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IEEE 802.

11
IEEE 802.11 is a set of standards for implementing wireless local area network (WLAN) computer communication in the 2.4, 3.6, 5 and 60 GHz frequency bands. They are created and maintained by the IEEE LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE 802). The base version of the standard was released in 1997 and has had subsequent amendments. These standards provide the basis for wireless network products using the Wi-Fi brand.

General description
The 802.11 family consist of a series of half-duplex over-the-air modulation techniques that use the same basic protocol. The most popular are those defined by the 802.11b and 802.11g protocols, which are amendments to the original standard. 802.11-1997 was the first wireless networking standard, but 802.11a was the first widely accepted one, followed by 802.11b and 802.11g. 802.11n is a new multi-streaming modulation technique. Other standards in the family (cf, h, j) are service amendments and extensions or corrections to the previous specifications. 802.11b and 802.11g use the 2.4 GHz ISM band, operating in the United States under Part 15 of the US Federal Communications Commission Rules and Regulations. Because of this choice of frequency band, 802.11b and g equipment may occasionally suffer interference from microwave ovens, cordless telephones and Bluetooth devices. 802.11b and 802.11g control their interference and susceptibility to interference by using direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) and orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) signaling methods, respectively. 802.11a uses the 5 GHz U-NII band, which, for much of the world, offers at least 23 nonoverlapping channels rather than the 2.4 GHz ISM frequency band, where adjacent channels overlap - see list of WLAN channels. Better or worse performance with higher or lower frequencies (channels) may be realized, depending on the environment. The segment of the radio frequency spectrum used by 802.11 varies between countries. In the US, 802.11a and 802.11g devices may be operated without a license, as allowed in Part 15 of the FCC Rules and Regulations. Frequencies used by channels one through six of 802.11b and 802.11g fall within the 2.4 GHz amateur radio band. Licensed amateur radio operators may

operate 802.11b/g devices under Part 97 of the FCC Rules and Regulations, allowing increased power output but not commercial content or encryption.

History
802.11 technology has its origins in a 1985 ruling by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission that released the ISM band for unlicensed use. In 1991 NCR Corporation/AT&T (now Alcatel-Lucent and LSI Corporation) invented the precursor to 802.11 in Nieuwegein, The Netherlands. The inventors initially intended to use the technology for cashier systems. The first wireless products were brought to the market under the name WaveLAN with raw data rates of 1 Mbit/s and 2 Mbit/s. Vic Hayes, who held the chair of IEEE 802.11 for 10 years and has been called the "father of Wi-Fi" was involved in designing the initial 802.11b and 802.11a standards within the IEEE.[4] In 1999, the Wi-Fi Alliance was formed as a trade association to hold the Wi-Fi trademark under which most products are sold.

Protocols
802.11 protocol Bandwidth Data rate per Allowable Modulation Approximate (MHz) stream MIMO indoor range (Mbit/s) streams (m) (ft) 2.4 20 1, 2 1 DSSS, 20 66 FHSS a 5 20 6, 9, 12, 18, 1 OFDM 35 115 24,36, 48, 54 3.7 b 2.4 20 1, 2, 5.5, 11 1 DSSS 35 115 g 2.4 20 6, 9, 12, 18, 1 OFDM, 38 125 24,36, 48, 54 DSSS n 2.4/5 20 7.2,14.4,21.7, 4 OFDM 70 230 28.9,43.3,57.8, 65, 72.2 40 15,30,45,60,90, 70 230 120,135, 150 ac 2.4/5 20 up to 87.6 8 (DRAFT) 40 up to 200 80 up to 433.3 160 up to 866.7 ad 2.4/5/60 up to 7000 Freq. (GHz) Approximate outdoor range] (m) (ft) 100 330 120 5,000 140 140 250 390 16,000 460 460 820

250

820

Frames
Current 802.11 standards define "frame" types for use in transmission of data as well as management and control of wireless links. Frames are divided into very specific and standardized sections. Each frame consists of an MAC header, payload and frame check sequence (FCS). Some frames may not have the payload. The first two bytes of the MAC header form a frame control field specifying the form and function of the frame. The frame control field is further subdivided into the following sub-fields:

Protocol Version: two bits representing the protocol version. Currently used protocol version is zero. Other values are reserved for future use. Type: two bits identifying the type of WLAN frame. Control, Data and Management are various frame types defined in IEEE 802.11. Sub Type: Four bits providing addition discrimination between frames. Type and Sub type together to identify the exact frame. ToDS and FromDS: Each is one bit in size. They indicate whether a data frame is headed for a distribution system. Control and management frames set these values to zero. All the data frames will have one of these bits set. However communication within an IBSS network always set these bits to zero. More Fragments: The More Fragments bit is set when a packet is divided into multiple frames for transmission. Every frame except the last frame of a packet will have this bit set. Retry: Sometimes frames require retransmission, and for this there is a Retry bit which is set to one when a frame is resent. This aids in the elimination of duplicate frames. Power Management: This bit indicates the power management state of the sender after the completion of a frame exchange. Access points are required to manage the connection and will never set the power saver bit. More Data: The More Data bit is used to buffer frames received in a distributed system. The access point uses this bit to facilitate stations in power saver mode. It indicates that at least one frame is available and addresses all stations connected. WEP: The WEP bit is modified after processing a frame. It is toggled to one after a frame has been decrypted or if no encryption is set it will have already been one. Order: This bit is only set when the "strict ordering" delivery method is employed. Frames and fragments are not always sent in order as it causes a transmission performance penalty.

The next two bytes are reserved for the Duration ID field. This field can take one of three forms: Duration, Contention-Free Period (CFP), and Association ID (AID). An 802.11 frame can have up to four address fields. Each field can carry a MAC address. Address 1 is the receiver, Address 2 is the transmitter, Address 3 is used for filtering purposes by the receiver.

The Sequence Control field is a two-byte section used for identifying message order as well as eliminating duplicate frames. The first 4 bits are used for the fragmentation number and the last 12 bits are the sequence number. An optional two-byte Quality of Service control field which was added with 802.11e. The Frame Body field is variable in size, from 0 to 2304 bytes plus any overhead from security encapsulation and contains information from higher layers. The Frame Check Sequence (FCS) is the last four bytes in the standard 802.11 frame. Often referred to as the Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC), it allows for integrity check of retrieved frames. As frames are about to be sent the FCS is calculated and appended. When a station receives a frame it can calculate the FCS of the frame and compare it to the one received. If they match, it is assumed that the frame was not distorted during transmission.

Management Frames
Management Frames allow for the maintenance of communication. Some common 802.11 subtypes include:

Authentication frame: 802.11 authentication begins with the WNIC sending an authentication frame to the access point containing its identity. With an open system authentication the WNIC only sends a single authentication frame and the access point responds with an authentication frame of its own indicating acceptance or rejection. With shared key authentication, after the WNIC sends its initial authentication request it will receive an authentication frame from the access point containing challenge text. The WNIC sends an authentication frame containing the encrypted version of the challenge text to the access point. The access point ensures the text was encrypted with the correct key by decrypting it with its own key. The result of this process determines the WNIC's authentication status. Association request frame: sent from a station it enables the access point to allocate resources and synchronize. The frame carries information about the WNIC including supported data rates and the SSID of the network the station wishes to associate with. If the request is accepted, the access point reserves memory and establishes an association ID for the WNIC. Association response frame: sent from an access point to a station containing the acceptance or rejection to an association request. If it is an acceptance, the frame will contain information such an association ID and supported data rates. Beacon frame: Sent periodically from an access point to announce its presence and provide the SSID, and other parameters for WNICs within range. Deauthentication frame: Sent from a station wishing to terminate connection from another station.

Disassociation frame: Sent from a station wishing to terminate connection. It's an elegant way to allow the access point to relinquish memory allocation and remove the WNIC from the association table. Probe request frame: Sent from a station when it requires information from another station. Probe response frame: Sent from an access point containing capability information, supported data rates, etc., after receiving a probe request frame. Reassociation request frame: A WNIC sends a reassociation request when it drops from range of the currently associated access point and finds another access point with a stronger signal. The new access point coordinates the forwarding of any information that may still be contained in the buffer of the previous access point. Reassociation response frame: Sent from an access point containing the acceptance or rejection to a WNIC reassociation request frame. The frame includes information required for association such as the association ID and supported data rates.

Information Elements 2. In terms of ICT, an Information Element (IE) is a part of management frames in the IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN protocol. IEs are a device's way to transfer descriptive information about itself inside management frames. There are usually several IEs inside each such frame, and each is built of TLVs mostly defined outside the basic IEEE 802.11 specification. The common structure of an IE is as follows:
1 1 3 1-252 -----------------------------------------------|Type |Length| OUI | Data | ------------------------------------------------

Whereas the OUI (organizationally unique identifier) is only used when necessary to the protocol being used, and the data field holds the TLVs relevant to that IE.

Control Frames
Control frames facilitate in the exchange of data frames between stations. Some common 802.11 control frames include:

Acknowledgement (ACK) frame: After receiving a data frame, the receiving station will send an ACK frame to the sending station if no errors are found. If the sending station doesn't receive an ACK frame within a predetermined period of time, the sending station will resend the frame. Request to Send (RTS) frame: The RTS and CTS frames provide an optional collision reduction scheme for access points with hidden stations. A station sends a RTS frame to as the first step in a two-way handshake required before sending data frames. Clear to Send (CTS) frame: A station responds to an RTS frame with a CTS frame. It provides clearance for the requesting station to send a data frame. The CTS provides collision control management by including a time value for which all other stations are to hold off transmission while the requesting stations transmits.

Data frames carry packets from web pages, files, etc. within the body, using RFC 1042 encapsulation and EtherType numbers for protocol identification.

Standard and amendments


The data rates supported by the original 802.11 standards are too slow to support most general business requirements and slowed the adoption of WLANs. So several standards of 802.11 was developed.

IEEE 802.11-1997: The WLAN standard was originally 1 Mbit/s and 2 Mbit/s, 2.4 GHz RF and infrared (IR) standard (1997), all the others listed below are Amendments to this standard, except for Recommended Practices 802.11F and 802.11T. IEEE 802.11a: 54 Mbit/s, 5 GHz standard (1999, shipping products in 2001)(OFDM) IEEE 802.11b: Enhancements to 802.11 to support 5.5 and 11 Mbit/s (1999) (also known as 802.11 High Rate) IEEE 802.11c: Bridge operation procedures; included in the IEEE 802.1D standard (2001) IEEE 802.11d: International (country-to-country) roaming extensions (2001) IEEE 802.11e: Enhancements: QoS, including packet bursting (2005) IEEE 802.11F: Inter-Access Point Protocol (2003) Withdrawn February 2006 IEEE 802.11g: 54 Mbit/s, 2.4 GHz standard (backwards compatible with b) (2003) IEEE 802.11h: Spectrum Managed 802.11a (5 GHz) for European compatibility (2004) IEEE 802.11i: Enhanced security (2004) IEEE 802.11j: Extensions for Japan (2004) IEEE 802.11-2007: A new release of the standard that includes amendments a, b, d, e, g, h, i and j. (July 2007) IEEE 802.11k: Radio resource measurement enhancements (2008) IEEE 802.11n: Higher throughput improvements using MIMO (multiple input, multiple output antennas) (September 2009) IEEE 802.11p: WAVEWireless Access for the Vehicular Environment (such as ambulances and passenger cars) (July 2010) IEEE 802.11r: Fast BSS transition (FT) (2008) IEEE 802.11s: Mesh Networking, Extended Service Set (ESS) (July 2011) IEEE 802.11T: Wireless Performance Prediction (WPP)test methods and metrics Recommendation cancelled IEEE 802.11u: Improvements related to HotSpots and 3rd party authorization of clients, e.g. cellular network offload (February 2011) IEEE 802.11v: Wireless network management (February 2011) IEEE 802.11w: Protected Management Frames (September 2009) IEEE 802.11y: 36503700 MHz Operation in the U.S. (2008) IEEE 802.11z: Extensions to Direct Link Setup (DLS) (September 2010) IEEE 802.11-2012: A new release of the standard that includes amendments k, n, p, r, s, u, v, w, y and z (March 2012) IEEE 802.11aa: Robust streaming of Audio Video Transport Streams (June 2012) IEEE 802.11ad: Very High Throughput 60 GHz (December 2012) - see WiGig IEEE 802.11ae: Prioritization of Management Frames (March 2012)

In process

IEEE 802.11ac: Very High Throughput <6 GHz;[27] potential improvements over 802.11n: better modulation scheme (expected ~10% throughput increase), wider channels (estimate in future time 80 to 160 MHz), multi user MIMO;[28] (~ February 2014) IEEE 802.11af: TV Whitespace (~ June 2014) IEEE 802.11ah: Sub 1 GHz sensor network, smart metering. (~ January 2016) IEEE 802.11ai: Fast Initial Link Setup (~ February 2015) IEEE 802.11mc: Maintenance of the standard (~ March 2015) IEEE 802.11aj: China Millimeter Wave (~ October 2016) IEEE 802.11ak: General Link

IEEE 802.11 Architecture


Each computer, mobile, portable or fixed, is referred to as a station in 802.11 [Wireless Local Area Networks]. The difference between a portable and mobile station is that a portable station moves from point to point but is only used at a fixed point. Mobile stations access the LAN during movement. When two or more stations come together to communicate with each other, they form a Basic Service Set (BSS). The minimum BSS consists of two stations. 802.11 LANs use the BSS as the standard building block. A BSS that stands alone and is not connected to a base is called an Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS) or is referred to as an Ad-Hoc Network. An ad-hoc network is a network where stations communicate only peer to peer. There is no base and no one gives permission to talk. Mostly these networks are spontaneous and can be set up rapidly. Ad-Hoc or IBSS networks are characteristically limited both temporally and spatially. "Adhoc Mode"

When BSS's are interconnected the network becomes one with infrastructure. 802.11 infrastructure has several elements. Two or more BSS's are interconnected using a Distribution System or DS. This concept of DS increases network coverage. Each BSS becomes a component of an extended, larger network. Entry to the DS is accomplished with the use of Access Points

(AP). An access point is a station, thus addressable. So, data moves between the BSS and the DS with the help of these access points. Creating large and complex networks using BSS's and DS's leads us to the next level of hierarchy, the Extended Service Set or ESS. The beauty of the ESS is the entire network looks like an independent basic service set to the Logical Link Control layer (LLC). This means that stations within the ESS can communicate or even move between BSSs transparently to the LLC.

Infrastructure Mode One of the requirements of IEEE 802.11 is that it can be used with existing wired networks. 802.11 solved this challenge with the use of a Portal. A portal is the logical integration between wired LANs and 802.11. It also can serve as the access point to the DS. All data going to an 802.11 LAN from an 802.X LAN must pass through a portal. It thus functions as bridge between wired and wireless. The implementation of the DS is not specified by 802.11. Therefore, a distribution system may be created from existing or new technologies. A point-to-point bridge connecting LANs in two separate buildings could become a DS. While the implementation for the DS is not specified, 802.11 does specify the services, which the DS must support. Services are divided into two sections 1. Station Services (SS) 2. Distribution System Services (DSS). There are five services provided by the DSS 1. Association 2. Reassociation

3. Disassociation 4. Distribution 5. Integration Association supports no-transition mobility but is not enough to support BSS-transition. Enter Reassociation. This service allows the station to switch its association from one AP to another. Both association and reassociation are initiated by the station. Disassociation is when the association between the station and the AP is terminated. This can be initiated by either party. A disassociated station cannot send or receive data. ESS-transition are not supported. A station can move to a new ESS but will have to reinitiate connections. Distribution and Integration are the remaining DSS's. Distribution is simply getting the data from the sender to the intended receiver. The message is sent to the local AP (input AP), then distributed through the DS to the AP (output AP) that the recipient is associated with. If the sender and receiver are in the same BSS, the input and out AP's are the same. So the distribution service is logically invoked whether the data is going through the DS or not. Integration is when the output AP is a portal. Thus, 802.x LANs are integrated into the 802.11 DS. Station services are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Authentication Deauthentication Privacy MAC Service Data Unit (MSDU) Delivery.

With a wireless system, the medium is not exactly bounded as with a wired system. In order to control access to the network, stations must first establish their identity. This is much like trying to enter a radio net in the military. Before you are acknowledged and allowed to converse, you must first pass a series of tests to ensure that you are who you say you are. That is really all authentication is. Once a station has been authenticated, it may then associate itself. The authentication relationship may be between two stations inside an IBSS or to the AP of the BSS. Authentication outside of the BSS does not take place. There are two types of authentication services offered by 802.11. The first is Open System Authentication. This means that anyone who attempts to authenticate will receive authentication. The second type is Shared Key Authentication. In order to become authenticated the users must be in possession of a shared secret. The shared secret is implemented with the use of the Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) privacy algorithm. The shared secret is delivered to all stations ahead of time in some secure method (such as someone walking around and loading the secret onto each station).

Deauthentication is when either the station or AP wishes to terminate a stations authentication. When this happens the station is automatically disassociated. Privacy is an encryption algorithm, which is used so that other 802.11 users cannot eavesdrop on your LAN traffic. IEEE 802.11 specifies Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) as an optional algorithm to satisfy privacy. If WEP is not used then stations are "in the clear" or "in the red", meaning that their traffic is not encrypted. Data transmitted in the clear are called plaintext. Data transmissions, which are encrypted, are called ciphertext. All stations start "in the red" until they are authenticated. MSDU delivery ensures that the information in the MAC service data unit is delivered between the medium access control service access points.

The bottom line is this, authentication is basically a network wide password. Privacy is whether or not encryption is used. Wired Equivalent Privacy is used to protect authorized stations from eavesdroppers. WEP is reasonably strong. The algorithm can be broken in time. The relationship between breaking the algorithm is directly related to the length of time that a key is in use. So, WEP allows for changing of the key to prevent brute force attack of the algorithm. WEP can be implemented in hardware or in software.

Security
In 2001, a group from the University of California, Berkeley presented a paper describing weaknesses in the 802.11 Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) security mechanism defined in the original standard; they were followed by Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir's paper titled "Weaknesses in the Key Scheduling Algorithm of RC4". Not long after, Adam Stubblefield and AT&T publicly announced the first verification of the attack. In the attack, they were able to intercept transmissions and gain unauthorized access to wireless networks.

The Security in 802.11 is increased by, Authentication on 1. New nodes issue a Request for authentication. 2. Network sends a block of random text. 3. The node encrypts it with network password and returns. One shared secret key per network The same encryption algorithm is used for privacy. WEP Algorithm is based on RC4 PRNT algorithm developed by RSA Data Security, Inc is widely used.

PHYSICAL LAYER:
The purpose of this document is to explain the basic ideas laying in the foundation of the technologies adopted by IEEE 802.11 standards for wireless communications at the physical layer. It is designed for audience working with or administrating the devices complying to the named standards, and willing to know their principles of operation believing that such knowledge can help to make educated decisions regarding the related equipment, choose and utilize the available hardware more efficiently. Using Radio Waves For Data Transmission Designing a wireless high speed data exchange system is not a trivial task to do. Neither is the development of the standard for wireless local area networks. The major problems at the physical layer here caused by the nature of the chosen media are:

Bandwidth allocation; External interference; Reflection.

802.11 First Standard For Wireless LANs The Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers (IEEE) has released IEEE 802.11 in June 1997. The standard defined physical and MAC layers of wireless local area networks (WLANs).

The physical layer of the original 802.11 standardized three wireless data exchange techniques:

Infrared (IR); Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS); Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).

The 802.11 radio WLANs operate in the 2.4GHz (2.4 to 2.483 GHz) unlicensed Radio Frequency (RF) band. The maximum isotropic transmission power in this band allowed by FCC in US is 1Wt, but 802.11 devices are usually limited to the 100mWt value. The physical layer in 802.11 is split into Physical Layer Convergence Protocol (PLCP) and the Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sub layers. The PLCP prepares/parses data units transmitted/received using various 802.11 media access techniques. The PMD performs the data transmission/reception and modulation/demodulation directly accessing air under the guidance of the PLCP. The 802.11 MAC layer to the great extend is affected by the nature of the media. For example, it implements a relatively complex for the second layer fragmentation of PDUs. IR Layer: Baseband Transmission 850 t0 950 nm range IR 1 Mbps 0r 2 Mbps Diffuse IR Up to 10m in typical receivers

FHSS Layer: 2.4 GHz ISM Band 1 and 2 Mbps 3 sets of frequency hopping patterns. Each set has 22 hopping sequences. Total 66 channels. Consecutive frequencies in each sequence are at least 6 MHz apart to avoid a narrowband interferer Adjacent or overlapping cells use different patterns

DSSS Layer: 2.4 GHz band 11 chip spreading factor 11 Channels Only 3 channels without overlap 10 mW to 100 mW transmitted power 1 and 2 Mbps

Terminal Problem in WLAN:


Terminal problem is peculiar to wireless because it is no found in wired mode transmission. There are two major problems in WLAN. They are 1. Hidden Node Problem 2. Exposed Node Problem

HIDDEN NODE PROBLEM In wireless networking, the hidden node problem or hidden terminal problem occurs when a node is visible from a wireless access point (AP), but not from other nodes communicating with said AP. This leads to difficulties in media access control.

Hidden nodes in a wireless network refer to nodes that are out of range of other nodes or a collection of nodes. Take a physical star topology with an access point with many nodes surrounding it in a circular fashion: Each node is within communication range of the AP, but the nodes cannot communicate with each other, as they do not have a physical connection to each other. In a wireless network, it is likely that the node at the far edge of the access point's range, which is known as A, can see the access point, but it is unlikely that the same node can see a node on the opposite end of the access point's range, C. These nodes are known as hidden. The problem is when nodes A and C start to send packets simultaneously to the access point B. Since the nodes cannot sense the carrier, Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) does not work, and collisions occur, corrupting the data at the access point. To overcome this problem, handshaking is implemented in conjunction with the CSMA/CA scheme. The hidden node problem can be observed easily in widespread (>50m radius) WLAN setups with many nodes that use directional antennas and have high upload. This is why IEEE 802.11 is suited for bridging the last mile for broadband access only to a very limited extent. Newer standards such as WiMAX assign time slots to individual stations, thus preventing multiple nodes from sending simultaneously and ensuring fairness even in over-subscription scenarios. Solution: IEEE 802.11 uses 802.11 RTS/CTS acknowledgment and handshake packets to partly overcome the hidden node problem. RTS/CTS is not a complete solution and may decrease throughput even further, but adaptive acknowledgments from the base station can help too.

Protocol Description(RTS/CTS) A node wishing to send data initiates the process by sending a Request to Send frame (RTS). The destination node replies with a Clear To Send frame (CTS). Any other node receiving the RTS or CTS frame should refrain from sending data for a given time (solving the hidden node problem). The amount of time the node should wait before trying to get access to the medium is included in both the RTS and the CTS frame. This protocol was designed under the assumption that all nodes have the same transmission ranges. The other methods that can be employed to solve hidden node problem are :

Increase Transmitting Power From the Nodes Use omnidirectional antennas Remove obstacles Move the node Use protocol enhancement software Use antenna diversity

EXPOSED NODE PROBLEM In wireless networks, the exposed node problem occurs when a node is prevented from sending packets to other nodes due to a neighboring transmitter. Consider an example of 4 nodes labeled R1, S1, S2, and R2, where the two receivers are out of range of each other, yet the two transmitters in the middle are in range of each other. Here, if a transmission between S1 and R1 is taking place, node S2 is prevented from transmitting to R2 as it concludes after carrier sense that it will interfere with the transmission by its neighbor S1. However note that R2 could still receive the transmission of S2 without interference because it is out of range of S1.

Solution: IEEE 802.11 RTS/CTS mechanism helps to solve this problem only if the nodes are synchronized and packet sizes and data rates are the same for both the transmitting nodes. When a node hears an RTS from a neighboring node, but not the corresponding CTS, that node can deduce that it is an exposed node and is permitted to transmit to other neighboring nodes.

If the nodes are not synchronized (or if the packet sizes are different or the data rates are different) the problem may occur that the sender will not hear the CTS or the ACK during the transmission of data of the second sender.

Applications:
Wireless LANs have a great deal of applications. Modern implementations of WLANs range from small in-home networks to large, campus-sized ones to completely mobile networks on airplanes and trains. Users can access the Internet from WLAN hotspots in restaurants, hotels, and now with portable devices that connect to 3G or 4G networks. Oftentimes these types of public access points require no registration or password to join the network. Others can be accessed once registration has occurred and/or a fee is paid.

Future:
More Bandwidth in future by 1. Better encoding: Multilevel modulation 8Mbps 2. Fewer channels with more bandwidth 4 MHz channels 3. Find another band. May get 150 MHz band in 5 GHz band.

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