,

REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTAL
PRINCIPLES
LESSON ~ D - 1 0
COPY.RIGRTED ltll
BY SPRAYBERRY ACADEMY OJ' RADIO
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
(I'll 4-54 2000
The abo'e photograph shows mot or the parts uod in the Sprayberry Tele,ioion receiver. lt Is
lntuostlntr to note thal ror the U<tJ)tion of tubes. aJJ or partB function On t h f f undamtntai
princlpl re' iewed in Ul Jesson.
REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
LESSON ND-10
The subjects you have studied in review in other lessons. In this
the previous nine lessons are. some case it means so much we are de-
of the most important stones m the voting this entire lesson to a gen-
foundation you are building for era! review. A short summary of
your kno,vledge of radio-TV. things you have learned-pos-
Sometimes, especially at the be- s1bly restated a bit differently-
ginning, it is not easy to realize will make it easier for you to
how very important some of the onto them.
basic ideas or concepts are. A few remarks concerning radio
For this reason we wish to em- formulas might be in order. Some
phasize the importance of the prin- you will use often, some occasion-
ciples and rules given you in Les- ally, some very seldom. So don't
sons ND-1 thru 9. You will use be surprised if you don't remember
these principles time and time them all. Knowledge is of two.
again. sorts-either you know something,.
We have mentioned the value of or, you know ll'lteJe to find
1
The one formula to remember is
Ohm's law. Later in this lesson
are some hints on firmly implant-
ing it in your memory. Other form-
ulas can be looked up when you
have need for them. But Ohm's
law will be your constant compan-
ion-and indeed, an old and valued
friend. One without which you, as
a practical serviceman, could not
do a fast, efficient (and therefore,
profitable) job.
No one would deny that radio-
TV is a complicated subject. Never-
theless, as you progress further in
your course you will notice how
each and every part neatly dove-
tails with the rest.
Even items which aren't too
plain at one time will later fall into
place. They will fit so perfectly
with other facts that you will find
yourself thinking, "Why, of course,
it just coullln't work any other
way."
Let us, then, return to the funda-
mental facts concerning electricity
and matter-making sure that you
have these important facts clearly
in your mind.
MATTER AND ELECTRICITY
number of electrons as protons.
Protons and electrons are bits of
electricity, positive and negative
respectively. They also have mass
or weight. Altho their electrical
charges are equal but oppiJdie,
their masses are. Wtl rdifl'erent.
The relatively heavy proton forulS
the center or nucleus of the atom.
In all atoms except hydrogen, the
nucleus also contains neutrons-
the uncharged particle. The plan-
etary theory of matter suggests
that the electrons encircle this 'sun'
like tiny planets.
You may have heard or read of
other atomic theories than this one.
However the planetary atomic
theory is su1ficient for our pur-
poses. We can safely leave the
more complicated onea to the nu-
clear scientists.
ELECTRONS:
BOUND AND FREE
In some materials the outer elec-
trons are \' ery difficult to remove
entirely from the parent atom.
'l'hey can be displaced a bit, but
still stick pretty close to home.
These substances are our insula-
tors.
The atomic theory of matter Others, especially the metals,
merely means that all substances have a much looser hold on some
are made up of a comparatively of their electrons. Even in these
small number of different atoms. conductors there is considerable
These atoms are alike in being variability in their grip on their
composed of p r o t o ~ s , c!ectrons and electrons.
neutrons-and unhke m the num- The majority uf substances are
ber combined in different atoms. neither perfect immlators nor good
The atoms, then, are the building conductors. We might call them
blocks of Mother Nature. the 'ln-betweens.' From various
The simplest atom is that of hy- mixtureA of these in-betweenA, our
drogen. It consists of one proton radio parts manufacturers make.up
and one electron. Heavier atoms resistors running from a fract10n
have greater numbers of protons, of an ohm to many millions of
plus some neutrons. If the atom ohms.
is not charged, it has the same Static electricity is a condition
2
where some of the available "free"
are removed from some
and temporarily attached to
other atom::;. Friction is one way
to do this-and, in fact, is done on
a magnificent scale by mo\'ing air
masses in the earth's atmosphere.
B, the Jaws of at. traction and repul-
sion between electric charges, these
transferred electrons are continu-
ally trying to return to their nor-
mal state. In consequence we have
the spectacular displays of light-
ning and thunder as the energy
used to mo\e the electrons is dissi-
pated when they r-eturn to theii
normal positions- and, incident-
ally, ''static" in your radio.
A..'\'D ELECTRONS
It might be well to point out that
the terms "positive" and "nega-
tive" as referred to protons and
electrons have one meaning-and
<mly one. Each has, or if you pre-
fer is, an electric charge-the same
of t>tuff. but oppositP in char-
acter. They might just as well
ha,e heen called "A" and "B,"
alpha and omega, or even male and
female. In ''iew of the laws of at-
traction and repubion, the latter
term:; mig-ht make a lot more :wnse.
Since the positive and negative
nomenclature is no'v standard, you
will have to go along with it. Just
keep in mind what it actually sig-
nifies:
DIRECT CURRENT
There are of course ma11y sources
of electric current. Devices :mch
as the thermocouple you are not
likely to encounter frequently. Bat-
teries and generators - at least
their theory of operation-will be
of more practical enryday use.
Furthermore, you wj]J remem-
3
WATER
F=
WATER
WATER
F
= SOURCE
PUMP
WHEEL
t
{lOAO)
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l.OAO

LOAD
FlOW
-
FIG. I
ber that you must have a complete
circuit in one way or another. The
conducting paths may be wires,
liquid solutions (electrolytes), gas-
es or even vacuum. Most tubes,
for example-a subject you will
take up in your next lesson-have a
vacuum for part of their conduct-
ing path.
Since moving electrons consti-
tute an electrical current, they
leave the source from the negative
terminal. Flowing thru or around
the circuit. they reenter the source
at the positi\'e te1minal. Of course
uilhin the source, the flov is from
plus to minus-else there would not
he the required complete circuit.
We might think of a generator as
an electron pump-pumping elec-
around a circuit as a water
pump dr<>ps of water thru
a pipe. Note Fig. 1 for the relative
comparison.
MEASUREME:t\TS
If we are going to work with
something we can't Hee, we must
be able to measure it in some way.
And in order to measure it, we
must have standards of amounts.
The coulo;nb is a eertain quantity
WATER FALLINO TWAOUGH
&.AAGii PIP. DCV&LO
AT LOW.Il

TUIIIINa,
t LOAD
ILICTRICAL. GINI.IlATOil
DI.Y&lON YOI.TAG& TO
I'OitC& Till. FL.OW 01' C:UII
AENT TNIIOUGH ll!St5TANCE
llleACfANC& OR IUI'eDANCI! '
LOAN.
FIG. 2
of electrons-as we refer to a gal-
lon of water. The fact that this
number of electrons runs over
million million million is of no more
concern to us than the fact that a
gallon of water contains several
thousand or million drops.
The volt is the pressure like the
"head' of water at a water wheel
or turbine. See Fig. 2. This electri-
cal pres..c;ure is also referred to as
emf (electromotive force) or poten-
tial. But the volt is the unit used
for measurment.
The ampere is quantity per unit
time. That is, it tells us how-much,
how-fa;;t. \'e would say a pipe
carries so many gallons of water
per minute or second. Electrically
we say coulombs per second. Note
Fig. 3. The ampere is the special
name for this rate of flow.
omn
If we incre,a-
presaure, -..
- c=iiliiill6
WATER PIPE
aLECTAICAL. CONDUc:TOR
100 COIJI.Ot a P&R SECOND
FIG.3
4
water-more gallons per minute
than with the lower presslU'e. Sim-
ilarly, a greater voltage forces a
greater flow of electrons. And as a
water pipe has friction, so does an
electrical circuit offer resistance to
the flow of the 'drops' of electricity.
Here again we have a special
name and unit to measure the 'elec-
trical friction.' This is the ohm.
It is the amount of resistance
which permits one volt to push a
current of one ampere thru it.
Ohm's law is derived from these
facts: Increasing the voltage or
emf increases the intensity of the
current in proportion to the in-
crease of voltage. Similar results
occur when the resistance is de-
creased.
This relationship is expressed in
the formula, E divided by R equals
I; or E divided by I equalR R, and E
equals I times R.
.it
All thrlee tomis ue ufiuralbr the
same formula. They are -...J.y
arranged differently to give the 1111;o
known quantity from the two tbat
are known. Consequently if yotr;!HI.._
can remember any one of the three
forms. it is easy enough to change
it to the one desired. Figure 4 gives
a diagram for easily remembering
all three. Place your finger over the
quantity desi red- the unknown.
The remaining two indicate the op-
eration-division or multiplication.
TilE WATT-POWER
You are probably quite familiar
with the 1catt as a unit of power.
You know that a lamp has to con-
sume a certain number of watts in
order to produce the amount of
light you need. Or you may use a
or larger soldering iron
according to the amount of heat--
power-necessary for the job at
hand.
In other words the watt con-
sumption is the rate of doing tvo1k.
In mechanical devices-even elec-
tric motors-power is measured in
horse-power. 7J6 watts is equiva-
lent to one HP.
Watts are how-much, how-quick
(ampere!\) at what pressure
(vo'ts). You encounter power
transformers rated in VA (volt-
amperes). This is another way of
saying watts since the product of
the voltage and current (in amps)
equals the power in watts. A
transformer, however, is not de-
signed to dissipate power. Rather
its job is to transfer it from one
circuit to another. Hence the VA
rating is preferred to watts. Figure
'i l'hows how a wattmeter would be
connected to measure power con-
sumption of an electrical circuit.
Stated as a formula, E times I
equals power in watts; wherein E
i:- in I in amps, and P in
watts.
There are two alternate forms.
We know from Ohm's law that E
dhrided by R equals the current. If
we substitute for I in the power
f)
IN P'UT
WATTMETER
MEASURII-IG
1000 WATTS
PEP HOUR
FIG.o
OUT PUT
formula, we have E times or E
squared, divided by R equals power.
Similarly we can substitute for
E. Ohm's law again tells us E
equals I times R. Substituting in
the power formula, IRI or PR=P
or I squared times R equals P.
This last form is very important.
You will see and hear it referred to
many times as the 1
2
R losses. It
merely means power loss; that is,
the heating effect of the current
flowing thru a resistance.
As a consequence when you are
replacing a component such as a
resistor, you must pick the new re-
sistor to fit two requirements. ( 1)
The ohms value must be the same
(within permitted tolerance), and
(2) the power rating must be at
least as much as the maximum
power that it will be expected to
carry.
You can see that the two rat-
ings have no direct connection with
each other. You can buy a 100 ohm
resistor, for example, which will
safely carry 1 watt, ten or a hun-
dred. For economic reasons you
will not use one very much larger
than necessary.
GRAPHS
There is an old saying attributed
to the Chinese, "One picture is
worth ten thousand wotds." Like
many old sayings, it makes sense.
And it is exactly why we use
graphs.
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0 ( 2 3 -1 S G 7 B 9 10 II 12 /3 /4 IS 16
A/1PERES FIG.6
A graph is a pictorial represent- ALTERNATING CURRENT
ation of two quantities. For exam- Alternating current (AC) ex-
pie, time and charging current of a plains itself in a general way. The
electrons as units do not move out
condenser.
of one terminal of the source, thru
By measuring the current at var- the circuit and back to the other
ious intervals we compile a column terminal for every cycle of move-
or list of figures. From this we ment. However, the effect of this
plot our graph. Time is most often movement is made evident all along
plotted on the horizontal lines. The the circuit. Energy is passed by
other quantity goes in the vertical the movement of the electrons from
direction. atom to atom. Thus one electron
True, we could look at the figures will move to a nearby atom and this
and see what was taking place. But action will free another electron
it would take close inspection, plus from the same atom to move on to
some calculations, to realize how another atom. Thus as individuals
fast the current changed. And also electrons may not actually move
how that change itself varied. In but a very short distance. See Fig.
addition, if the graph is construct- 7. It is the effect that a moving elec-
ed with any sort of accuracy, it will tron brings about that is important
show the values between the acto- ATOMS IN WIR CONDUGTOR
ally measured ones. Therefore a cr 0+ 0+ O.O.O+O+O+O+D-D-0
11. "',oil"
graph not only shows us the situa-
tion at a glance-it actualJy gives
more infonnation than the list of
ftnres themselves l See. Fig. 6 for
of a simple graph
current are used

ELECTI2UNS MOVE FROM 1
MOVES FROM 2T03,ANOTI-IER FllOM3.,...
ETC. NOTE THE FlllST ELECTRON STAVS
AT 2, 8UT IN MOVING IT CAUSES A M()\1
MENT OF OTWERS FROM t,3,4,f.TC.,UPTOI2
FIG.7
and not how far an electron actu-
ally that is of greatest im-
portance.
Such action gi\'us AC properties
that DC does not have. \\hen AC
reverses a second time its effect is
back wh<>rc it started. It has in
effect completed a full circle or
cuclr.. For comparison purposes we
didde a cycle into 360 degrees just
like a circle. But more of that
when we consider phase relations.
N '
I
OBLONG LENGTH
Of MAGNETIC
IRON
FIG.8
The next thing to note is how
often or how frequent the complete
tever,al or cycle occms. This is
the fn (}IJr ncy of the AC. It is meas-
ured in cycles per second (cps). We
drop the "per second" in STAND--
:;peaking or writing. It's '1000
kilocvcles' or 'one megacycle.' It is
understood that we refer to
cycle's per second. If, perchance,
we mean otherwise, we so state.
rived from the way they look on a
graph.
MAGNETISM
wave form' is an expression you Magnets have fascinated man
will run into many times. It refers ever since the discovery of the lode-
to ,our old friend, the graph. When stone or natural magnet. Ever
a j,articular current or voltage is curious, man soon found be could
plotted on a graph, its shape or produce artificial magnets.
"aye form is shown. If the picture It must have appeared akin to
thus presented looks like the busi- magic to find a suspended bar or
ness edge of a saw, what is mol'e needle turn until its poles or ends
natural than to refer to that type pointed roughly north and south.
as a wa\'e form. But it provided a very simple and
In lesson you studied a cir- logical way of differentiating be-
cuit for switching a DC current on
and off to produce a square wave tween the two poles: a North (see}{-
form. Such a wave form is used ex- ing) and a South (seeking) pole.
tensively in TV circuits. The actual Refer to Fig. 8.
:<witching is done electronically as The laws of attraction and repul-
no mechanical switching would he sion fot magnetic poles are simple:
fast enough. Unlike atttact; like 1epel.
The saw-tooth wave is also used Since we don't believe in magic,
in TV, as well as in the cathode we must assume some sort of field
ray oscillo,;cope-a highly useful of force or field of energy exists
instrument for radio-TV servicing. about a magnet to produce such re-
Whether you are referred to the suits. To aid us in visualizing the
foregoing forms, a sine wave, field, we represent it by
or others, therr names are all de- lines.
7
'
'
pression has arisen and we speak
of 'magnetic flux.'
In this N to S business you will
note a similarity to the historically
'assumed' flow of electricity. Be-
fore there was any evidence to the
contrary, electricity was assumed
to flow f rom positive to negative.
MAGNETIC FIELD ABOUT A BAR MAGNET Further experiments eventually
.There are two reasons for this. showed it to be the other way
F!rst, to help us in forming a mind- around in strictly metallic conduc-
ptcture of what is going on. Sec- tors. In a gas or liquid there may
ond, it simplifies calculations of be electrons flowing in one direc-
magnetic fields to assume a certain tion and positively charged ions
magnetic field bas a definite num- flowing in the other direction.
ber of lines. Transformer design- So it may be with the direction
ers use this method. Lesson ND-19 of a magnetic field. The pointing
"P T ' N S . h ower ransformers" will show from to may be rig t--it may
you bow this system is used for be wrong. At present there is no
practical cases. way to tell. Perhaps some day
There are two important things some scientist or technician (possi-
to remember in regard to these bly you) will come across positive
lines: (1) That such a procedure proof of the truth of this matter.
is a representation. That is, you The strength of a magnetic field
cannot actually get 'between the varies according to the Inverse
lines.' And, (2) the lines are con- Law like the intensity of
tinuou.r;. The latter statement im- hght. If we measure its strength
plies that north and south poles al- at some certain distance, say one
ways exist in pairs. It is impos- at twice as far, 2 inches, it
sible to have one pole without the will belA, as strong. Figure 10(a)
other. shows the general case of a bar
Experiments show a difference magnet. In the case of Fig. 10 (b)
in the direction of magnetic lines. we have theN and S poles close to
An example is the polarity of the each other. Within the gap the In
voltage induced in a conductor verse Square Law does not apply.
moving across a magnetic field. If Here the field strength is fairly
the poles are reversed or inter- constant. Only on the edges does
changed, the induced voltage is re- it taper off. Such an arrangement
versed. has many applications - radio
Magnetic lines are assumed to speakers is a good example (see
from North to South (out- Lesson ND-18, "Speakers").
s1de the magnet) . Point N to S ELECTROMAGNETISM
W?uld be a better expression. Note t ct
Fig. 9 and the direction of arrows Fortunately we are not res
Itn a magnetic field of constant ed to natural magnets for
s. there is no movement or use of magnetic energy.
ctrcu a Ion. N rth electrons have a magnetic )lis
eve eless, the ex- about them. Magnetis:rn from t
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.
(b)
FIG.IO
source is called electro-magnetism.
Naturally the greater the number
of electrons flowing in the same di-
reetioD, the greater the strength
of the magnetic field produced.
So we can increase the strength
of an electromaa-net by increasing
the current, or by increasing the
number of turns of the coil.
As previoualy mentioned, if the
coil baa a core, the core material
itaelf ia a bir factor.
THBOBY OF PERMANENT
JriAGNETS
It 1eems entirely probable that
petism is produced by elec-
tirQJYia J(agnetic mater-
because of the ar-
of its elec-
the sub-
l*remaa-
magnetic materials are the result
of their molecule arrangemements.
ELECTRON MOTION IN
MAGNETIC FIELDS
We know that magnetic fields
pull or push on each other. Also,
a moving electron has a magnetic
field around it. Therefore an elec-
tron moving thru a magnetic field
will experience a push or pull. As
its magnetic field is at right angles
to its direction of travel, the push
or pull will be at right angles to its
direction as well as at right angles
to the direction of the magnetic
field it is moving in.
An important point to notice is
that the path of an electron cross-
ing a magnetic field is curved. This
follows from the foregoing rule:
the push (or pull) is always at
right angles. Figure 11 shows how
the 90" force on the electron pushes
it into a curved path.
THE MOTOR PRINCIPLE
You can see that an electric
motor is a practical method of us-
ing the interaction of magnetic
fields. Its direction of rotation is
determined by the previously given
rules. The amount of power a giv-
en motor develops depends on the
strength of the current a given
voltage can produce.
I I i I I I
ltATHOII I I ' : I
I 1
I I 1 I 1
I I I I I I
I 11'1111
I I I 1 I I
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_..,. )IIIII
;:a:t!!SE='; INDtc:ATa ! II'ORU ON
PfO.It
As you will not be too closely
concerned with motors, it is un-
necessary to give a great deal of
space to the many fine points of
motor theory.
THE GENERATOR PRINCIPLE
Like the motor the generator
takes advantage of the forces exert-
ed on a moving electron in a mag-
netic field. In the former we pass
a current thru a wire--a series of
wires, in practice. From the in-
teracting magnetic fields we get
machanical motion. In the gener-
ator we apply mechanical motion,
and the interacting fields cause elec-
tron movement.
Obviously there is a great sim-
ilarity between motors and gener a-
tors. In fact it is quite possible to
have one machine act as either.
Generally this is not done for rea-
sons of efficiency. A motor is some-
times braked to a .sudden stop by
using it temporarily as a genera-
tor. The supply voltage is discon-
nected and the motor leads shorted
-either directly or thru a resistor.
Its rotating momentum is quickly
converted into heat.
EMF PRODUCTION
Moving a conductor thru a mag-
netic field the electrons to
flow towards one end. There must
be a vo!tage difference between the
two ends. You can readily see that
the stronger the field and the faster
the conductor is moved, the greater
the produced. That is, the
voltage J.s proportional to the num-
ber of hnes of force cut and th
speed of cutting-100 million line:
cut second produces one volt
dyne-about 36 millionths of an
ounce) is said to radiate 4r "lines."
Now physically this is a lot of non-
sense. We have .Ueady said that
the lines are continuoa; We can
have no parts or fractions
As mentioned this par-
ticular number set-up ts for calcu-
lations only. But there it is ex-
tremely useful. Design calculations
refer to these lines, imagi-
nary or no.
In this connection it might be
well to emphasize that the expres-
;;ion "Jines cut" means cnt across-
not snipped in two.
We have occasion in radio to re-
fer very frequently to voltages and
cunents of sine wave form. They
are produced in a number of ways.
You will be closely concerned with
the electronic method-the vacuum
tube oscillator. Your course takes
up this subject shortly- Lesson
ND-14.
To insure that you understand
what is meant by the term let us
review the sine wave as p;oduced
mechanically.
When a conductor is revolved in
a field, the voltage in-
duced In tt ts at a maximum when
the conductor cuts straight across
flux-interRects it at 90". The
mduced emf is at a minimum-zero
I when it is traveling exactly paral-
el

the flux. Of course the angle
of mteresection here is also zero.
At any point between these ex-
the voltage at that instant
IS proportional to the sine of tht
angle the conductor is making with
the flux. Remember that the con
ductor is in constant motion-
otherwise there would be no emf
produced at all
. Figure 12 these condl
bons. The small arrows indicate
10
Inctdentally a unit magnetic 1 .
(one of such a stl-ength th . po e
pels an identical I at It r e-
meter away with po: one centi-
a orce of one
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FIG. 12
the cllrecticm of the conductor at
various points. At point 1 it is
at 6. At point
4 it is 90 At others it can be seen
that the angle from the horizontal
liDe is the same M&'le the conduc-
tor mouent makes with the tlux.
In a ript angle trJaD8Ie the sine
value of a11 aDele il tlie ratio of the
stde oppasite the angle to the by-
putatase (the side opposite tbe 90
angle).
I I
b
SINE. OF ANGLE AT A
with relation to the other. To pro-
duce a voltage in a conductor, all
that is required is a
changing field. So, if a current is
varying, its magnetic field will be
varying. Any conductor in that
field will have a voltage induced in
it. This is the principle of induc-
tion (induced emf) in general. It
is the principle on which all trans-
formers function.
ELECTROSTATIC LINES
OF FORCE
The rpm of the revolving conduc-
tor must be absolutely constant in
a uniform magnetic fteld to produce We assume a magnet bas a field
a true or pure siDe wave. of energy around it. Since electric
Actually it makes no difterence cbargea attract or repel each other,
whether the conductor moves there must be some sort of energy
across the magnetic field, or wheth- fteld about electrons (and protons) .
er the fteld moves aci'OIIB the con- As this field is different from that
dQCtor. All that is required is reltl- around a magnet we give it a dif-
motion-that one or both move ferent name: eiectrostatic field.
11
Here again we represent the energy
field by lines.
Like the magnetic field an elec-
tric field gets weaker the farther
from its source. In fact, it follows
the same rule: The Inverse Square
Law. At twice a given distance its
strength drops to 1/ 2
2
, or 1A. ; at 3
times the distance, its strength is
1 8
2
or 1 9.
If an electric charge-such as an
electron - is comparatively far
from any other charges, the lines
representing the electrostatic field
radiate outward in straight lines.
Like the spokes of a wheel-but in
all directions. Figure 13 (a) shows
an electron with its electrostatic
lines of force. At some distance
away is another similar charge.
Since the strength of their fields
drops off rapidly with the distance,
there is little interaction between
the two fields. Figure 13 (b) shows
the two charges much closer. Here
the fields have measurable action
on each other. We might consider
that the lines of force act as leaf
:Springs. The closer the two ap-
proach, the greater the force push-
ing them apart.
I

' : ,,
' I /
" I ,
' I ,
___ _
, '

)';<"
I '
, '
lal
. ..
, . '
, I '
, '
, '
i: I '
.... .: !\ .
.. :,,. .....
\ .. :_ .. :. / '. . : ,'

!. , .... ,,,
. ' , ' .. I ,
/: ....... ,:\
,, : ', I t 0 o,
. : :. : \ .
'.

{b)
FIG. 13
When two opposite charges ap_
proach each other, the action is juat
the opposite of the above. Electric
line.s of force can end or tenninate
on a charge of opposite sign. Hence,
the lines of force from opposite
charges snap together like stretched
rubber bands. The pull of unlike
charges, as with the push of simi-
lar charges, follows the Inverse
Square Law.
An electric field is established by
an accumulation of electrons in a
given area. Or the other way
around, a deficiency of e!ectrons.
In the first case we have a negative
field from the excess of electrons.
In the second, a positive field from
the excess of protons.
So in order to have an extra
amount of electrons in one place,
we must take them away from
some other place. It's a sort of
"borrowing from Peter to pay
Paul" proposition.
Nearly everybody has picked up
bits of paper with an 'electrified'
comb. Such a charge is caused by
friction which somehow displaces
the electrons. Generators using
this principle are used for demon-
stration and laboratory work .
If really strong electric fields are
desired-say millions of volts-the
problem is tough. Special genera
tors are sometimes used as are
high voltage transformers: Limit-
ations come from insulation teak
age, discharge to nearby objects .
corona, etc.
All this is part of the reasons
that most of our circuits require a
complete path. Otherwise all
voltage can accomplish iS
charge the capacity
Then, assuming a DC source, even
thing comes to a stop except for
leakage current. If there is a corn
12
Rf
R2
R3 R4 R5
Et
E3 E4 + - E5
l
E2 + - E6
-E-
fiG. 14
plete cJrcuft, the electrons can eon- materials are then rated as having
tinue to ftow. more or less resistance than copper.
So we see that there are similari- In most substances increasing
ties and dUfereuce.s between elec- the temperature increases the re-
trie and magnetic fields. Each is Ristance. There are exceptions to
represented by lines of force. this, but they are not ordinarily
Neither when at rest--static un- very important in radio-TV servic-
varying in space or time-has any ing. Usually when the change is in
etfect on the other. Either varying the opposite direction, it is small.
in space or time produces the other. Sometimes a definite amount of
In the production of one by the resistance is wanted. You will en-
other, the two are always at right counter this in using vacuum tubes
angles to each other. for amplifiers. Here a resistor
BESISTANCE often is the 'load' in the plate cir-
cuit. A material of relatively high
specific resistance is used. Most of
the materials are also designed to
have a low temperature coefficitmt.
This last is the percentage of
change in resistance as the temper-
ature changes. The temperature
eoefficieut may be either positivs
or ugczti11e-tbat is, the resistance
mq ., or clottm respectively
with WwiGBB in temperature. In
I' ntr!JJia f1l J.,..tb aad djr-- certain frequmcy sensitive circuita,
eter are eat ap to compare the ;; one part with a poeitive iempala-
sistance of uteat mat.arJaJt. JD tun coemateat J8 atebed with one
your work the ataDdarcl Ia the DdJ.. ha'V'hqr a neptlve ooeffhdent to bl-
foot-a leqth ot wire one miJ G'8lll8 tM ot the elllaft.
(1 1000 in.) in dfa=ettJ aDd oae .. a Mfl-
foot long. The actul r.ilhnce of at Js not
a mil-foot (in ohms) for a apeefftft M Uttle u conven-
substance is its r--.. JeilP1 re: N'evertbela, BOmfJ
As copper is the most wide) uiied l'ililsta:uce wiD remfn. It may be
materMJ for conductors, it is some- so small that it can be Ignored. Or,
times used as a standard. Other altho small, it may have to be taken
13
into account. Here again we might
refer to the designing of power
transformers. The actual voltage
induced in a given secondary wind-
ing must be sufficient to supply its
load-say the filament or heater of
a vacuum tube - as well as the
voltage loss (voltage drop) in the
winding and connect ing wires
themselves.
her: We learn to walk before we
learn to run.
We know resistors connected in
series must be car rying the same
current. As noted, each has its
own voltage dr op (IR). There is
that much less voltage available to
force a current t hru the rest. So
the total resistance is the sum of
the individual resistances.
Rr-R
1
+ R2+ Ra, etc.
If a single resistor is connected
across a battery, it will have only
one polarity: the same as the bat-
tery. If two resistors are in series
across a voltage, the junction point
of the two is positive with respect
to the other end of one resistor, and
negative with respect to the other
end of the other resistor. This po-
larity of its own, must be connected
to match the polarity it is across.
Voltages connected to tubes must
have the right polarity as well as
the right amount. You will get
more details on the latter soon-
Lesson ND-13.
Electrons flow away from a more
negative point towards a more pos-
itive point. Think of the old sav-
ing, "Water seeks its own level."
Whether any pmticula r point is
or negative depends on
1111th what point it is compared.
Paralleled resistors have the
same voltage across each. Each
will carry its own separate current
as figured from Ohm's Jaw. The
total _current will be greater than
any Individual current. The ef-
fect as far as the voltage is con
cerned is as if it were conneehd
to one resistor of lo wei' value thllil
the lowest in the combination:
R.r= ___ 1_
1 1 1
-+-+ - tc
The principle of voltage drops is
one you will use very often. Its ap-
plication is really simple. All you
have to remember is that the volt-
age source (voltage rise) must
equal the voltage loss (voltage
drop). All of which is logical
enough. If you apply a voltage-
whether from a battery, generator
or whatnot-to a resistor or a
series of resistors, that voltage can
be measured across the resistance
as a whole or as the sum of the in-
dividual voltages across the indi-
vidual resistors. You can prove this
by assuming a value of voltage for
E and resistor values for Rl to
R6 in Fig. 14. In all cases the volt-
age drops across the six resistor,;
will equal E regardless of the ac-
tual values in ohms of the resistors.
A point to keep in mind is that if
the voltage itself has resistance (as
in practical cases it always has), a
!Jart of the voltage will be dissipat-
ed in the source. In many cases this
will not matter much. For maxi-
mum power transfer from one cir-
cuit to another it does. At this point
in your course it is of little concern.
We mt!ntion it here only to make
your course as complete and cor-
rect as we can. As we have told
.rou b;fore, your Sprayberry course
Is designed to take you step by step
the knowledge of radio-TV. If
It to you now that things are
gomg rather slowly, just remem-
. Rt Ra. e t
ThJ.S formula 'boils down' to a shor
14
.c;ut in the case of only two resistors.
rbeir product is divided by their
sum:
You can take a greater number
than two with this last formula by
solving for the first two, using that
value with the third, and so on. Us-
ually this will involve more figuring
than by using the first formula.
Series - Parallel combinations
have to be worked out a section at
a time using the appropriate form-
ula for each section.
CONDUCTANCE
hot, it would be wise to use a larger
size than otherwise. If you know
either the voltage or the current, it
is easy to find what power the re-

sistor has to carry. -R or 1
2
R
gives the answer.
The actual value of a resistor is
never-well, hardly ever-what is
printed on it or what the color code
tells you it is. Most circuits are
not at all critical as to exact values.
In the usual case 207o, plus or mi-
nus, is quite close enough. If a set
manufacturer specifies a closer tol-
erance, he probably has reason for
it. Otherwise you might as well
use the less expensive type.
As indicated by its name, con-
ductance (G) is the opposite of re- In regard to the color code, most
sistance - mathematically speak- resistor manufacturers put out a
ing, its reciprocal: pocket size color card that's handy
1 1 to refer to. For occasions when
G==R and R= G you don't have one here's a tip that
Its unit is the mho. may help you to match color to
The "G" value of a conductor number. Black, appropriately, is
shows how well or how nwch it put first for 0. Brown follows as 1.
conducts. Conductances in paral- Next come the real colors and they
lel are added to get the total con- fol!ow the order of the spectrum-
ductance. This is on the same prin- the rainbow. If you can recall how
ciple as adding separate currents to the rainbow blends one color into
get the total current. the next, you can count right down :

etc. Red, 2 ; Orange, 3; Yellow, 4;

We now aee the reason for the Green, 5; Blue, 6; Violet, 7. We're
fonanl Qt reaieto.ra iu,paraUel. All still two numbers short, so we tack
we are,cJolg la on Gray, 8 and White, 9.
sktance tat.D eondudaJice - Otitrls Ohm's law is a very useful rela-
to mhos. Then adding the separate tion. However there are times when
G" G2, Ga. etc., gives the total c6n- you must be careful about its appli-
ductance. The final step recon- cation. If you are dealing with a
\'erts GT to its equivalent R.r. 'pure' resistance_ no reactance-
Watt or power rating has been E
mentioned before in this review. y-=1 appUes in AC as well as in
You probably have it well in mind. DC circuits. If the chocuit has some
Just be sure a replacement is large reactance, either inductive capaci-
enough. If it is located in a spot tive or both, the formula be
where there is little ventilation, or modified before it is valid. This
next to some other part that runs modification is not excessively
15
complicated. It is only necessary
to combine the resiltanee aad reac-
tpee In one value, the impedance
(Z). Tbia foam ot the equation,
B
z =I, appllee to AC.
)o 1
:;
! :
f
FIG.I5
We eaJenlete reaetance, indue-
the or eapaeltive, in terms of its
eqahalaat naiataace. This is the
r '
1
ce that would give the same
current for a given voltage.
Similar methods are reneraUy will have an emf induced in it. The
aaed in giving the value of aa AC changing field may be produced
voltqe (or current) . Since the from a DC source by interrupting
AC Ia eontinuaUy changing, what the current. Figure 15 shows an ex.
Ia ita effective value? The equlva- ample. Such as the ignition coil in
lent amount is figured in terms of a car, or the vibrator power supply
the power it produces. U a given used in car radios. Or the changing
AC voltage produces the same heat- field may be produced from AC.
ing effect-1
1
R loss as a certain Since the primary coil is in a
DC voltage, it has the same effec- changing field as well as the sec-
tive value. This value of an AC ondary, if any, it too will have an
voltqe is termed the RMS value. induced voltage.
'l'bla Ia a rather teelmical mathe- The actual amount of voltage
matieal term meaning root-mean- produced in any conductor depends
aquare-the aquare root of the av- on the amount of flux linkage with
eraae of the squares of the inatan- the conductor. For this reason a
taneoua values of that voltage. The core of magnetic material is used
proceseee of arriving at it are of no in power and audio transformers,
concern to us. The peak value of an and to a lesser extent in IF and RF
AC voltage is 1.414 (actually v2) transformers.
times ita rma value. And the rms The strength of the field or mag-
(
1 ) netic ftux is determined by the total
value is 0.707 v
2
times its peak current flowing in the same direc-
value. tion. That is, if a certain number
You will be introduced to the rea- of amperes is flowing thru a coil,
sons for making these chaDgeS- the amperes times the number of
nns valuea to peak values, and vice turns determine the magnetoMO-
versa-fn Leason ND-13. This lea- ti'Ve force (MMF). This corre
son deals with radio tube amplifi- sponds to EMF in electrical cfr
cation. AB a tube uses both AC and cults. The field thus established
DC voltqes, there are times when will encounter more or less resist-
we must change from one value to ance from the material in the
the other. In magnetic circuits this quabty I:!
JND known as reluctame. The opposite,
y UCED VOLTAGES or reciprocal, of reluctance is per-
tor : will recall that any conduc- meabi.lit
11
So in electrical circuits
magnetic field we have resistance or conductance.
16
In J2lagnetic circuits we have reluc-
tance or permeability. The !l1a
established corresponds to the cur-
rent in electrical circuits. It is
advil&ble to remember that in the
ease of magnetic circuits there is
no actual flow as in the of
electrons in electrical circuits. Nev-
ertheless it remains a good compar-
ison. In practical applications it
seldom makes any difference which
way we think of it.
INDUCTANCE IN AC
CffiCUITS
maximum, the current
mum. When the voltage Is zero,
the current is zero. When the volt-
age reverses its direction, the cur-
rent does likewise. Such a current
and voltage are in phase. A graph
of their values thruout a complete
cycle would show that their direc-
tions, maximums and minimums
occur at the same time. If the graph
of any currents or voltages show
that their maximum values, etc., do
not occur at the same time, then
they are not in phase. Figure 16
shows examples of voltage across
It makes no difference whether R, c and L units which are out of
DC or AC is applied to an inductor phase with one another. The
-Lenz's law still holds true. If a amount out of phase is figured on
current of sine wave form is flow- the basis of the complete cycle--or
ing thru a coil-an inductor-the circle-of 360 degrees.
induced voltage, caused by the flux
change, must be largest when the INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
current is changing the fastest. Since an inductor reacts against
Also it will be the least-zero-- an AC current, we measure its re-
wben the current is passing thru actance in terms of how large a re-
its maximum value in one direction sistor would restrict the current to
or the other. This is because at the the same value. In other words we
current's largest value it is momen- measure its reactance in ohms. Re-
f4rilr neither increasing nor de- membering, of course, that altho in
creeeing. The tlux change, then, such a case we would have the same
ia zero; the induced voltage must value of current, the phase rela-
.W, be zero. Consequently the in- tions would not be the same.
dated voltage lags behind the cur- The formula for XL (inductive
rent by a quarter cycle, 90 degrees. reactance) shows that the reac-
And since the induced voltage must tance increases with frequency:
oppose the voltage actually produc- XL=2rfL. This is reasonable
W tbe current, the two voltages enough when you recall that the
aust be opposite or 180 degrees out f d d It-
of phase. The total result is that magnitude (size) o an m uce vo
the earrent lags the applied emf by age depends on the amount of tlux
to and the induced emf lags the and the speed of cutting. In an AC
eaueut by another go. current the speed of cutting de-
'l'hia is a good place to review pends on the frequency. The higher
ideas behind cycle and phase the frequency, the higher the speed
hips. If we apply an AC of cutting. The higher the induced,
to a pure the or back emf, the greater the reae
change just as the volt-
When the voltage is tance.
17
.... ,
, .... ,
l
+
,
0
I


'
I
\
'
I
\
.... "')
-
'
I
\
l
..
'
... _ ..
.. .....
, ..
+
I
0 k------,f------:.'-------,1-- c
\ \
- ' ,I
R
D
-TIME-+ fl0.16
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE adding the two shorter sides of a
AND RESISTANCE right triangle to find the fongesr,
If a reactor and a resistor are
connected in series with an AC volt.
age, the resulting current still lags
the applied voltage. But not by
90. The chart given in Lesson
ND-7 shows how much. This chart
gives the phase angle for the ratio
side (the hypotenuse). You will
recall that it is the square root of
the sum of the squares of the sides.
Stated in words it can be a little
confusing. In a formula it is not
only much shorter but also easier
to see the operations, or calcula-
tions.
of . ( XL )
reactance to res1stance
If you measure or calculate the and
voltages across the inductor and Z=v',.,R..,..
2
...,..+ .... X.- .,.:!.
the resistor, you will find that they Z is impedance, R the effective re-
add up to more than the applied sistance and XL the inductive reac-
voltage. Therefore you cannot add tance--all in ohms.
the two voltages by straight arith- RESISTANCE OF A COIL
metic (algebraic addition is the No matter what kind of material
p!'OJ)8r name). It is necessary to we use for winding a coil, it will
ae *vector addition.' This may have some resistance.
aound very complicated, but it is it is impossible to have a 'pure' m-
merely the correct mathematical ductance in a coil. Nevertheless
for values at right we can calculate its perfon;nance
.. You are prob- by considering it as a pure mduc-
tl.:. "U t'be method of tance in series with some resistance
lB
ELECTRIC LICI-IT
the frequency is increased a new
effect makes itself felt. This is
known as 'skin effect.' It is caused
by The center of
a Wire has a greater flux linkage
than the outside-hence a greater
back emf. As the frequency in-
less and less current flows
tnside the wire. For example at
100 megacycles-in the prP.Rent
FM band-the current flows only
in . the outer 0.00035 of an inch.
Skm effect, then, results in reduc-
ing the area available to the cur-
rent. The wire has a greater aP-
parent "DC" resistance.
Other causes of coil losses-de-
creased efficiency-are radiation
dielectric and hysteresis losses. '
-the resistance of the coil. In In a well designed coil these last
many applications the actual resist- will not cause much trouble. In
ance will be so small in compari- general, the 'Q'-Qualityofacofi--
son with the inductive reactance depends on the ratio of inductive
that it can be ignored. reactance to resistance (including
Fl G. 17
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE skin effect).
If two coils are near enough to
have their flux affect each other
the interaction is termed mutuai Note that the "Q" of a con is not
The total inductance to be confused with coulomb a
for two such coils connected in Quantity of electricity.
series may be either more or less SHIELDING
than the total inductance of the There is no complete, absolute
two separately. "More or less" be- shielding of magnetic fields. Th'e
cause the connections can be so best we can hope to do is reduce
that the coils either aid or oppose them to a point where any interao-
eacb other. tion is too small to affect n,..,
COn. EF.lt'ICIENCY circuits.
No man-made device is 100 ro For RF and IF coils it is nee
Jlel'fect. We always have some loss. sary to use a non-magnetic, low
Inductors are no exception. In most resistance material such_ :fJ copper
eases) the largest loss is the liB or aluminum. incldenta ly, the
OSs-h low in-
th eat loss of current flowmg cluclil krrf joinia in the sbleld.
ru resistance. Figure 17 shows a J'Or AF and power frequency
CO!ntnon example. sbielding Is easter. In the
For. comparatively low AC be- Coil lace their use of mapetlc
quenc1es a coil's resistance fi about first Pbelp keep the ftux whei'e it
equal to its DC resistance. But as cores
8
19
is wanted. Secondly,
may be done by magnetic -l Cl T1 C JJt illf
materials. - .1' 2 I C3
-
CONDENSERS -:- ltwo J 5MFo
A condenser is a device that has T .. _____ l....._ ___ L...-J_
the property of capacitance. All
that is required is two insulated f I 0.18
conductors. It may be the elabor- an electric field. Any dielectric be-
ate construction of many inter-con- tween the plates will make it easier
nected plates or foils-or it may be to establish the electric tield-that
two simple wires. is, easier to charge with a particu-
The term "insulated conductors" lar quantity of electricity.
may be slightly misleading. A coil, DC APPLIED TO CONDENSERS
for example, has capacity between If a battery is connected to a con-
turns-this in spite of the fact that denaer, current will flow into it un-
there is a connection from one turn
to the next. yet there is a voltage til the voltage equals that of the
difference between the two turns battery. If at a given voltage one
condenser stores a larger quantity
and this gives rise to capacitive ef- of electricity than another, the first
fects. In fact there is a capaci- has a greater capacity. Note Fig.
lance between turna, between 18.
groups or sections of turns, etc. It The unit of capacity is the farad.
all adds up to a distribtttetl capac- It ia cteftned by the formula,
ity which acts like a condenser in QIE-C. Q is Jn coulombs, E in
parallel with the coil. Sometimes volta, C in farads. This is a large
designers take advantqe of this unit for radio work, so we use
situatioD. They uae the distributed microfarads and mlcromicrofarads.
capacity to tune the coiL You are more likely to encounter
Fundamentally capacitance is this formula ae Q OE. This is be-
abiUty to store or bold electrons. cause you usually know the voltage
We could compare this quality to a appUed and the else of the conden-
water tank's ability to hold water. aer. A tblrd form Ia QIC E.
In view of the incompressibility of As mentioned before, uy dielec-
water a dollar comparison would trie will iJX:I zue the ltDriDc capac-
use compre?'ed air to ftll the tank. ity of the condenser. The amount
The greater the pressure, the more of increase over air is the dielectric
air in the tank. Similarly the constant of the material.
greater the voltage on a condenser, An interesting point in the charg-
the more electrons it holds. . ing of condenRers is how long it

speaking, in the ordi- takes. If a circuit could have no
" 1 t resistance. a condenser could be
nary condenser we pump e.ec rons charged (or dbchargcd) in
onto one plate and nff nf the other allY no time at all. smce there will
plate. Thus one plate has a surplus be. some resistance pregent. the
of electrons while the other has a process takes a definite amount of
deficiency of electrons. One plate
is then charged the time constant (in seconds)
other positively. This nse to e
20
DIAPNRAGM
PISTON
FIG.l9
le the product of the resistance (in
ohms) times tbe capacity (in far-
ads)-RO=t. This is the time re-
quired for an uncharged condenser
to reach 63% of any applied volt-
age. Or if discharging, to lose 63%
of emf.
a lfmHar action
.Jiatier tan thru an in-
Here 1M time oonstant
equals the inductance divided by
the resistance: L!R=t. As usual
the quantities are in the funda-
mental units of henries, ohms and
seconds.
Returning to condensers, it is im-
portant to keep in mind that the
purpose of a is to store
electrons-regardless of for how
short a time. That is, the current
flows in and out of a condenser, but
not thru.
Figure 19 gives us a mechanical
comparison. The air tank has a
thin diaphragm dividing it in two
sections. When the piston is moved
up, the air pressure is greater in
top of the tank. If the piston
Is pushed down, the pressure will
in the top half-increase
bottom half. In each instance
Will move thru the connecting
?"Pes until the pressure is equal-
Ized.
condenser has a comparative
acbon. When an emf is connected
to it, electrons will flow thru the
connecting wires-onto or off of a
given plate. When the voltage dif-
ference of the two equals the ap-
plied voltage, current flow ceases.
(This assumes a DC voltage is be-
ing used).
If the applied emf is high enough
to puncture the dielectric, a break-
down results--current flows thru.
In Figure 19 if the piston exerts too
much pressure, the air tank dia-
phragm will break. In the case of
a condenser such a breakdown may
be temporary or permanent, ac-
cording to the type of condenser
and the nature of the discharge
causing the breakdown.
It is essential, then, to make cer-
tain that the voltage rating of a
condenser is at lea,st as great as the
maximum voltage to be impressed
on it.
CONNECTING CONDENSERS
If two or more condensers are
connected in parallel, any voltage
across one must also be across the
rest. The voltage charges each
condenser in proportion to its size.
St.udy Figure 20 for this effect.
The total charge is the sum of the
charges of all the condensers. The
resultant or total capacity is the
sum of the individual capacities:
CT=C1 etc.
I! condensers are connected in
senes, the same current must flow
into each in a given amount of time.

: I

I
:
....
+
'I
Ct
PAaAL.Lal. CONDIJISI!RI NAVIi 5AMii
VOl. TAG& Ac.ROSS THIM If THiiiR CN
"CITY VALUES Alii. I! DIPFI!Ili!NT TWI!IR
CHARGES WILL Ill! OIP'I'IRENT.
1
FIG. 20
21
-
-
-
-
+
ao --aNSilRS
HIUI!S CONN,.C:T ..- CNARGING
MAYa $AMI. AMOUNT OF
cuaaeNT f'I.R UNIT OF TIME.
FIG. 21
The Q (Quantity of electricity)
must be the same in each eon?en-
ser. Using the third form as g1ven
before, -% = E, we can see that if
one condenser is one microfarad
and another in the series is two mi-
crofarads, the first will have twice
the voltage the second has. (If this
is not clear at the moment, take a
value for Q. Take two different
values of capacities. Use the equa-
tion to find the voltage across each) .
The voltage across condensers in
series varies inversely with their
capacity. The smaller the conden-
ser, the higher the voltage. So be
cautious if it is necessary to sub-
stitute condensers connected in
series. Refer to Fig. 21. If you are
sure your condensers are of high
quality-have low leakage-it is
safe to apply the above formulas.
Otherwise it is best to cheek the
actual voltages with a good volt-
meter. Even then keep a good mar-
gin as leakage values are likely to
change as the condensers are in use.
As a general rule it is more costly
in money as well as in space to use
series connections except for spec-
ial reasons.
The formula for the total capaci-
tance of condensers in series is sim-
ilat to tDe one for resistances in
l'alilW:
c.l' - I
1 + 1 1
c -+
1 c2 c3, etc.
RATE OF CHANGE
The graphs show Le
ND8
h nm sson
- !\ ow how the \"oltage and
cur rent change as a condenser is
charged or discha1ged. In each in-
stance the change is rapid at first
gradually tape1ing oft until
change is practically zero. In other
words the slope or of
the graph is a measure of the
rate of change (either of current or
of voltage). This is plain enough
from the graphs.
We notice further that when the
voltage across the condenser is
changing the fastest (maximum
rate of change), the current in the
condenser is maximum. When the
voltage is not changing (zero rate
of change), the current is zero.
After a condenser is charged to a
particular voltage, the current will
be zero as long as that voltage does
not change. If a voltage of differ-
ent value is connected across the
condenser current must flow into
or out of the condenser-accordin.g
to whether the applied voltage
18
larger or smaller than the voltage
originally on the condensers. When
the two emfs are equal-no change
on the condenser-current flow
stops. It-
All this occurs because the
age of a condenser is caused by
. f the two
electron difference o is
plates. And that difference nt.
caused by electron flow---:curre we
From these consideratlons true
arrive at an important fact-;,.ene
for AC as well as DC : The cu t;be
in a condenser is dependent
0
!ss it
rate of change of voltage acrtseJf.
- not the actual voltage
1

When the rate of change is high, a other than the start of a voltage
large current is flowing into or out pulse (positive or negative), the
of the condenser. 'Vhen the rate of cttrrcnt values will 'wobble around'
change is lower, a 1>maller current for a few Then they settle
Rows. If the rate of change is zero, down to the steady state values.
none flows. The former are called transients as
AC APPLIED TO CONDENSERS they do not last very long. They
are important in circuits dealing
As you probably have noticed, with pulses-including some TV
capacitive effects are the opposite circuits. Their application is chiefly
of inductive effects. This is because in design and engineering. We need
a coil functions on current-stor- not consider them too closely here.
ing energy in a magnetic field; a It may be of inte1cst to note that
condenser functions on voltage- the underlying cause of interfer-
storing energy in an electric field. encc from motors, electric signs
If an AC voltage is connected to and such like, comes from tran-
a eapacitor, the applied emf is sients. Altho the device is operat-
changing. To detennine the cur- ing on power frequencies, the tran-
rent in the condenser in relation to sients produce radio frequencies.
voltage, we must exam- To the receiver this is noise-either
..a rate of change. Assuming a audible or visible.
stne wave, a graph of the applied CAPACITIVE REACTANCE
'oltage shows a rapid increase at The interaction of a condenser's
the beginning of the cycle, tapering current and voltage cause it to re-
off until it reaches a maximum val-
ue at goo or %. cycle later. At this act against the applied voltage. The
point the voltage change is momen- capacitive l'eactancP- is measured in
tarily zero. From previous consld- ohms. It is the same amount as a
erations we know that the current resistance which would give the
must also be (momentarily) zero. same current value (neglecting
Therefore the condenser voltage phase relationships). Xc (capaci-
must be equal and opposite to the tive reactance) decreases with in-
applied voltage. That is, current creasing frequency. This again is
has been flowing into the condenser the opposite of XL which increases
in the same sense (positive or neg. with increasing frequency. As
ative) as the applied voltage. If might be expected, the formula is
current has been flowing in and fin- practically the reciprocal of the
allv 'trickled off' to nothing as the formula for inductive reactance:
voitage reached ma.ximum, it must X 1
lead the applied emf by * cycle- c=271'fC
go. Here again we see the oppo- CAPACITIVE REACTANCE
site character of capacitors and in- AND RESISTANCE
ductors. Yr. lags E; l o leads E. If If a condenser and resistor are
there is no resistance in the circuit, connected in series across a volt-
the phase difference is 90. age, the current thru the combina-
The foregoing applies to 'steady tion still leads the voltage. But it
state conditions. If the emf is con- will not be the full 14, cycle. The
nected to the circuit at any time greater the capacitive reactance in
23
comparison to the resistance, the
closer the phase angle is to 90"
The greater the resistance, the
closer to o. The value of any pro-
portion can be estimated from the
chart in Lesson ND-7-the same
chart used for a coil and resistance.
The only difference is that in a ca-
pacitive circuit the current leads
the emf in an inductive circuit the
current 'tags the emf. The principle
of the chart is that the tangent of
the phase angle is the ratio of the
reactance (inductive or capacitive)
to the resistance. (A table of trig-
onometric functions also would give
the value of the phase angle).
Adding the voltages across the
reactance and the resistance to ar-
rive at the total voltage is done by
vectors, or right angle addition.
The same system is used to add the
reactance and the resistance for
total impedance.

and
Z=vR
2
+Xc!!
must also be different.
in tvvo forms:
RXc

VR'+Xc2
or,
It is a'VIail-
R
Z==-
' ' 1 + 4.,-
2
f
2
C:R
1
Remember what we have said
before regarding formulas in gen-
eral. It is neither necessary nor
advisable to memorize all these
formulas. Understand their use-
how to supply them. When yn1
have need of a particular one, look
it up.
CONDENSERS WITH
POLARITY
Electrolytic condensers are so
named because of the liquid (elec-
trolyte) used in their construction.
The so-called 'dry' electrolytic is
dry in the same sense as a dry cell
or dry battery. The electrolyte is
in the form of a paste instead of
an actual liquid.
Because the dielectric is formed
after the construction of the con-
If a condenser and resistor are denser-by application of a DC
connected in parallel, the total cur- voltage-the same polarity must be
rent will again be between 0 and applied in use. Reversal the
90 degrees ahead of the voltage. polarity tends to destroy the dlelec-
As the phase angle of the conden- tric, ruining the condenser. Elec-
ser current is 90 and the angle of trolytic condensers must therefore
the resistor current is o, the two be used on DC. In this case "DC"
must be added vectorially to get the really means unidirectional. It
total current : change in value-have a pulsatmg
h =vlu
2
+ Ic
2
character, or be mixed with an AC
. component-as long as the
The phase angle can be obtained polarity does not reverse. E1ther
from the previous chart using the the container for the condenser
ratio of either _lie , or R . The will be marked indicating cor-
R Xo rect polarity, or the leads w1U be
parallel connections cause the Iat- color coded-quite often both.
ratio to be the inverse of what The big advantage of
tt would be for a series circuit. tics is the large amount of capac1ty
The formula for total impedance possible in a given size condenser.
24
., ______________________________________ __
'fheir use is extensive in AF' and
\fer circuits-subjects to be tnk-
': up in your next few lessons. In
circuit-. the comparathely
hiP leakage current is of little
consequence.
At RF frequencies these conden-
usunll.r are not efficient
enough. However, less capacity is
required. So we use condensers
having other dielectrics-paper,
mica. ceramic, etc.
Some non-electrolytic capacitors
ha\e a notation on the case show-
ing which lead is connected to the
outside foil. The usual practice is
to connect this lead to "ground"-
tbe chassis-or to the side of the
circuit closer (electrically) to
ground. The outside foil then acts
as an electrostatic shield, prevent-
ing or reducing capacitive coupling
between circuits.
CONDENSERS IN
ELECTRONICS
Coupling condensers are
used to couple energy from one cir-
cuit to another. Blocking conden-
st>rs are primarily for preventing
the passage of DC while permitting
the AC part to pass th1u. By-pass
condensers are provided to give an
AC current a low resistance path-
around a grid bias resistor for ex-
ample. Most such connections pro-
vide more than OJHl of these actions.
The last three types-coupling,
blocking, and by-palling-will be
taken up in the next few lessons
dealing with vacuum tubes for
amplification.
So you cau sle'e that very inter-
esting parts of your course are
coming up-actual applications as
used in all radio-TV This
is why we are using this lesson for
a general review. In order for you
to easily understand the important
things to follow, you must be thor-
oly grounded in theRe fundament-
als that we use to explain the op-
The uses of condensers might be eration of other circuits.
classified as tuning, neutralizing,
filtering, coupling, blocking and by- With the exception of tuning
passing. condensers, condensers are for pro-
The first you will recall from the viding a low reactance path for AC.
The AC may be in a specific range,
last lesson on resonance. Neutral- such as AF or RF frequencies. In
izing condensers are used to cancel either event it offers a high reac-
the effects of an inherent, or built- tance to DC. If connected in a cir-
in, capacitance. With modern tubes cuit containing pulsating DC-DC
and circuits this type of connection
is not nearly as common al:i it used modulated with AC--it acts to sep-
to be. At this time it is more arate the two.
in tran:.:mitters than in recehers. Condenser losses can be summed
The remaining four types are up as either series losses or para-
\"ery :;imilar in many ways. The llel So called because they
names come from the primary pur- act like the losses that would result
pose for using the condenser. Fil- from a perfect condenser with a
ter condensers, for example, are resistance in saies or in paraUet.
used to smooth out the variations Parallel losses result from dielec-
of a rectifier. Your next lesson in- tric leakage. Series losses can be
troduces you to these circuits with caused by the DC resistance of the
additional information coming in connecting wires and conducting
25
path within the condenser. The
most important loss is dielectric
loss. This is a series type loss
caused by Lhe heating effect of the
changing electl'ic field in the dielec-
tric. It corresponds to hysteresis
loss in iron-core coils.
While it is true that electrolytics
have a high leakage, they are used
in circuits that make this loss rela-
ti\ely unimportant.
RESOXANCE
The reactance caused by a coil
and that caused by a condenser are
exactly opposite in effect. The coil
retards the current, holding it be-
hind the voltage by 90". The con-
denser retards the voltage holding
it back of the current by 9o. (Of
comse we are assuming no resist-
ance in either case).
It might be well at this point to
mention that these current and
voltage shifts are phyaically real-
not merely mathematical. we must
use mathematical terms to describe
their actions and to calculate val-
ues.
Suppose we connect an inductor
and a capacitor in series anu apply
a voltage (AC) across the combina-
tion. Since they are in series, the
same current must flow thru each
part theil common current
as our reference, we see that the
coil if,q voltage ahead of the
current. The condenser pulls its
voltage behind the current. 90 de-
grees in opposite directions make
the voltages across the coil and
condenser 180 degrees out of phase.
When one is in a positive sense the
other is in a negative sense. Con-
sequently the two effects balance
each other more or less.
one exactly cancels the volta
th
th
. Th' . ge of
e o er. ts ts resonan Th
frequency at which the te
. . t reac s
1n one way JUS as much as th
d Se
. e t . e con-
en I J a,c s m the opposite way.
. Hence for resonance the induc-
tlvf: must equal the ca-
pacitive reactance: XL=Xc. Using
formulas for these two quanti-
ties,
2r.fL

If we solve this equation for f, the
frequency, we arr1ve at an oft used
expression,
f- 1
2r.VLC
From this formula we can see
that the frequency of a resonant
circuit depends on the product of
the inductance times the capaci-
tance-Land C being the only var-
iables. So we can match any value
of L with a certain value of C to
give a certain frequency. Or we
can match any value of C with a
certain value of L. Stated another
way, we can tune a circuit to reso-
nance by varying either L or C. In
your radio servicing you will en-
counter both types. In the former
they are usually referred to as
'slug tuned'. The inductance is
varied by changing the of
a slug of magnetic material in a
coil. Capacitive tuning is done
with variable air condensers.
The impedance of a series circuit
of L and C is very similar to that
containing one of the two. Since
their effects are opposite, the two
reactances ate subtracted (alge-
braically) to get the net reactance:
At one frequency they exactly
balance each other-the voltage of At
Z=,IR
2
+ (XL-Xc)
resonance, X,,=Xc and Z=R.
26
pARALLEL RESONANCE
suppose we now connect a coil
and a condenser in parallel and ap-
... ., an AC voltage across the com-
bfhation. The inductance and ca-
pacitance must still follow the Jaws
found for them. But, the effects
are very different due to the differ-
ent connections.
In a series connected circuit, the
two reactances balance each other
-cancel out entirely at resonance.
This leaves only the resistance for
the total impedance. But in the
parallel circuit at resonance, the
two reactances work together to
produce a high impedance. The
lower the effective DC resistance,
M
----, ...
p
c
''X" REPRESENTS INOUC&O
VOLTAG& FROM PRIMARY COIL(p)
FIG. 22
the higher the impedance. monly applied to both series and
The applied voltage sets up a parallel circuits.
current in each reactance. The In examining a circuit diagram
value being the emf divided by the it sometimes is not immediately ap-
reactance (assuming no resist- parent whether an LC hookup is in
ance) . The current in the coil is series or in parallel. If an external
E emf is appJied aeross the coil and
x;:- and the current in the con- across the condenser, it obviously
E T _ is parallel. U the external emf is
denser is Xc. But IL and .LO are applied across one terminal of the
180 degrees out of phase with each coil, one terminal of the condenser
other. What is more natural than and the other two terminals of coil
for the two currents to 'short' or and condenser connected to each
11ow together. This produces a other, it is equally obviously a se-
higb circulating current even tho ries connection. The circuit that
the line current-total current into may look parallel but actually is
the system-is low. The energy series is the case of the emf being
of the circulating current is stored induced in the coil. The induced
in the system, shifting periodically voltage is distributed along all or
from the magnetic field of the coil a portion of the turns of the coil.
tao-tile ~ c field of the conden- It acts like a number of miniature
ser. The Oilly energy lost is due to generators in series with a num-
12R losses plus any energy removed ber of smaller coils. And all these
by radiation or coupling to another in series with each other and the
circuit. condenser. Figure 22 illustrates the
The parallel combination is some- voltage "rises" in the coil. Another
ti01es referred to as an anti-reso- viewpoint of this diagram is that,
nant' circuit. But the usual term, if current is to flow, there is only
tuned or resonant circuit, is com- one path: Around the circuit.
27
RESONANCE CURVES matic frequency control
If we vary the frequency of a cuits.
voltage across a series LC circuit, The general shape of t h e ~ r
the current thru the circuit will rent-versus-frequency graph of a
also vary. When the frequency is parallel LC circuit resembles the
equal to the resonant frequency of I-vs-f graph of a serie::; circuit up-
the combination, the current will side down - and vice versa, of
be at its largest value. At this course. Similar shaped graphs can
point the impedance is equal to its be obtained if the frequency is con-
resistance. At any other frequency stant and L or C i ~ varied. That
the circuit is out of resonance. is we tune the circuit by changing
Either L or C will offer more reae- either the inductance or the capaci-
tance than the other. At lower tance.
than the resonant frequency Xc The "Q" or efficiency factor of
will be larger; at higher frequen- an unloaded tuned circuit is the Q
cies, XL will be the larger. The of the coil. It has practically all of
total impedance is their difference the DC resistance. This applies
-the net reactance-plus the cir- equally well to series or parallel cir-
cuit resistance (added vectorially). cuits. If extra resistance is added,
As the frequency is changed the it is termed loading. This may be
current will gradually build up to done by coupling power into an-
a maximum (resonant frequency), other circuit, or by putting a re-
then drop off again. Note that sistance across (or in) the LC com-
Ohm's law applies, even in AC cir- bination. This flattens out the cur-
cuits, if we substitute Z for R-and rent frequency graph. The circuit
are concerned with the steady state is less sensitive and less selective.
values. As mentioned before, tran- The latter term means that it
sients are another problem and passes a wider band-spectrum-
need not concern us. of frequencies.
It is worth noting that below res- In some cases the highest selec-
onance the current is capacitive: I tivity and sensitivity is the object
lead8 E. Above resonance the cur- desired. So the circuit Q is made
rent is inductive: I lags E. comparatively high. In other cir-
ln a parallel LC circuit we have cuits a wider band is required. This
the lowest current at the resonant is usually accomplished by putting
frequency since the impedance is a resistor across the tuned circuit.
then at its highest. Off of reso- FM and TV circuits need this treat-
nance either L or c offers less re- ment-the latter have to pass a
actance. The total current (IT) very wide band of frequencies, 4 to
must increase. 6 megacycles.
Below resonance, h is inductive We hope this review has clarified
(lags E). Above resonance IT is any doubtful points in your mind.
capacitive (leads E). ' If you don't feel sure you under-
Th stand these fundamentals, it would
e rapid change of current- b 1J t f 1
voltage phaae relationship on each e we o re er to the previous es-
side of resonance f
1
. sons. They naturally give more
IS use u In auto- details than is possible here.
28
,tgain we wish to emphasize the
\ail.le of frequent, and. if pos::;iblc,
regular reYiew. It w11l pay you
big dividends in the long run.
)fake sure you thoroly under-
stand each lesson. Each one is care-
fully designed by our long years of
experience to take you along the
road to a sound knowledge of elec-
tronics. You will be surprised at
how Huceeding lessons seem to get
easier and
These questions are designed to teat your knowledge of this Jesson. Read t hem
first to see if you can answer them. If you feel confident that you can,
then write out your answers, numbering them to correspond to the
If you are not confident that you can answer the ques tions, re-s tudy the leRson
one or more times before writing out your answers. Be sure to answer ever y
qur,.tion, for if you fail to answer a question, it will reduce your gr ade on thit.
lesson When all questions have been answered, mail them to us for g radinr.
QUESTIONS
1. What general electrical formula ia usetl mOfrt. in Radio-TV repairing?
2. State the most commonly used formula for power t-.
3. In a res istance circuit. what factor ia the ume throughout tlte eirc:ult 1
4. What is the relatiGIIShlp between c:aaduetaaee and realataaee?
5. Does impedance apply to A.C. or D.C. c:ireuita?
6. What elfec:t does resistance have on an inductaac:e?
7. What is "skin elfeet" of a wire winding, aad how don It dec:t the U.pedane.
of the c:oil7
8. Why ia it nec:e IIUJ' to take the .,oltage ratinl' of a c:oadenHr into c:oaalderation 7
9. When aaintr electrolytic c:ondenaen, why muat polarity always be observed?
10. In a resonant cireu.it. what is the relationship between X and X 7
(, 0