends mainly upon the volume rate of
flow and condition of turbulancy. There are different method for flow measurement. Some common
types generally used for MHP plant are as follows:

Table 1.1 Different flow meter and their application:

Different flow meter

Field of application

1 ) The bucket method

For flow up to 20 l/s
2) The velocity-area method using

a) a flow meter

b) a float

For larger flow ( Q> 20 l/s) with a depth of at
least 10 cm at deepest point

For larger or smaller flow with turbulence

3) The weir method

For larger flow ( Q> 20 l/s) rectangular weir
and smaller flow triangular (vee-notch) weir
4) The salt dilution method

For smaller flow stream

(i) Bucket method
This is a very simple and accurate method if the flow is relatively small (Q < 2 0 l/s). A bucket or
other container of known size is used as to measure (Figure 1.4). All the water in the stream is
diverted into the bucket container through a pipe or a trough and the time taken to fill the container is
measured The flow, Q, is given by:

Q(l/s) = volume of container in liters / numbers of seconds to fill it (1.3)
14

Fig. 1.4 Measuring flow by bucket method

(ii) Velocity area method

(a) Using a flow meter

This method is quite useful and reasonably accurate if a proper flow measuring instrument is
available. The basic technique is illustrated in Figure 1.5. A suitable point is selected carefully along
the stream; the cross-sectional area at this point is divided into different sections: the width, depth,
and profile are used to calculate the area of each section, and the average velocity of each section is
measured by a current meter (flow meter) held at its centre. The average flow is calculated using the
general formula for flow, Q:

Q=E Ai vi (1.4)
L
d
1
d
2
d
3
d
4
V1
V2
V3
V4

Fig. 1.5 Measuring flow by velocity area method (using a flow meter)

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(b) Using a float

This method is similar to the above, but the flow is measured using a small floating object rather than
a flow meter. The object chosen should float partially submerged in the water and can be a piece of
light wood or a more elaborate, specially constructed float. The float is placed at the centre of the
stream and the time taken for it to travel a certain distance (or the distance covered in a certain time)
is measured. The surface velocity (v
S
) of the water at the centre of the stream is given by:
v
S
(m/s) = Distance travelled by float (m) / Time taken(s) (1.5)

(iii) Weir method

Many types of weir can be used to measure the flow in streams. The method of measuring by two
different types of weir, and the equations used to calculate the flow Q, are shown in Figure 1.6. The
most convenient weir is the rectangular type, mainly because it can be constructed from wood on site
if an amateur carpenter is available. If the weir has been made properly, the flow measurement can be
accurate within 5 percent which is acceptable for MHP schemes.
.
h
L'>2h L'>2h L>3h
L'>2h
L'>2h
90
h
L">4h
L
>
2
h
h
v<0.15 m/s

Fig. 1.6 Measuring flow by weir method

(iv) Salt-Dilution Method
This method of flow measurement is proving to be quite convenient, accurate, and quick for small,
shallow, and turbulent mountain streams. If the conductivity meter is well calibrated and the
measurement is carried out properly, the accuracy should be better than 7 per cent,' which is quite
acceptable for MHP schemes.

A known weight of pure dry salt is completely dissolved in a bucket full of water. The water is pour
to stream water as quickly as possible, but without muddying the water severely, at a pre-selected
location. The probe of the conductivity meter is immersed about 30 - 50m downstream near to the
bed and centre of the stream and conductivity readings are taken every five or 10 seconds. The
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readings will rise, reach a peak, and fall back to the base level, over a period of time. Usually two
people are needed to take and record the readings.

The readings are taken continuously until the conductivity values have returned to normal (which
means that all the salt water has passed the probe). A graph of change in conductivity with time is
plotted, and the area under the curves calculated (Figure 1.7). If graph paper is used, the area can be
calculated easily by counting the squares. The temperature of the stream should also be measured.
The flow, Q, is then calculated by using the following equation:

Q (m
3
/s)= mass of salt in (kg) / [conversion factor (kg/m3/ohm-1) area under the curve (ohm-1s)]
(1.6)

The conversion factor, k, depends on the temperature, and its value is given in the manual for the
conductivity meter.

(v) Propeller device method
Often called current meters, consist of a shaft with a propeller or cups connected to the end. Propeller
is free to rotate and the speed of rotation is of course related to stream velocity. A simple mechanical
counter records the number of revolutions of a propeller placed at a desired depth. Main principle is
that current meters will be supplied with a formula relating rotational speed to the speed of the
stream. A simple propeller meter can be constructed & calibrated. Generally these devices are used
to measure velocities from 0.2 to 5 m/s with a probable error of approx. 2 percent.

2.6 Layout design of civil components of MHP system

Fig.2.1 Typical layout of micro-hydropower system

After receiving survey information like location, size, materials, head, flow and other parameters
leads to design of different civil components. Civil components consist of intake, weir, headrace
canal, settling basin, spillways, fore-bay, penstock, anchor blocks, support piers, expansion joints,
powerhouse etc. The ideal layout of a scheme depends on appropriate site selection. Design and
existence of the components are specific to the selected site.

730
720
710
700
700
710
720
730
Direction of flow
Weir
Contour line
Canal with small slope
Forebay tank
Penstock pipe
Spillway
Power house
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Canal
Canal
Direction of flow
Diversion dam
2.6.1 Intake and weir
Weir and intake structure helps in regulating and controlling the water flowing (at fairly constant
rate) in headrace during high river flow and low river flow conditions. The function of the weir is to
maintain a permanent water level above the intake mouth during both high and low flow seasons. A
weir should be constructed to raise the water level in the river upstream if the adequate river flow
cannot be diverted naturally into the intake during the low flow period.
The weir may be of natural or an artificial weir (temporary or permanent construction). There are
two common types of temporary weir, weir across the whole or weir across the part width of river
stream. The length of the weir across the river should be kept to a minimum. The part width weir
can further be extended if more river flow needs to be diverted.
Other important design parameter being the height of weir. For both permanent and temporary
weirs, the height should be kept as low as possible but enough to divert the required flow. In order
to determine the height of a temporary or permanent weir the river depth/level during the dry
season must be known together with the upper height of the orifice of the intake mouth.

Fig. 2.2 Natural and temporary weir with side intake

The intake height should be such that the water level rises above the upper edge of the orifice.
The height of temporary weirs may have to be increased or decreased during the operation of the
plant. The weir height should be as low as possible. This makes the structure more stable, less
susceptible to flood damage and also minimises sediment deposition. Weir should be designed with
gradual slopes so that boulders can roll over the weir and also discourages sediment deposition
upstream of the weir.

- Overview of intake
The receiving a flow from river in required quantity and that directing it towards the waterways of
a hydropower system with minimal structural interventions is called intake. The intake should be
so designed that the head loss is minimal and the entry of excessive flow as well as bed load and
other floating debris are minimised during flood and high-flow season. Design of intake should
be simple, less expensive and stable.

18

The location of an intake structure must be so chosen that the largest possible portion of the bed
load remains in the river and is not diverted into the headrace. It is desirable to locate the intake
behind or under large, permanently placed boulders or rock. This limits the water that can enter
the intake, and deflect flood flows and river borne debris away. Advantage can also be taken of
stable banks and rock outcrops. If we have to design intake in river bend, outer bend is preferable
as it limits sediment deposition and to ensure flow availability during the dry season. In straight
sections the location of the intake is governed by factors such as bank stability and headrace
alignment.

Fig. 2.3 Suitable and unsuitable locations for an intake

Types of intake structure are chiefly distinguished by the method used to divert water from the
river. In micro hydropower, mainly two types of intake considered are side intake and bottom
intake.

- Side intake
Side intake is designed as an extension of the headrace canal capable of conveying the design
flow and extent it to the side of the river bank. Side intakes are most commonly used in MHP
schemes since they are simple and less expensive than other types and most suitable for run-of-the-
river type plants. They are easy to build, operate and maintain. Side intake could be vulnerable to
flood so it normally includes an orifice downstream of the trash rack at the river bank, through
which water is initially drawn in to the headrace to limit excessive flows during floods and to
minimise the amount of sediment.

Large
boulders
Intake Prepared
by large boulders
Canal
Suitable location
for intake
Unsuitable location
for intake
Flow
Flow
19

Fig. 2.4 Side intake with temporary diversion

i) Design of orifice for side intake
A side intake normally includes an orifice downstream of the trashrack at the riverbank, through
which water is initially drawn into the headrace. It allows the design flow to enter into the
headrace during normal conditions but limits excess flows during floods. It should be sized such
that it is submerged at the time of design flow during the low flow season, and it will also limit
excess flows during floods. It is economic and feasible to construct such an orifice for a MHP
intake. Sometimes, the side intake is just a continuation of the headrace canal up to the riverbank
excess flow cannot be controlled during floods in such design.

1. The discharge through an orifice when submerged is given as

..(2.1)

Fig. 2.5 Sections through a weir and a submerged orifice

where,
Q = discharge through the orifice in m
3
/s
V = velocity through the orifice in m/s
A = area of orifice in m
2

h
r
-h
h
= difference between the river and the headrace canal water levels
C = coefficient of discharge of the orifice

2. For a sharp edged and roughly finished, fully submerged concrete or masonry orifice
structure value of C can be as low as 0.6 and for a carefully finished and smooth opening it
W
Weir
Side intake
River
Flow direction
A section through weir
A section through submerged
orifice
Orifice
Datum
River flow level
B
H
H
r
H
h
H
r
-
H
h
20

can be up to 0.8. The value of C decreases with the amount of turbulence induced by the
intake.

3. The value of (h
r
- h
h
) will vary according to the discharge in the river since a higher water
level in the river will produce a greater head at the orifice.

4. The maximum velocity for a well constructed concrete/ masonry orifice is 3 m/s. If the velocity
exceeds this value, the orifice surface will be scoured. For micro-hydro, the recommended
velocity through the orifice during normal flow is 1.0 - 1.5 m/s. However, if the orifice is
directly at the river (without a trashrack) the velocity should be less than 1.0 m/s to avoid
drawing bed load into the intake.

5. If a weir is placed across the river, the flood level may be somewhat higher than
before since the weir raises the water level. For temporary weirs this is not a problem
since they normally get washed away during high flow condition. If a permanent weir i s used,
allowances should be made for this when calculating h
r
as by adding the weir height above the
measured food level.

Example: Design of orifice for side intake
Design a suitable size of an orifice for a design flow of 250 l/s. The normal water level in the river is
0.8 m above the bed level. The design flood level is about 0.6 m above the normal water level. What
is the discharge through the orifice during such a flood?

1. Given:
Design flow, Q = 0.250 m
3
/s
Normal water level in the river, h
r
= 0.8 m
Design flood level, h
f
=0.8 m + 0.6 m = 1.4 m

2. Let velocity through the orifice, V = 1.2 m/s
(since for MHP the recommended velocity through the orifice during normal flow is 1.0 - 1.5
m/s.)
Area of orifice, (A) = Q/v

= (0.250 m
3
/) / (1.2 m/s) = 0.21 m
2
3. A = Orifice height (H) Width of orifice (B)
Let Orifice height (H) = 0.2 m (consider)
Width of orifice (B) = A / H = (0.21 m
2
) / (0.2 m) = 1.05 m
4. Let bottom of orifice 0.2 m above the river bed level
(This value is normally taken for MHP this will minimise the bed load. Also, set the datum at
the river bed level.)

5. Let water level at headrace canal, h
h
= 0.5 m with respect to the datum as shown in Fig.2.6 (i.e.
100 mm above the upper edge of orifice to ensure submerged condition. Later the headrace canal
will have to be designed accordingly.)

6.
Let C = 0.6 (for roughly finished masonry orifice)
= 310 l/s
Q
required
= 250 l/s
7. Therefore orifice design is OK. Since the designed orifice can deliver 310 l/s
21

8. Discharge through the orifice during flood flow:

Let C = 0.6 (for roughly finished masonry orifice)
= 530 l/s
Q
flood
= 530 1/s

2.6.2 Trashracks
Trashracks are placed at the intake to prevent logs, boulders and other large water-born objects from
entering the waterway. It is also placed at fore-bay to prevent leaves, twigs and branches from
entering the penstock. The trashrack at the intake is also known as "coarse trashrack" since the bar
spacing is wider here compared to the trashrack at the fore-bay. The spacing, strength, type (flats or
angles) depends on particle size of the sediments carried by the river flow (i.e. bed load), type of
intake and other provision for a settling basin in the canal system. The trashrack for intakes can be
manufactured from flat steel, angles, tees or round bars welded together at fixed intervals. It is also
important to place the trashrack such that the bars are along the direction of flow, this minimises the
risk of clogging.

Trashracks for side intakes are coarse trashrack not designed to exclude gravel and sediment. The
size of the trashrack should be such that the water velocity is approximately 0.6 m/s (a lower velocity
is uneconomic, whereas a high velocity tends to attract bed load and debris, and results in increased
head loss). Since boulders can frequently impact the coarse trashrack, it needs to be robust, i.e. thick
steel sections should be used. Depending on the length and width of the opening, nature of the
sediment load and the required flow, a clear spacing of 50 mm to 200 mm can be used.

Shape of trashrack of bottom intake is also very important, since this affects the chances of clogging.
Round bars, for example, are more prone to clogging, because the opening in the middle is smaller
than on the top. The section chosen must be strong enough to withstand impact by any bed load
moving during floods. The recommended clear spacing between these flats, angles or bars is 6 to 15
mm and a commonly used spacing is 12 mm. The reason why these bars are closer than those of the
side intake trashrack is that gravel also needs to be excluded from the bottom intake. If the openings
are too narrow, there is a high chance of clogging necessitating frequent cleaning of the trashrack.
One of the drawbacks of the bottom intake is the clogging of trashrack by pebbles and dry leaves.
Especially during the dry season, the river may carry a lot of leaves, which become trapped in the
trashrack and reduce the flow through it. Therefore the trashrack needs to be cleaned periodically
during the dry season. During monsoon, this is not a problem; the river flow sweeps the gravel and
leaves before they can clog the trashrack.

Fig. 2.9 Trashrack
Side intake
Direct intake
22

2.6.3 Headrace canal
The headrace of a micro-hydropower scheme is a canal or a pipe that conveys water from the intake
to the fore-bay. The headrace alignment is usually make gently sloping ground and the flow is caused
by gravity. Since canals are generally less expensive than pipes, they are used more often for
headraces in micro-hydro schemes. The general rule is to use canals as often as possible and to use
pipes only for the difficult stretch of the headrace alignment, such as to negotiate cliffs or unstable
areas. A headrace pipe is generally not subjected to significant hydraulic pressure. They are designed
to keep seepage, friction and erosion to a minimum. The velocity in the initial headrace length needs
to be high enough to carry gravel and sediment up to the gravel trap and settling basin respectively.
However, for headrace alignments on stable ground where seepage is not likely to cause instability,
earth canals are the most economic option.

Many types of headrace canal made of different materials and using different methods of construction
are used in MHP schemes. The types and the design depends on site condition (seepage, land slide,
crossing) and availability of material and manpower. The types of canal and methods of designing the
various components are described in the following sections

Earth canal
These are constructed by simply excavating the ground to the required canal shape. Such canals are
used on stable and gently sloping ground where seepage is not likely to cause instability such as
landslides, earth canals are the most economic option. Compaction of the earth and planting
vegetation on the canal banks will increase stability and reduce seepage.

Stone masonry in mud mortar canal
There will be less seepage from this type of canal than from an earthen canal, but the
construction will require more labor, materials, and funds. These canals should be used where a
small amount of seepage will not cause slope instability, or where flow is limited, that is there is
no extra flow that can be diverted into the canal to compensate for seepage. For similar flows,
the cross section of this type of canal can be smaller than the earth canal because a higher
velocity is acceptable without causing erosion.

Stone masonry in cement mortar canal
In this type seepage is minimal but more expensive in comparison with earthen or stone-mud canals.
A stone masonry in cement mortar canal should be used at locations where the soil type is porous
(leading to losses of unacceptable amounts of flow) and seepage is likely to cause landslides.

Concrete canal
Most micro-hydro schemes do not have headrace canals constructed of concrete since they are
very expensive. There is virtually no seepage through such canals. Sometimes, reinforced
concrete canals are used for short crossings. Generally, HDPE headrace pipes are more economic
than concrete canals.

Covered canals and pipes
Where stones and other debris are likely to fall from above the headrace route, the canal can either be
covered or pipes may be used. Flat stones are an economical way of covering canals; an expensive
alternative is to use reinforced concrete slabs. Buried pipes made, for example, from HDPE also offer
protection from falling debris. Another advantage of HDPE pipes is that they are flexible and can
adjust to a certain amount of ground movement. Pipes should be used at crossings where the ground
is unstable and/or steep and at other locations where open canals are not possible.
23

Either an open channel or low-pressure pipes (or a combination of these) should be used as the
headrace. Flow velocity is able to carry gravel and sediment and not to cause erosion to channel wall
and base. It should be unlined or stone masonry in 1:4 cement mortar or reinforced concrete is better.

Sometimes the headrace or the penstock alignment may need to cross gullies and small streams.
Crossings are such structures that convey the flow over streams, gullies or across unstable terrain
subject to landslides and erosion.

Pipes may be required along the headrace alignment where slopes are unstable and where landslides
may occur. The use of flexible pipes is when the entire hillside is slowly sliding (i.e. mass movement
is occurring) and part of the headrace alignment needs to traverse it. HDPE pipes are often used to
address the above problems. These pipes are flexible enough to accommodate some ground movement
and can be joined by heat welding.

- Design criteria of the headrace canal
The canal dimensions and cross-section are governed by the following criteria.

- Capacity
- Velocity
- Slope of the side
- Head loss and seepage
- Stability
- Economics
- Sediment deposition in canal

Table 2.2 Recommended side slopes and maximum headrace canals velocities

Canal material

Side slope
(N = h/v)

Maximum recommended
velocity for canals (V)
less than 0.3m depth
less than 1 m
depth
Sandy loam 1.5 to 2 0 0. 4 0 7
Loam 1.0 to 1.5 0. 5 0 8
Clay loam 1.25 0.6 0.9
Clay 1.0 0.8 1.0
Stone masonry with mud mortar 0.5 to 1.0 1.0 1.0
Stone masonry with cement mortar 0 to 1.5 1.5 1.5
Concrete 0 to I.5 2.0 3.0

24

Table 2.3 Roughness Coefficients for Different Canals

Canal type Description Roughness
coefficient 'n'
Earthen
canals
Clay, with stones and sand, after ageing
0.020
Gravelly or sandy loam, maintained with
minimum vegetation
0.030
Lined with coarse stones, maintained with
minimum vegetation
0.040
Rock canals Medium coarse rock muck
0.037
Rock muck from careful blasting
0.045
Very coarse rock muck, large irregularities
0.059
Rubble masonry with mud mortar
0.025
Masonry
canals
Brickwork, bricks, and/or clinker with well-
pointed cement mortar
0.015
Normal masonry with cement mortar
0.017
Coarse rubble masonry and coarsely hewn
stones with cement mortar
0.020
Concrete
canals
Smooth cement finish
0.010
Concrete for which wood formwork was
used, un-plastered
0.015

Tamped concrete with smooth surface
0.016
Coarse concrete lining
0.018
Irregular concrete surface
0.020

- Design for headrace canal
1. Decide the canal type according to the site conditions and stability.
2. Choose a suitable velocity (V) for the type of canal selected by referring to Table 2.2. and find
the roughness coefficient (n) from the same Table 2.2. Note that unacceptable head loss may
result if chosen velocities are close to maximum velocity.
3. Calculate cross-sectional area (A) from the equation A = Q / V (2.6)
Where Q is the design flow
4. Using Table 2.2, decide on the side slope (N). Note that N is the ratio of the horizontal length
divided by the vertical height of the side wall (i.e. N = h/v as shown in Figure 2.10.
5. Calculate the optimum canal height (H), canal bed width (B), and the canal top width (T) using
the following equations:
_ = 2 \(1+N
2
)-2N (2.7)
H = \ A / (_ + N) (2.8)
B = _ H (2.9)
T=B+(2HN) (2.10)
25

B
H
T
v
h

Fig. 2.10 Headrace canal with trapezoidal cross-section

_ is the factor used to optimise the canal shape, for a rectangular canal N= 0 and _ =2, H = \
(A / 2), T = B = 2 H

If an optimum canal shape is not possible due to site specific conditions (such as narrow width along
a cliff) then either the width or the height should be selected to suit the site conditions. Then the other
dimension can be calculated.

6. To ensure stable and uniform flow in a long canal, the velocity must be less than 80% of the
"critical velocity, Vc.
Vc = \(Ag / T) (2.11)
For a rectangular canal Vc=\ (H g ) (2.12)
If the canal velocity is greater than 0.8V then repeat calculations with lower velocity.

7. Calculate the wetted perimeter (P) using the following equation:
P= B + 2 hr \(1+N
2
) (2.13)
For rectangular canal, P=B+2H (2.14)

8. Calculate the hydraulic radius (R) as follows: R = A/P (2.15)

9. The slope (S) can now be found from Manning's equation:
S = [n V / R
0.667
]
8
(2.16)
Now all dimensions required for the construction of the canal are known.
26

10. Calculate the head loss in canal by: Head loss = L S (2.17)
where L = length of the canal section. If the slope of the canal varies along different sections,
calculate the head loss for each section and add them up. If the loss is too high, or if the actual
ground slope differs from the calculated canal slope, repeat the calculations using different
velocities. Again Manning's equation ca be rewrite for H,

Q = [(BH + NH
2
)
5/3
\ S ] / [n { B+2H \ (1+N
2
)}
2/3
] (2.18)

12. Allow a freeboard of about 300mm for Q < 500 l/s and 400m for 500 l/s < Q > 1000 l/s. Free
board allows for uncertainties in the design (e.g. the value of `n' may differ by 5% to 10% from
estimate), water level being above the design level due to obstruction in the canal or during
emergencies and deterioration of the canal embankment.

13. Calculate the size of the largest particle that will be transported in the canal:
d = 11 RS (2.19)
If this is less than the possible size in the canal, repeat the design using a higher velocity.

14. Check that possible flood flow in canal can be accommodated without using more than 50% of
the freeboard.

15. Find the total head loss. If this is too high or too small, repeat the calculations with a different
velocity. Consider using different types of canal keeping the overall cost in mind.

16. Avoid a canal width of less than 300 mm as narrow canals can be easily blocked. Also for
stone masonry canals, smaller sizes are difficult to construct.

Exampl e: Design of a headrace canal
Design a headrace canal to convey a flow of 285 1/s. Site conditions indicate that the canal would be
stable if stone masonry in mud mortar is used. The expected flow through the intake during a 20-
year return flood is about 480 1/s.
1. Canal type: stone masonry in mud mortar Q = 0.285 m
3
/s
From Table 2.3 Roughness coefficient n = 0.035
From Table 2.2, for gravelly earth, select side slope, N= 0.5, (lh/2v) and V = 1.0 m/s
Cross sectional area, A = 0.285/1.0 = 0.285 m
2
_=2\(1+N
2
) -2N
_=2\ (1+0.5
2
) -20.5
_ = 1.236
2. Calculate the water depth in the canal H
H = \[A / (_ + N)]
H = \[0.285 / (1.236+0.5)]
H = 0.405 m
3. Calculate the bed width, B
B=H _
B = 0.405 1.236
B = 0.50m
4. Calculate the top width up to the design water level
T = B + (2HN)
T = 0.50 + (2 0.405 0.5)
27

T = 0.905 m
5. Check if V < 0.8 Vc
Vc= \ [Ag /T ] = \ [0.285 9.8/ 0.905]
V
C
= 1.76 m/s
0.8Vc =1.41m > V=1.0 m/s
Hence the design is OK.

6. Calculate the wetted perimeter, P
P=B+2H\(1+N
2
)
P=0.5+2 0.405\(1+0.5
2
)
P = 1.406 m
7. Calculate the hydraulic radius, R
R = A/P = 0.285 / 1.406
R = 0.203 m
8. Calculate the required canal bed slope, S
S = [nV / R
0.667
]
2
= [0.0351 0.203
0.667
]
2

S = 0.0103 or 1:97 (i.e. 1 m of drop in 97 m of horizontal canal length)
Finally allow 300 mm of freeboard. The canal dimensions can be seen in Figure
9. Check the flow depth for maximum flood flow in the canal
Q = [(BH + NH
2
)
5/3
\ 0.0103 ] / [0.035 { B+ 2H \ (1+N
2
)}
2/3
]
0.480= [(0.5 H + 0.5 H
2
)
5/3
\ (1 / 975] / [0.02 { 0.5 +2H \ (1+0.5
2
)}
2/3
]

By trial and error method, the above equation is balanced when H = 0.55 m. Therefore, the flood flow
occupies 50% of the freeboard (the maximum allowed, as discussed earlier) and the head on the
spillway (h
overtop
)

will be 100 mm.

11. Check the size of particle that will settle in the canal at a velocity of 1.0 m/s.
D=11RS = 11 x 0.203 x 0.0103 = 23 mm

12. The particles larger than 23 mm would settle in this headrace canal. Therefore, to avoid
deposition upstream of the settling basin, the gravel trap must be designed to remove all
particles greater than 23 mm.

Fig. 2.11 Proposed internal canal dimensions
0.50 m
0
.
4
0

m
0.9 m
2
1
0
.
3
0

m
28

2.6.4 Spillway
Excess flow that enters into the intake during flood flow needs to be spilled as early as possible to
minimize foundation erosion, channel collapse in headrace canal. This is achieved by incorporating a
spillway close to the intake and easy access distance during flood condition. If the headrace canal is
long, numbers of spillway can be constructed so that the entire design flow can be diverted if the
canal is blocked as a result of falling debris or landslides. It is also constructed in silt basin and fore-
bay. At the fore-bay to spill the entire design flow in case of sudden valve closure at the powerhouse
as may occur during emergencies. Here it consists of a means of canal emptying combined with
control gates. The excess flows that are discharged via a spillway should be safely diverted into the
stream or nearby gully such that they do not cause any erosion or damage to other structures.
Sometimes, this may require the construction of a canal to the natural water course. Locating
spillways close to a gully will save the cost of canal construction.

Fig. 2.12 A spillway

- Design of spillway
1. The sizing of the spillway is based on
L
spillway
= (Q
flood
Q
design
) / C
w
(h
flood
h
sp
)
1.5
(2..20)
where,
L
spillway
, is length of the spillway in m

Q
flood
is the flood flow that enters the intake in m
3
/s
Q
design
is the design flow in the headrace canal in m
3
/s
h
flood
is the height of the flood level in the canal in m
h
sp
is the height of the spillway crest from the canal bed in m
h
overtop
= h
flood
h
sp
is head overtop

2. C
w
= a coefficient (similar to weir coefficient) which aries according to the spillway profile.
C
w
for different weir profiles. Choose a spillway profile and determine C
w
. For MHP, a
broad, round edged profile (C
w
= 1.6) is suitable since it is easy to construct.

3. Calculate the flow through the intake during floods. The spillway should be sized such that
the entire flood flow can be diverted away from the canal. This is because the micro-hydro
system could be closed during flood or there could be an obstruction in the canal.
Design Flow
Flood flow
h
f
l
o
o
d
h
s
p
Cross section
Longitudinal section
29

4. The design procedure involves first calculating the maximum height of the water level in the
canal during a flood (h
flood
). Then the height of the spillway crest (h
sp
) is set such that it is about
50 mm higher than the design water level. This ensues that part of the design flow is not spelled,
which would decrease the power output.

5. A coefficient for a road crested weir of a spillway with round edges and easy to construct is
considered as 1.6 for MHP.

6. Spillway crest level should be 0.05 m above normal canal water level. No more than 50% of
the freeboard should be used. Therefore, with a generally used freeboard of 300 mm, the
available h
overtop
is 0.5 x 0.30 - 0.05 = 0.10 m. The required length can then be calculated for
the chosen h
overtop
and flood flow.
7. Where there is no pounding immediately downstream, such as in the headrace canal, the spillway
length calculated above equation should be multiplied by 2. This accounts for the gradual
decrease in head over the spillway, until the required level is reached at the downstream end of
the spillway. In this case only the excess flow (Q
flood
- Q
design
) should be used. Note that in such
cases, locating the spillway immediately upstream of an orifice will increase the flow through the
weir.

Exampl e: Spillway design
Astone masonry in mud mortar headrace canal convey a design flow of 285 1/s. The expected flow
through the intake during a 20-year return flood is about 480 1/s. Design an adequate spillway.
Let head overtop is 100 mm.

Note that two cases need to be checked as follows:
1. The spillway must be able to convey the entire flood flow of 4801/s in case the headrace canal
downstream gets obstructed (pounding case).

2. The spillway should be able to spill the excess flow (480 l/s - 2851/s) when there is no obstruction
downstream. The calculated maximum spillway length should be used in the design.

Case 1:
1. Choose a broad crested weir with round edges profile, so Cw = 1.6
Q
spiilway
= 4801/s
Q
design
= 0 1/s
h
overtop
= 100 mm calculated earlier.
Now calculate the length of the spillway,
L
spillway
= (Q
flood
Q
design
) / Cw (h
flood

hsp
)1.5
= (0.480-0) / 1.6 ( 0.1)1.5
= 9.5 m
30

Case 2:
Q
spillway
= 4801/s
Q
design
= 285 1/s
h
overtop
= 100 mm calculated earlier.
Now calculate the length of the spillway,
L
spillway
= 2 (Q
flood
Q
design
) / Cw (h
flood
h
sp
)1.5
= 2 (0.480-285) / 1.6 ( 0.1)1.5
= 7.7 m

Therefore a spillway length of 9.5 m is required for the above canal (which solve both Case 1 and
case 2).

2.6.5 Settling basins
Most rivers carry a substantial quantity of sediment of different sizes (in the form of gravel,
sand or finer material) depending on the river characteristics, geology of the catchments area
and the discharge. Also steeper rivers of some types carry cobbles and even move large
boulders during annual floods. Intakes are located and designed to prevent boulders and
cobbles from entering into the system but sediments like gravel, sand or finer material cannot
be entirely eliminated. Large particles can block the headrace and reduce its capacity.
Suspended sediment can cause severe wear on the turbine runner, seals and bearings, since the
flow velocity at runner is high.

A settling basin is to settle the suspended particles present in the diverted river flow. The basic
principle of settling basin is the greater the basin surface area and the lower the through velocity
the smaller the particles that can settle. Settling basin can further divided into sand trap
(commonly known as settling basin) which settle sediment size less than 0.3 mm and gravel trap
for larger sediments. To reduce costs, one settling basin (sand trap) should be combined with the
fore-bay or combined with the gravel trap but with adequate size, if possible according to site
conditions. If flood or excess flows can reach the settling basin, such as when it is combined with
the gravel trap, a spillway should be incorporated and sized adequately. A trashrack could also be
an additive in settling basin.

Settling basin should be located at a safe place but as close to the intake as possible. The settling
capacity should be large enough to reduce the velocity sufficiently to settle the sediments in the basin.
It should be easy to flush the deposited silt. The basin should have a sufficient volume to storage
capacity the settled particles until they are flushed (a flushing frequency of twice a day, i.e. 12 hours
for wet and dry season). It should be possible to lead the discharge and sediments flushed from the
basin safely into the river or a nearby gully without causing erosion or damage to other struc-
tures. Sharp bends should be avoided just before or within the basin since they cause turbulent
flows which prevent the settling of particles.

Components of settling basin
- Inlet zone
This is the initial zone where the transition from the headrace to the settling basin occurs and
there is a gradual expansion in the basin width. Gradual expansion of the inlet channel about 1:5
(|
1
= 11) as shown in Figure 2.13. This will allow an even flow distribution at the beginning of
the settling zone. The vertical expansion ratio can be higher at about 1:2 (o
1
= 27).
31

Fig.2.13 A settling basin (side and top view)

Settling zone
Particles are settled, stored and flushed in this zone. The length of this zone is longer than the inlet
or the outlet zones. A range of 4 to 10 is recommended for the ratio of the length to width (L/B).
Provision for flushing the stored sediment should be at the end of the settling basin. A floor slope of
1:2 to 1:5 in the settling zone facilitates flushing.

Outlet zone
This forms the transition from the settling zone to the headrace. The transition can be more abrupt
than the inlet expansion (i.e., horizontally 1:2 or |
2
= 26.50 and vertically 1:1 as shown in Figure
2.13. Note that if the settling basin is combined with the fore-bay, then this zone is not necessary.

Flushing arrangement
There are various ways of removing the stored sediment from the settling basin. An appropriate
method for micro-hydro settling basins is the "hallow vertical flush pipe". In this system it can spill
some excess flow such as during floods when the water level in the basin is above the normal level.
Y
s
t
o
r
a
g
e
Y
1
2
1
1
L
Inlet zone
Settling zone
Outlet zone
F
r
e
e

b
o
a
r
d
Side view
o
1

o
2

1
5
1
2
Inlet
Settling
Outlet
Top view
|
1

|
2

32

However, in practice, a larger basin area is required because of the turbulence of the water in the
basin; imperfect flow distribution at the entrance; and the need to converge (sometimes curve) the
flow towards the exit.

Design of settling basin
1. Choose a suitable basin width. W, two to five times the width of the headrace canal, depending
upon the available width at the site (the larger the better).

2. Calculate the settling length (L
settling
) using the following equation:
L
settling
= 2Q / (W V
vertical
) (2.21)
where,
Q = design flow in m
3
/s.
V
vertical
= fall velocity, taken as 0.03 m/s for the value for 0.3mm particles.
Normally, the length of the settling basin should be four to 10 times the width.

3. Calculate the expected silt load, S
load
in the basin using the following equation:
S
load
= Q T C (2.22)
where,
S
load
= silt load in kg stored in the basin
Q = discharge in m
3
/s
T = silt emptying frequency in seconds Use 12 hours = 12 x 60 x 60 = 43,200 seconds
C = silt concentration of the incoming flow in kg/m
3
, use 0.5 kg/m
3
in the absence of actual silt
concentration data.
4. Now calculate the volume of the silt load using the following equation:
VO
silt
= S
load
/ (S
density
P
factor
) (2.23)
where,
VO
silt
= volume of silt stored in the basin in m
3
.
S
density
= density of silt, use the value 2.600kg/m
3
unless other reliable data are available
P
factor
= packing factor of sediments submerged in water = 0.5 (50%).

5. Calculate the average collection depth required, D
collection

The settling zone should have the capacity to store the calculated value of VO
silt
. This storage
space is achieved by increasing the depth of the basin for the area calculated earlier.
D
collection
= VO
silt
/ (L
settling
W) (2.24)
6. A tapered entry ensures that the incoming flow is evenly distributed in the basin. The entry
length should have a slope of 1:4. The exit length can be shorter, with a slope of up to 1:2. Note
that no exit length is required if the settling basin is combined with the fore-bay.

Exampl e: Settling basin
Design a settling basin such that canal depth is 0.5m, gross flow rate is 132 l/s and the particles larger
than 0.3 mm are not allowed. The possible emptying frequency (T hours) during most of the year,
when the carrying load (S) is 0.5 kg/m
3
, be twice daily.

1. Calculate the settling length (L
settling
)
Q
gross
= 0.132 m
3
/s
Let W =2 m; V
vertical
= 0.03 m/s (from table)
L
settling
= 2Q / (W V
vertical
) = (2 0.132) / (2 0.03) = 2.2 m
33

2. Calculate the expected silt load
T = silt emptying frequency in seconds = 12 hours = 12 x 60 x 60 = 43,200 seconds
S
load
= Q T C = 0.132 43200 0.5 = 2851 kg
3. Now calculate the volume of the silt load
Let, S
density
= density of silt, use the value 2600 kg/m
3

P
factor
= packing factor of sediments submerged in water = 0.5 (50%).

VO
silt
= S
load
/ (S
density
P
factor
)= 2851

/ (2600

0.5) = 2.2 m
3

4. Calculate the average collection depth required, D
collection

D
collection
= VO
silt
/ (L
settling
W) = 2.2

/ (2.2

2) = 0.5 m

5. In practice, some extra volume is available to tapering which allows a safety factor in this design.

6. Note that D
settling
is equal to the channel depth. In order to avoid turbulence tapered entrance and
exit lengths are needed. The design rule for these is to make them each equivalent in length to one
basin width i.e. 2 m.

Fig. 2.14 Designed dimension of settling basin

2.6.6 Fore-bay
A fore-bay is a tank located at the end of the headrace and the beginning of the penstock pipe. It is a
structure that allows for the transition from open channel to pressure flow conditions. The water
level at the fore-bay determines the operational head of the micro-hydro scheme. The function
of the fore-bay is to provide adequate submergence for the penstock mouth so that the transition
from an open channel to pressure flow in a pipe can occur smoothly. Here water slows down
0
.
5

m
Y
1
2
1
1
L
2 m 2.2 m 2 m
1
5
1
2
Inlet
Settling
Outlet
2

m
34

for shot time and escape entrapped air and settle silt. It controls the flow into penstock and ensure
smooth and without turbulence. It releases the surge pressure as the wave travels out of the penstock
pipe. It can also serve as a secondary/final settling basin and trap some particles that enter the
headrace downstream of the settling basin. In short headrace fore-bay combines with settling basin.
If the length of the headrace canal between the settling basin and the fore-bay is long, then
sediment can enter the canal, fore-bay should also be designed to serve as a secondary settling
basin. A spillway should be incorporated with it sudden shut down of penstock. Although very rare
in micro-hydro schemes, the fore-bay can also provide water storage for use during peak power
demand period.

Design of fore-bay
Structurally, the forebay tank is similar to the settling basin except that the outlet transition is
replaced by a trashrack and the entrance into the penstock pipe.

1. Submergence head
The position of the submergence head (depth of water above the crown of the penstock pipe) is
shown in figure 2.15. If the head is too small, the pipe will draw in air and the flow in the
penstock will fluctuate. The minimum submergence head required for the penstock pipe can be
calculated as follows.
h
s
> 1.5 V
2
/2g (2.25)
where, V = velocity in the penstock.
2. Storage depth
Storage depth below the pipe invert should be allowed for. A depth of 300 mm or equal to
the pipe diameter, whichever is larger is recommended for this purpose.

3. Structure and size
Its shape is similar to settling basin with outlet zone. The minimum size of the fore-bay should
be such that a person can get in and be able to clean it, occasionally, at least during the annual
maintenance period. The minimum clear width required for this is 1 m. If possible, the fore-
bay should also be sized such that 15 seconds of the design flow can be safely stored in the
tank above the minimum pipe submergence level. This is more important if the scheme consists
of a headrace pipe instead of a canal. There can be small transient surges in the headrace pipe
which result in uneven flow. The 15 second storage capacity helps to balance such uneven flows.

4. A gate valve
A gate at the entrance of the penstock will make maintenance work on the turbine easier. The
gate can be closed and the penstock emptied so that work can be carried out on the turbine.
Rapid closure of the gate, however, could create negative pressure (i.e., a vacuum) inside the
pipe and even cause it to collapse.

5. An air vent
An air vent should be placed as shown in figure 2.15, prevent such a situation. Air can then be
drawn from the air vent pipe into the penstock
Diameter of air vent, d
airvent
is given as,

d
airvent
= Q \[(F/E )(D / t
effective
)
3
] (2.26)
where,
d
airvent
= internal diameter of air vent in mm
35

Q = maximum flow of water through turbine l/s
E = youngs modulus for the penstock N/mm
2

D = penstock diameter mm
t
effective
= effective penstock wall thickness at upper end mm
F = safety factor, 5 for buried and 10 for exposed pipe

Fig. 2.15 A fore-bay

6. Trashrack
The trashrack at the fore-bay should be placed at a slope of 1:3 both for efficient hydraulic
perform and ease of cleaning (by raking, for example). To minimise head loss and blockage,
the recommended velocity through the trashrack. 0.6 m/s, but a maximum of 1 m/s could be
used. The spacing between the trashrack bars should be about half the nozzle diameter for
Pelton turbines and half the pacing between blades for crossflow turbines. This prevents the
turbines from being obstructed by sediments and minimises the chances of surge. Cleaning of
the trashrack can be minimised by fixing it such that it is submerged during the design flow or
some additional flow (than the design flow) will be constantly required.

7. Spillway
As discussed earlier, a spillway should also be incorporated at the fore-bay. The spillway should
be sized such that it can release entire design flow when the turbine valve is closed during
emergencies.

2.6.7 Penstock
A penstock is a close conduct pipe that conveys the flow from the fore-bay to the turbine. The penstock
pipe starts where the ground profile is steep. Small portion of water energy is used to convey water
from intake to fore-bay. The penstock alignment should be chosen steep such all the remaining water
energy in the form of elevation is converted into pressure and velocity energy in penstock. The
penstock pipe conveys water under high.

Spillway
Air vent
Fine trashrack
Gate
Compact earth
Penstock
1
3
h
s
3
0
0

m
m
m
i
n
i
m
u
m
36

Penstock constitutes major expense in the total micro-hydro construction cost. Therefore it is
worthwhile optimising penstock design. This involves a careful choice of pipe material, an economi-
cal diameter such that the head loss is within acceptable limits and wall thickness so the pipe is safe
for the designed head and strong enough to withstand any high pressure (surge) that may result
from sudden blockage of the flow.

An ideal ground slope for the penstock alignment is between 1:1 and 1:2 (V:H). The flatter the ground
slope the less economic is the penstock since a longer pipe length is required for a lower head. But
steeper slop is un favorable due to difficulty in construction. The number of bends (horizontal and
vertical) should be kept to a minimum so that the number of anchor blocks and head loss can be
minimised. Since the penstock alignment is on steep ground slopes and the pipe is under pressure, it is
important for the alignment to be on stable ground. For an exposed (i.e. above-ground) penstock
alignment, a clear cover of 300 mm between the pipe and the ground should be provided to facilitate
maintenance and to minimise corrosion. Buried penstock pipe will have better protection
but it is complicate for maintenance.

Design of the penstock pipe
1. Material
Mild steel and HDPE pipes are the most common materials used for the penstock in MHP schemes.
HDPE pipes are usually economical for low heads and flows and are easy to join and repair. They
are light and flexible enough to accommodate small angle bends or radial expansions resulting
from pressure surges. The disadvantage is that these pipes can degrade if exposed to ultra-violet
rays (sunlight) and temperature variations and hence these pipes need to be buried.

Table 2.4 Penstock pipe material
(Note: more the numbers * more will be the favorable condition)

S.N. Material Friction loss Weight Corrosion Cost Jointing Pressure

1 Mild steel *** *** *** **** **** *****
2 uPVC ***** ***** **** **** **** ****
3 Concrete * * ***** *** *** *
4 Ductile
Iron
**** * **** ** ***** ****

2. Pipe diameter
A pipe diameter is designed such that the velocity, V, is between 2.5 m/s and 3.5 m/s. In
general, velocity lower than 2.5 m/s results in an uneconomically large diameter. Similarly, if
the velocity exceeds 3.5 m/s, the head loss can be excessive and hence uneconomical in the
long run due to loss in power output. Furthermore, higher velocities in the penstock will
result in high surge pressure as will be discussed later.

37

d
pipe
= \ [ 4Q/tV] (2.26)
where
d
pipe
is the inside pipe diameter in m
Q is the design flow in m
3
/s.
V is average velocity inside pipe in m/s

3. Head loss
To calculate the head loss in the pipe length is given as,

Total head loss = major head loss + minor head losses (2.27)
major head loss h
f
= fLV
2
/2g d
pipe
(2.28)
minor head losses,h
minor
= v
2
(K
entrance
+ K
bend
+ K
contraction
+ K
valve
)/2g (2.29)
where,
F = friction factor for pipe material, dimension less
L = length of pipe in m
V = average velocity inside pipe, m/s
d
pipe
= the inside pipe diameter, m
Ks = coefficients for pipe shape geometry, dimension less

4. Pipe thickness
The thickness of the pipe depends on the pipe diameter, the material, and the type of turbine
selected. The surge effect is different for different types of turbine and hence the pipe thickness
can differ even when the design flow, static head, and pipe materials are similar. If the pipe is
strong enough to withstand the initial surge effect, the pressure will ultimately dissipate
through friction losses in the water and pipe wall as well as through the fore-bay.

The calculation of the minimum wall thickness of the penstock for Pelton turbine is as follows:

(a) To calculate the surge head. Calculate the pressure wave velocity, a
a = 1400 / \ [1 + {2.1 x 10
9
d / (E t)} ] (2.30)
where,
E = the value of Young's Modulus for mild steel is 210 x 10
9
N/m
2
and for HDPE is 0.2 to 0.8
x 10
9
N/m
2

d = is the pipe diameter in mm
t = the wall thickness in mm

(b) Calculate velocity V in the penstock,
V=4Q/td
2
(2.31)
(c) Calculate the surge head (h
surge
),
h
surge
= aV/ ng (2.32)
where,n = the total no. of nozzles in the turbine(s)

(d) Calculate the total head
htotal = hgross + hsurg (2.33)

(e) As a precaution, calculate the critical time, T, from the following equation:
Tc = (2L)/a (2.34)
38

Tc = the critical time in seconds,
where,
L = the length of penstock in m,
a = the wave velocity calculated earlier.

If the turbine valve closure time, T, is less than T
c
, then the surge pressure wave is significantly
high. Similarly, the longer T is compared to T
c
, the lower the surge effect. Note that this
calculation is based on the assumption that the penstock diameter, material and wall thickness
are uniform. If any of these parameters vary, then separate calculations should be done for
each section. Closure time of at least twice the critical time (i.e., T > 2T
c
) is recommended.
When the operator closes or opens the valve, timing should be such that there is no observable
change in the pressure gauge reading if installed upstream of the valve.

(d) Once the surge head has been determined, the nominal wall thickness (t) can be calculated. If
the pipe is made of mild steel, it will be subject to corrosion and welding or rolling defects.
Thus the effective thickness, t
effective
,

will be less than the original thickness. t. For mild steel,
assume an initial thickness, t and calculate t
effective
,, using the following guidelines

a) If the pipes are joined by welding divide the initial thickness by 1.1.
b) If the pipe is prepared by rolling flat sheets, divide the initial thickness by 1.2.
c) Since mild steel pipe is subject to corrosion, subtract one mm for every 10 years of plant life.

For example, the effective thickness of a four mm thick flat rolled and welded mild steel pipe
designed for a 10-year life is

t
effectiv
= 4 / [(1.2 1.2) 1] = 2.03 mm (2.35)

Note that this does not apply to HDPE pipes where the effective thickness is the same as the original
thickness of the pipe.

5. Calculate the safety factor (SF)

SF = (t
effectiv
S) / (5 h
total
10
3
d ) (2.36)

where,
S = the ultimate tensile strength of the pipe material in N/m
2
. For mild steel S is usually taken as
350 x 10
6
N/m
2
. For HDPE the value is between 6 and 9 x 10
6
N/m
2

d = the internal diameter of the pipe, m

For mild steel or PVC pipes, if SF < 3.5, reject this penstock option and repeat the calculation for
a greater thickness. For HDEP pipe SF > 1.5 is acceptable.
In order to provide an adequate factor of safety against buckling, the minimum pipe wall
thickness is given by:
t
effectiv
> d[ F P / 2E]
0.33
(2.37)
where,
t
effectivee
= the effective pipe wall thickness, mm
d = the pipe internal diameter, mm
F = factor of safety against buckling (2 for buried penstock and 4 for exposed penstock)
39

P = the negative pressure, N/mm
Z
(10 m head = 0.1 N/mm
Z
)
E = Young's modulus for the pipe material, N/mmZ (from Table 6.2).

Example: Design of penstock pipe diameter
Design a penstock pipe diameter and wall thickness.. Data available are:
Q = 4501/s and h
goss
= 180m
Ten vertical bends, u = 69, 23, 26, 37, 40, 2, 3, 12, 8 & 3
Penstock material: mild steel, flat rolled and site welded, 550 m long.
High quality steel plates were bought and tested for tensile strength at the laboratory. Minimum
tensile strength, S = 400 N/mm2 was ensured through the tests.
Turbine type: 3 Pelton turbines with 2 nozzles in each turbine, therefore n = 3 x 2 = 6.

1. Pipe diameter calculation
Since the pipe is long set, V= 2.5 m/s to minimise head loss.
d
pipe
= \ [ 4Q/tV] = \ [ 4 0.450 /t 2.5] = 0.479 m

2. Total head loss
To calculate the head loss in the pipe length is given as,
Total head loss = major head loss + minor head losses
f =0 .0014 (from Moody Chart)
Major head loss h
f
= (fLV
2
)/ (2g d
pipe
) =[0.0014 550 2.5
2
]/ [2 0.47 g] =5.13 m
Minor head losses,h
minor
= V
2
(K
entrance
+ K
bend
+ K
contraction
+ K
valve
)/2g

From Tables of pipe loss (source: if any book of pipe loss)
K
entrance
= 0.2
K
contraction
= 0 (not available in this case)
K
valve
= 0 (not available in this case)
K
bend
= 0.34 for u = 69
K
bend
= 0.11 for u = 23
K
bend
= 0.13 for u = 26
K
bend
= 0.18 for u = 37
K
bend
= 0.20 for u = 40
K
bend
= 0.02 for u = 2
K
bend
= 0.02 for u = 3
K
bend
= 0.06 for u = 12
K
bend
= 0.04 for u = 8
K
bend
= 0.02for u = 3
Minor head losses, h
minor
= [V
2
/2g] (K
entrance
+ K
bend s
+ K
contraction
+ K
valve
)
= [2.5
2
/2g] ( 0.2+0.34+0.11+0.13+0.18+0.20+0.02+0.02+0.06+0.04+0.02)
= 0.42 m
Total head loss = 5.13 m + 0.42 m = 5.52 m
head loss = 5.52 / 180 =3.1 < 5

Therefore, the diameter can be made little smaller. The adopted diameter of penstock is 450 mm,
which gives 4.1% head loss, through a repeat of the above calculations.

3. Pipe thickness
First calculate the thickness required at the downstream end of the penstock
40

(h
static
= hgross = 180 m and d = 450 mm. Try for t = 6 mm E= 210 10
9
N/m
2
)

a = 1400 / \ [1 + (2.1 10
9
d / E t) ]
a =1058 m/s
V = 4Q / t d
2
= 4 0.450 / t 0.450
2
= 2.83 m/s
h
surge
= a V / (n g) = 1058 2.83 / 6 9.8 = 51 m
h
total
=h
gross
+ h
surge
= 180 + 51 = 231 m
t
effective
= [6/ 1.1 1.2] -1.0 = 3.55 mm

3. Calculate the safety factor (SF) using the following equation
SF = (t
effectiv
S) / (5 h
total
10
3
d )
= 3.55 400 10
6
/ 5 231 10
3
450 = 2.74
2.5 > SF(2.74) < 3.5
Hence the design will be acceptable for the well trained technician if not redesign for less safety
factor.

2.6.8 Anchor blocks
An anchor block is a mass of concrete fixed into the ground that holds the penstock to restrain the
pipe movement in all directions. Anchor blocks should be placed at all sharp horizontal and vertical
bends, since there are forces at such bends which will tend to move the pipe out of alignment. Anchor
blocks are also required to resist forces in long straight sections of penstock.

Design criteria of anchor blocks
For micro-hydro schemes with a gross head less than 60 m and an installed power capacity less than
or equal to 20 kW, following guidelines is used to design anchor blocks.

1. It is constructed of concrete which is 1:3:6 with about 40 per cent plums (boulders) placed evenly
around the block as shown in Figure 2.16. The boulders add weight to the block and therefore
increase stability while reducing the volume of cement required.
Penstock
Metal tag
Reinforced bar
3:6 PCC with 40% pulms

Fig. 2.16 An anchor block

Bend angle ( - )
41

2. For straight sections, locate one anchor block every 30m along the length of the penstock. Use
one m
3
of plum concrete for a pipe diameter of 300mm. If the pipe diameter is more or less, say
200mm, then adjust the amount proportionately. (200/ 300) x 1 m
3
=0.67m
3

3. Always provide an anchor block at the bends in the penstock keeping a maximum distance of
30m between two blocks. For bends less than 45, use double the concrete volume required for a
straight section. For example, if the pipe diameter is 350mm and the bend is 20, then use
(350/300) x 2 m
3
= 2.33 m
3
of concrete for the anchor block. If the bend angle is larger than 45,
then the required volume of concrete is three times that for a straight section.

4. Immediately upstream of the powerhouse. This minimises forces on the turbine housing.

5. For micro-hydro schemes with a gross head more than 60 m and an installed power capacity more
than or equal to 20 kW .The design of anchor blocks and support piers requires resolving common
forces, which applies on it. Then the structures are tentatively sized and the various forces that act on
them are resolved. The minimum calculated block size that is safe against bearing, sliding and
overturning is accepted. It should be noted that the design process involves a few iterations. Once all
of the above relevant forces have been calculated the design procedure for anchor blocks and support
piers requires checking the three conditions of stability as follows: safety against overturning,safety
on baring, safety againsting sliding.

2.6.9 Support piers
Support piers are short columns that are placed between anchor blocks along straight sections of
exposed penstock pipe. These structures prevent the pipe from sagging and becoming over stressed.
Support piers restrain the vertical forces of the penstock resulting from the weight of the pipe and
water. However, they allow axial movement resulting from thermal expansion or contraction.

For micro-hydro schemes with a gross head less than 60 m and an installed power capacity less than
or equal to 20 kW, following guidelines is used to design support piers. Support piers are generally
constructed out of stone masonry in 1:6 cement mortar. Dressed stone should be used for the outside
surfaces of the pier. A 140 bearing area from the centre of the penstock diameter should be provided
to support the penstock pipe as shown in Figure 2.18. Placing a steel saddle plate above the support
pier where the penstock pipe rests along with a 3 mm thick tar paper as shown in Figure 2.18. This
minimises frictional effects and increases the useful life of the pipe. C-clamps may also be provided
to protect the pipe from vandalism and a sideways movement, but there must be a gap between the
surface of the pipe and the C-clamp, so that axial forces are not transferred to the support pier.

Table 2.5 should be used to determine the spacing of support piers for mild steel pipes that are
welded or connected by flanges according to British Standard specifications (minimum flange
thickness = 16mm). (Support piers are not required for buried pipes). Note that in Table 2.5, the
support pier spacing is the horizontal (plan) length and not the sloping length of the pipe. For flanged
mild steel pipes that do not meet British Standards, one support per individual pipe length should be
used with the pier placed in the middle.

42

Penstock
Penstock
300 mm
300 mm
3
0
0

m
m
Stone masonry in 1:6 c/s mortar
140

Fig. 2.17 A support pier

Figure 2.17 can be used as a guide for the shape of the support pier if the penstock pipe is less than
one meter above the ground. The base of the pier(s) should be at least 1 m x 1 m. The size of the top
piece on which the penstock is supported should be at least 0.5m along the direction of the penstock
and about one meter width at right angles to the penstock. The uphill wall surface should be
perpendicular to the penstock pipe. The required depth of foundation depends on condition of soil but
it should be at least 300 mm.

Steel support piers can also be used as an alternative to stone masonry, especially at sites where
cement is expensive or the soil is weak in bearing. For larger schemes, or if the penstock pipe is
more than one meter above the ground, a more detailed calculation is required.

Table 2.5 Spacing of support piers for mild steel pipe

Pipe diameter (mm) > 100 200 300 400 500
Pipe thickness (mm) Support pier spacing (horizontal), m
2 2 2 2.5 3 3
4 3 3 3 4 4
6 4 4.5 5 6 6

43

2.6.10 Expansion joints
Above ground penstock pipes are subjected to expansion or contraction in length as a result of
changes in the ambient temperature. The change depends on the change in temperature and the type
of material used. Table 2.6 can be used to determine the changes in length for mild steel pipes of
various lengths in different temperature ranges. Note that the maximum expected temperature
variation should be used for the calculation (such as between when the pipe is empty during a mid-
summer afternoon, and the lowest winter temperature).
Stay ring
Packing
Retainer ring
Weld
Expansion gap
Contraction allowance
Penstock Pipe wall
Penstock pipe wall

Fig. 2.18 A sliding type expansion joint

As long as pipes are free to move at one end, thermal expansion does not cause additional stresses.
However, a penstock pipe section between two anchor blocks is kept fixed at both ends. In such a
case thermal expansion could cause additional stresses and the pipe can even buckle. Therefore,
provision must be made for the penstock pipe to expand and contract, by installing an expansion joint
in a penstock pipe section between two anchor blocks.

A sliding type of expansion joint such as that shown in Figure 2.19, is commonly used in MHP
schemes. It can be placed between two consecutive pipe lengths and can either be welded or bolted
to the pipes. The stay rings are tightened to compress the packing and prevent leaking. Jute, rubber,
or a similar type of fiber is used for packing. When the pipes expand or contract, the change in
lengths is accommodated inside the joint section since there is a gap between the pipes. An
advantage of an expansion joint is that it reduces the size of the anchor blocks since they will not
need to withstand forces due to pipe expansion. Another advantage is that they can accommodate
slight angular pipe misalignment.

44

Table 2.6 Thermal length change of mild steel pipe

Maximum temperature
variation, C
temperature
Length between anchor blocks, m
10 20 30 40 50
Change in length (mm)
25 3 6 9 12 15
35 4 8 13 17 21
45 5 11 16 22 27

Sizing of expansion joints
The sliding surface of the expansion joints should be machine finished (such as in a lathe machine) to
a tolerance of about 0.1 mm. The recommended thickness of the steel parts (retainer and stay ring)
is about twice the thickness of a well-designed penstock pipe. The gap in the expansion joint should
be about twice the calculated maximum pipe expansion length.
The maximum expansion length is calculated using the following equation:
AL = o (T
hot
- T
cold
) L (2.38)
where:
AL = pipe expansion length in m as shown in Figure 2.19
o = coefficient of linear expansion in m/m C of the pipe
T
hot
= highest temperature in C that the pipe will experience
T
cold
= lowest temperature in C that the pipe will experience
L = pipe length in m.

Since it may be difficult to determine when the expansion joint will be installed at site, the
manufacturer should be asked allow an expansion gap of 2 AL. Then, during installation, the
temperature should be noted and the gap left accordingly.

Example: Expansion gap of expansion joint
A mild steel penstock pipe is 45 m long between the fore-bay and the first anchor block. The steel
temperature during installation was 40C, and the expected lowest temperature during the operational
phase is 4C during winter. What expansion gap should be recommended to the manufacturer? Also,
if the temperature during installation is 20C, what gap should be provided?

1. Coefficient of linear expansion of the pipe from thermodynamic tables is,
o=12x10
-6
m/mC
T
hot
= 40 C
T
cold
= 4 C

L = 45m
AL = o (T
hot
- T
cold
) L
AL. = 12x10
-6
(40 - 4) x 45 =0.019m =l9mm
Therefore minimum recommended expansion gap = 19 x 2 = 38 mm, say 40 mm.

45

2 If the temperature during installation is 20C
AL = o (T
hot
- T
cold
) L
AL. = 12x10
-6
(40 - 20) x 45 =0.011m =l1mm

Therefore, during installation an expansion gap of 11 mm x 2 = 22 mm should be provided.

2.6.11 Powerhouse
The powerhouse accommodates electro-mechanical equipment such as the turbine, generator, agro-
processing units and control panels. The main function of the powerhouse is to protect the electro-
mechanical units from rain and other weather effects as well as possible mishandling by un-
authorised person.

The powerhouse should be big enough that all the electro-mechanical equipment can fit in and be
easily accessible for operation and repair work. If agro-processing units are also installed inside the
powerhouse, additional space should be provided so that it is not overcrowded when people are
working or delivering grain and so on.

Design and requirement of powerhouse
1. The location of the powerhouse is governed by the penstock alignment since this building must be
located at the end of the penstock. The powerhouse should be safe from not only annual floods. It
should also be possible to discharge the tail-water safely from the powerhouse back to the stream.
It is advantage to build on level ground to minimise excavation work. The powerhouse should be
located close to the community.

Fig. 2.19 A power house with agro-processing units

2. When planning the size of the powerhouse, all electro-mechanical units should be drawn to scale.
Civil design input required is to size the plan area of the building and design the machine
foundation.
Main switch Board
Grid line
Belt
Mechanical
Grinder
Penstock
Generator
Turbine
46

3. Adequate space should be provided such that all equipment is easily accessible. There should be a
clear spacing of at least 1 m around each item of equipment that has moving parts (such as the
generator, turbine and the belt drive). It is recommended that such additional space is provided as
a lobby at the entrance and the equipment is placed beyond it

4. Doors and windows should open outwards for safety in case of fire or flooding.

5. The area inside the powerhouse should be well lighted and ventilated with sufficient windows.
Placing a few transparent fiber glass sheets (skylight) in the roof will provide additional
illumination. The roof can be covered with corrugated, galvanised iron (CCI) sheets.

6. The powerhouse walls can be built of stone masonry in mud mortar with cement plastering on the
surfaces.

7. The penstock pipe should not normally be built into the powerhouse wall.

8. The clear height of the building should be 2.5 m to 3 m.

8. The floor of the powerhouse should be 300 mm to 500 mm above the outside ground surface to
prevent dampness and rainwater entering. Drains should also be provided outside the powerhouse.

9. Costs can be brought down if the construction is similar to that of other houses in the area.

10. The machine foundations should be constructed out of reinforced concrete so that all the loads,
including the dynamic forces of the generator and the turbine, are properly supported and the
alignment does not change over the years.

2.6.12 Overview of tailrace
The tailrace is the final civil structure that conveys the design flow from the turbine (after power
generation) back into the stream, generally the same stream from which the water was initially
withdrawn. Similar to the headrace, open channel or pipes can be used for the tailrace section.
Design of the tailrace canal or pipe is similar to that of the headrace canal. However, since head loss
does not need to be minimised a higher velocity can usually be allowed, within the limits. Note that at
higher velocities and steep channel a stronger grade of mortar or concrete is required to resist erosion.
The downstream end of the tailrace must be arranged so that there is no danger of erosion either by
the river or by the flow from the tailrace.

2.7 Selection of mechanical components MHP system
2.7.1 Selection of turbines and its components
The necessary input data has to be collected from project site such as Designed discharge, Gross head,
net head or pipe length, pipe diameter, required power out etc.

- Flow Available or designed discharge for the turbine. The unit will be liter per second (l/s) or
(m3/s). Almost all the MHP schemes are run-of-river type, meaning that the storage reservoir
will not be constructed. But flow varies considerably during the seasons. Therefore, the design
flow chosen for the scheme is that which is available through out the year. That is why the
flow measurement will be carried out especially during the dry season as possible.

47

- Gross Head: In case of impulse turbines, the height from fore-bay tank water level to turbine
rotor axis is known as gross head. But in case of reaction turbine the gross head is measured
from fore-bay tank water level to tail race water level. So it can be determined the correct
gross head after having detail land profile design. However, once the civil works constructed
the gross head remains constant whether the plant will run for part or full load.

- Net head: The designed head is known as net head. The height available after deducting
all the head loses of different component along the water line like Entrance (Bellmouth),
Penstock pipe, Expansion Joint, Bend, Reducer, depending upon turbine type etc. Head loses
will be considered of that situation when the designed discharge is flowing through turbine. (it
can be measured the true net head at the time of test or commissioning period only through
precision pressure gauge installed at near by the turbine.

- Turbine Selection: There are various types of turbines. The best selection of turbine type
will be depending upon the site data and other technical parameters likewise afford able
quality of the machine or cost of machine, appropriate equipment to operate for local people
etc. In fact, one of the selection criteria for the turbine type is its efficiency, characteristics
under part-flow conditions. It is very essential part while selecting the turbine for the MHP
projects. Tentatively the type of turbine cab be selected from the following Figure:

Fig 3.1 Selection of turbine type (source Escher Wyss SKAT Micro pelton book
Functional range of different water turbines)
- By using Nomogram (Refer Lecture Note)
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48

2.7.2 Drive System
Drive system is used to transmit the power from turbine to generator or any other output shaft at the
correct speed and in a suitable direction. Major drive system components are: generator shaft, turbine
shaft, bearings, couplings, gearboxes, belts and pulleys, etc.

i) Direct coupled drive
This drive system is only for the case where the shaft speeds are identical because it uses a flexible
coupling to join the two shafts together directly.
Turbine runner
Inline
coupling
Gear box
Induction motor
used as alternator

Fig.: Direct Coupled Drive System

Characteristics of the direct coupled drive system are:
- Compact and simple
- Efficiency approaches almost 100%
- No additional load is imposed on bearings
- Easy for maintenance
- Correct shaft alignment necessary to prevent failure of the bearing (Flexible Couplings)
- No speed change is possible between the turbine shaft and the generator

2.8 Generators
Induction or synchronous generators can be used to convert the mechanical energy output of the
turbine into electrical energy. Most installations of mini hydro projects utilize synchronous
generators. Induction generators are used in MHP plants when system conditions and economics
permits.

The main advantage of a synchronous generator for mini hydroelectric plant applications is its
capability to operate with either a lagging or leading power factor, by control of its excitation. Power
factor ratings of generators are determined by the requirement of the local load, or the connecting
electric utility system, or both, which commonly ranges between 0.8 and 0.95.

Furthermore, synchronous generator has ability to establish its own operating voltage and maintain
frequency while operating isolated. Thus, if the interconnection to the power system is separated, the
generator may continue supplying the local load. To utilize this advantage requires governor
49

(accurate and responsive speed and power output control system) and automatic voltage regulator
(voltage and reactive power control system). These increase the cost of synchronous generator.

The advantages of an induction generator are lower installed and maintenance costs from elimination
of the exciter, voltage regulator, and synchronizer. But it can not provide reactive power or voltage
control as an isolated power source. Another disadvantage is its lower efficiency throughout the
operating range. The induction generator draws its excitation (magnetizing) current from the
electrical system.

2.9 Switching, transmission and distribution
2.9.1 Switching
Almost all micro-hydro installations which generate electricity will have some form of switchgear.
The purpose of the switchgear is to isolate the power supply when necessary and also to have some
control over the electrical power flow. The protection equipment will work along with the switches
and will be in a position to isolate the power supply when a fault occurs.

Some of the common switches used on MHP installations and their functions:

1. Isolators: Manually operated switches to isolate the load from supply.

2. Switch fuse: These are similar to isolator but with additional fuse for current limiting.

3. Molded case circuits breakers (MCCB): This is used for protection from over current, short
circuits and earth fault. For over current, bimetallic strips, for short circuits magnetic trips
and for earth fault relays are connected. This is used up to 600 amps. This is main
protection instrument used in micro and Pico- hydropower.

4. Oil and air circuits breakers: These have similar functions as MCCB but are used over 11kv
and over 600amp. They are costly, and are mainly used in small hydropower.

5. Earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCB): This is special type of MCCB, which can protect the
circuit against earth leakage.

6. Contactor: used in control circuits as in motor starters; used as circuit breakers\s along with
the relevant trips.

7. Changeovers: Select power either from main grid or from micro hydro.

2.9.2 Transmission and distribution
Usually the load is remote from the powerhouse site so transmission line is needed.
Main design criterion for transmission lines are:-
1. The design of transmission and distribution lines should be such that a voltage drop at any
distribution line end is limited to 10% of nominal value (11 kV or 33 kV line-5%, distribution
transformer-3% and service wire-2%)
2. The minimum economic power loss.
3. Protection from lighting and other damages.
4. Structural stability in high winds.
5. Safety for people living and working nears the lines.

50

Design is done for (Conductor size, power loss, voltage drop, voltage regulation, approximate total
cost, stability, protection, pole spacing, lighting conductors etc.)

Overhead
- Overheads lines are used most often because by using air as cable insulation, the cable is less
expensive.
- Installation can be simple and cheap.
- In developing countries, this system is suitable.
- easy to repair and maintain

Underground
- Underground lines have to be insulated and protected against ground movement, ploughing,
new building, densely located or heavy snowfall
- But, once installed, the line should run without maintenance about 50 years.

For service connection, following voltage system should be used:
- Low Tension supply
230 V, single phase for loads up to 30 A
400/230 V, three phase for loads more than 30A
- High Tension supply
11 kV and 33 kV three phase systems for load more than 100 kVA

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