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http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/~good/176b/a05.html#7.%20 UNIVERSAL%20TRANSVERSE%20MERCATOR GEOGRAPHY 176B: TECHNICAL ISSUES IN GIS LECTURE 5: GEOREFERENCING 1. THE PROBLEM 2. PLACENAMES 3.

ADDRESSES, POSTCODES, AREA CODES 4. THE CADASTER AND PUBLIC LAND SURVEY SYSTEM 5. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 6. PROJECTIONS AND COORDINATES 7. UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR 8. STATE PLANE COORDINATES Credit: many of the illustrations in this unit were prepared by Peter Dana, University of Texas, Austin, for the Geographer's Craft project 1. THE PROBLEM The atom of geographic information <location, time, attribute> to communicate, we need standard ways of dealing with all three

time Gregorian calendar attribute depends on application temperature scales vegetation classifications highway classifications location many ways of referencing how to specify the locations of a polygon's points? 120.12456 W, 34.89176 N 909 West Campus Lane, Goleta, CA 93117, USA 5789654N, 314654E NE 1/4, Section 12, Township 23 Range 5 of the Second Principal Meridian How to reference a location on the Earth's surface? in a way that others can understand with sufficient accuracy for the application many methods The act of assigning locations to things

georeferencing geocoding geolocating within the geographic frame of reference other frames of reference? Requirements of a georeferencing system uniqueness one code per location every location gets its own code over what domain? the entire globe universal systems latitude/longitude over a limited domain e.g. unique in the U.S. e.g. unique to a zone same geocode repeats in different places 7-digit phone number repeats in every area code 10-digit phone number unique in the U.S. and Canada

11-digit phone number (add 1) unique in the world placenames repeat at least 18 states have a city of Springfield shared meaning sender and receiver must both understand latitude/longitude is universally understood Tobler's postcard mail a letter from China to 909 West Campus Lane, Goleta, CA 93117, USA persistent through time latitude/longitude since the 1890s area codes often change spatial resolution how big is the area covered by a single georeference? Rhode Island pins location down to 3000 sq km

California only to 410,000 sq km area or linear measure? a rectangle of 3000 sq km is about 55 km across a rectangle of 410,000 sq km is about 650 km across we tend to work with both metric georeferences measure position with respect to fixed points can be used to measure distances between points coordinates e.g. Salt Lake City street addresses ordered allocation e.g. New York avenues 2. PLACENAMES Locations identified by name

likely the first type of georeference littering the surface of the Earth Placename authorities state, national boards official authorization Board on Geographic Names Geographic Names Information System Alexandria Gazetteer Relative names e.g. 5 miles west of Greenfield, CA e.g. between Salinas and Greenfield the museum collection problem collected 1 mile north of Cachuma Saddle metes and bounds property description from the big maple tree, 100 ft in a southerly direction to the crossing of the creek Problems with placenames variable spatial resolution e.g. Asia e.g. Eiffel Tower lost through time

Where was Camelot? Only locally defined The Riviera downtown Not officially recognized The Midwest Fuzzy or crisp The Atlantic Ocean Context-specific LA If you live in New York if you live in Riverside Alphabets Chinese place names 3. ADDRESSES, POSTCODES, AREA CODES Devised for specific purposes Used for many other purposes Addresses Delivering mail registering property place of residence

spatial resolution one mailbox one property domain local area assumptions dwelling is a destination for mail dwellings arrayed along streets streets have names that are unique within local area local areas have names that are unique within state/country violations? give your street address to 911? where do they not work? Postal codes ZIP - 93117-4338 unique in US spatial resolution <1 block changes made frequently UK postcode - SE3R 1KW Canadian postcode - N6G 1R1 widely known and accessible

mailing lists widely used for marketing, analysis Area codes 4. THE CADASTER AND PUBLIC LAND SURVEY SYSTEM Cadaster the map of land ownership field-like at any point there is exactly one owner not an effective georeference Public land survey system devised circa 1830 for surveying the western lands acquired by the U.S. extended to Canada a regular basis for allocating land to new owners used for georeferencing in land management oil and gas BLM Elements of the PLSS the principal meridian

a north-south line laid out very accurately ranges at 6 mile intervals townships 6 mile blocks east and west of the principal meridian sections 36 blocks of 1 square mile each (640 ac) regularly numbered numbering east of the principal meridian 1 2 3 4 5 6 12 11 10 9 8 7 13 14 15 16 17 18 24 23 22 21 20 19 25 26 27 28 29 30 36 35 34 33 32 31 Reversed west of the principal meridian 4 quarter sections of 1/4 sq mile (160 ac) NW NE

SW SE quarter-quarter sections of 1/16 sq mi (40 ac) fixed spatial resolution can go as fine as needed hierarchical system Applications locations of oil and gas leases locations of public land locations of agricultural land Problems the Earth isn't flat surveying errors steep terrain other irregularities Santa Barbara county 5. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE Earth's axis 5 m wobble Center of mass Equator 90 degrees to axis, through the center of mass

Prime meridian Royal Observatory at Greenwich plane through the axis and the prime meridian Longitude plane through the axis and a point angle between the two planes 180 W to 180 E 360 degrees in 24 hours 15 degrees per time zone -180 to +180 history of longitude Longitude by Dava Sobel Figure of the Earth geoid isosurface sea level if continents were porous accurately measured with satellites ellipsoid mathematical surface rotate an ellipse around the axis some ellipsoids WGS84

NAD83 a=6,378,137 m b=6,356,752 m f=1/298.257 Clarke's ellipsoid of 1866 NAD27 List of ellipsoids Ellipsoid Airy 1830 Modified Airy Australian National Bessel 1841 (Namibia) Bessel 1841 Clarke 1866 Clarke 1880 Everest (India 1830) Everest (Sabah Sarawak) Everest (India 1956) Everest (Malaysia Semi-major 1/flattening axis 6377563.396 299.3249646 6377340.189 299.3249646 6378160 298.25

6377483.865 299.1528128 6377397.155 299.1528128 6378206.4 294.9786982 6378249.145 293.465 6377276.345 300.8017 6377298.556 300.8017 6377301.243 300.8017 6377295.664 300.8017

1969) Everest (Malay. & 6377304.063 300.8017 Sing) Everest 6377309.613 300.8017 (Pakistan) Modified 6378155 298.3 Fischer 1960 Helmert 6378200 298.3 1906 Hough 1960 6378270 297 Indonesian 6378160 298.247 1974 International 6378388 297 1924 Krassovsky 6378245 298.3 1940 GRS 80 6378137 298.257222101 South American 6378160 298.25 1969 WGS 72 6378135 298.26 WGS 84 6378137 298.257223563 Latitude angle between the Equator and a line drawn perpendicular to the ellipsoid not necessarily through the center of mass

90 S to 90 N -90 to +90 parallel line of constant latitude Precision of latitude and longitude degrees, minutes, seconds decimal degrees 1 second latitude about 30 m 1 minute latitude = 1 nautical mile 1 degree latitude about 70 miles or 110 km longitude degrees shorter on the Earth except at the Equator depending on latitude at 30 degrees 0.866 at 45 degrees 0.707 at 60 degrees 0.500 at 90 degrees 0.000 great circle slice through the center of mass divides the Earth into two equal hemispheres small circle slice not through the center of mass Approximate figures of the Earth

larger than 1:10,000, assume a flat Earth from 1:10,000 to 1:10,000,000 assume a spheroid smaller than 1:10,000,000 assume a sphere Distances on the sphere latitude longitude R arccos (sin 1 sin 2 + cos 1 cos 2 cos(1 - 2)) circumference 2R distance from Equator (0,0) to N Pole (90,0) R arccos (0x1 + 1x0 cos (0 - 0)) R arccos (0) R/2 WGS84 R = (a+b)/2 = 6,367,444 m R/2 = 10,039,173 m 6. PROJECTIONS AND COORDINATES Why flatten the Earth? paper is flat input and output easily printed, copied rasters are flat

can't cover a curved surface with squares use of rasters in analysis, modeling photographs are flat to see all of the Earth at once Map projection a transformation from (,) to (x,y) Mercator projection x= y = ln tan (/2 + /4) inverse transformations =x = 2(arctan ey - /4) How does a GIS make the calculations? often by expanding functions as series e.g., ey = 1 + y + y2/2! + y3/3! + ... make forward transformation followed by inverse are the results exactly the same? errors may accumulate Distortion properties

angles, areas, directions, shapes and distances become distorted when transformed from a curved surface to a plane examples all these properties cannot be kept undistorted in a single projection usually the distortion in one property will be kept to a minimum while other properties become very distorted Tissot's Indicatrix is a convenient way of showing distortion imagine a tiny circle drawn on the surface of the globe on the distorted map the circle will become an ellipse, squashed or stretched by the projection height changed by the vertical scale (k) width changed by the horizontal scale (h) the size and shape of the Indicatrix will vary from one part of the map to another

we use the Indicatrix to display the distorting effects of projections Conformal (Orthomorphic) a projection is conformal if the angles in the original features are preserved over small areas the shapes of objects will be preserved preservation of shape does not hold with large regions (e.g. Greenland in Mercator projection) a line drawn with constant orientation (e.g. with respect to north) will be straight on a conformal projection, is termed a rhumb line or loxodrome conformal projections are good for navigation parallels and meridians cross each other at right angles (note: not all projections with this appearance are conformal) the Tissot Indicatrix is a circle everywhere, but its size varies conformal projections cannot have equal area properties, so some areas are enlarged generally, areas near margins have a larger scale than areas near the center

Equal area (Equivalent) the representation of areas is preserved so that all regions on the projection will be represented in correct relative size equal area projections are good for GIS analysis equal area maps cannot be conformal, so most Earth angles are deformed and shapes are strongly distorted the Indicatrix has the same area everywhere, but is always elliptical, never a circle (except at the standard parallel) Equidistant cannot make a single projection over which all distances are maintained thus, equidistant projections maintain relative distances from one or two points only e.g., in a conic projection all distances from the center are represented at the same scale Geometric analogy: Developable surfaces the most common methods of projection can be conceptually described by imagining the developable surface, which is a surface that can be made flat by cutting it along certain lines and unfolding or unrolling it

the points or lines where a developable surface touches the globe in projecting from the globe are called standard points and lines, or points and lines of zero distortion. at these points and lines, the scale is constant and equal to that of the globe, no linear distortion is present if the developable surface touches the globe, the projection is called tangent e.g. cylindrical if the surface cuts into the globe, it is called secant where the surface and the globe intersect, there is no distortion where the surface is outside the globe, objects appear bigger than in reality - scales are greater than 1 where the surface is inside the globe, objects appear smaller than in reality and scales are less than 1 note: symbols used in the following: - longitude latitude - colatitude (90 - lat)

h - distortion introduced along lines of longitude k - distortion introduced along lines of latitude (h and k are the lengths of the minor and major axes of the Indicatrix) commonly used developable surfaces are: 1. Planar or azimuthal a flat sheet is placed in contact with a globe, and points are projected from the globe to the sheet mathematically, the projection is easily expressed as mappings from latitude and longitude to polar coordinates with the origin located at the point of contact with the paper formulas for stereographic projection (conformal) are: r = 2 tan( / 2) q= h = k = sec2( / 2) Examples: stereographic projection gnomic projection Lambert's azimuthal equal-area projection orthographic projection

2. Conic the transformation is made to the surface of a cone tangent at a small circle (tangent case) or intersecting at two small circles (secant case) on a globe mathematically, this projection is also expressed as mappings from latitude and longitude to polar coordinates, but with the origin located at the apex of the cone formulas for equidistant conical projection with one standard parallel (0 , colatitude 0) are: r = tan(0) + tan( - 0) q=n n = cos(0) h = 1.0 k = n r / sin() Examples Alber's conical equal area projection with two standard parallels Lambert conformal conic projection with two standard parallels equidistant conic projection with one standard parallel 3. Cylindrical

developed by transforming the spherical surface to a tangent or secant cylinder mathematically, a cylinder wrapped around the equator is expressed with x equal to longitude, and the y coordinates some function of latitude formulas for cylindrical equal area projection are: x= y = sin() k = sec() h = cos() Examples Mercator Projection meridians and parallels intersect at right angles straight lines are lines of constant bearing - projection is useful for navigation great circles appear as curves Plate Carree or unprojected or cylindrical equidistant 4. Non-Geometric (Mathematical) projections

some projections cannot be expressed geometrically have only mathematical descriptions Examples Molleweide Eckert 7. UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR (UTM) UTM is the first of two projection based coordinate systems to be examined in this unit UTM provides georeferencing at high levels of precision for the entire globE established in 1936 by the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics adopted by the US Army in 1947 adopted by many national and international mapping agencies, including NATO is commonly used in topographic and thematic mapping, for referencing satellite imagery and as a basis for widely distributed spatial databases Transverse Mercator Projection results from wrapping the cylinder around the poles rather than around the equator

the central meridian is the meridian where the cylinder touches the sphere theoretically, the central meridian is the line of zero distortion by rotating the cylinder around the poles the central meridian (and area of least distortion) can be moved around the earth Zone System in order to reduce distortion the globe is divided into 60 zones, 6 degrees of longitude wide zones are numbered eastward, 1 to 60, beginning at 180 degrees (W long) the system is only used from 84 degrees N to 80 degrees south as distortion at the poles is too great with this projection at the poles, a Universal Polar Stereographic projection (UPS) is used each zone is divided further into strips of 8 degrees latitude beginning at 80 degrees S, are assigned letters C through X, O and I are omitted picture Distortion

to reduce the distortion across the area covered by each zone, scale along the central meridian is reduced to 0.9996 this produces two parallel lines of zero distortion approximately 180 km away from the central meridian scale at the zone boundary is approximately 1.0003 at US latitudes Coordinates coordinates are expressed in meters eastings (x) are displacements eastward northings (y) express displacement northward the central meridian is given an easting of 500,000 m the northing for the equator varies depending on hemisphere when calculating coordinates for locations in the northern hemisphere, the equator has a northing of 0 m in the southern hemisphere, the equator has a northing of 10,000,000 m UTM zone 14

Advantages UTM is frequently used consistent for the globe is a universal approach to accurate georeferencing Disadvantages full georeference requires the hemisphere, zone number, easting and northing (unless the area of the data base falls completely within a zone) rectangular grid superimposed on zones defined by meridians causes axes on adjacent zones to be skewed with respect to each other problems arise in working across zone boundaries no simple mathematical relationship exists between coordinates of one zone and an adjacent zone 8. STATE PLANE COORDINATES (SPC) SPCs are individual coordinate systems adopted by U.S. state agencies originated in the 1930s based on NAD27 revised in 1983 based on NAD83 each state's shape determines which projection is chosen to represent that state

e.g. a state extended N/S may use a Transverse Mercator projection while a state extended E/W may use a Lambert Conformal Conic projection (both of these are conformal) projections are chosen to minimize distortion over the state a state may have 2 or more overlapping zones, each with its own projection system and grid Texas zones units are generally in feet Advantages SPC may give a better representation than the UTM system for a state's area SPC coordinates may be simpler than those of UTM Disadvantages SPC are not universal from state to state problems may arise at the boundaries of projections Use in GIS

many GIS have catalogs of SPC projections listed by state which can be used to choose the appropriate projection for a given state REFERENCES Maling, D.H., 1973. Coordinate Systems and Map Projections, George Phillip and Son Limited, London. Robinson, A.H., R.D. Sale, J.L. Morrison and P.C. Muehrcke, 1984, Elements of Cartography, 5th edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York. See pages 56-105. Snyder, J.P., 1987. Map Projections - A Working Manual, US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1395, US Government Printing Office, Washington. Strahler, A.N. and A.H. Strahler, 1987. Modern Physical Geography, 3rd edition, Wiley, New York. See pages 3-8 for a description of latitude and longitude and various appendices for information on coordinate systems. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Define the three standard properties of map projections: equal-area, equidistant and conformal. Discuss the relative importance of each for different applications. What types of applications require which properties? 2. What type of projection would you expect to be used in the following circumstances, and why?

a. an airline pilot flying the North Atlantic between New York and London. b. a submarine navigating under the ice of the North Pole. c. an agricultural scientist assembling crop yield data for Africa. d. an engineer planning the locations of radio transmitters across the continental US. 3. What map projections would you choose in designing a workstation to be used by scientists studying various aspects of global environmental change? 4. By examining the list of SPC systems adopted by the states, what can you deduce about the criteria used to determine the projection adopted and the number of zones used? You will need a map of the US showing the boundaries of states. Are there any surprising choices?

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