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6.1 Introduction
An electrical power system is subjected to many types of disturbances, all of which result in a transient. Accurate dynamic simulation is, therefore, essential in power system design to minimize the disruption and possible damage of equipment due to the overvoltages and overcurrents caused by the disturbance. Unlike electronic systems, the size and cost of power system components makes it unrealistic to bread-board alternative proposals. Each proposal must be checked thoroughly to ensure satisfactory operation and optimize component parameters and controller settings, before alterations are made. This may be done at the planning stage, where many scenarios for improving the transient performance must be investigated, or during operation to diagnose the cause of the disturbance. The term electromagnetic transient refers to transients that involve the interaction between the energy stored in the magnetic fields of the inductances and electric field of the capacitances in the system. It does not include the slower electromechanical transient response, which involve the interaction between the mechanical energy stored in the rotating machines and the electrical energy stored in the electrical network; these are covered in Chapters 7 and 8. However, no component model is appropriate for all types of transient analysis and must be tailored to the scope of the study. The main criterion for the selection of model components is the time range of the study. For instance, when analysing fast transients, such as lightning phenomena, stray capacitance and inductances must be represented and the solution step size needs to be at least h t h of the smallest time constant introduced by the stray parameters. For system disturbances, such as shortcircuits, the dynamics of power electronic controllers, rather than stray components, will play the major role and the solution step size can be considerably larger. Regardless of the type of system equivalent and size of the integration steps, the EMTP concept proposed by Dommel [ 1-4) is now universally accepted for the simulation of complex power systems containing non-linearities, power electronic components and their controllers.
6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS
1-At
163
'-i" +
Figure 6 2 .
+ Resistance
"r
6.3.1 Resistance
This case, shown in Figure 6.2, is straightforward, i.e.
vk(t)
- vm(t> = R i k S r n ( t )
6.3.2 Inductance
The differential equation for the inductor shown in Figure 6.3 is: dikm (6.3) dt which must be integrated from a known state at t - At to the unknown one at t , i.e.
VL
= vk - Vjn = L-,
and, applying the trapezoidal rule, Equation (6.4) can be replaced by: At i k n d t ) = ikm(r-Ar) -k -((vk - V m ) ( r ) (uk - vrn)(r-Af)) 2L At At = ikm(1-A') + -(vk(f-Af) %(f-Af)) -(vk(t) - Vm(r))* 2L 2L This equation can be rewritten in the following form:
(6.5)
ik,n(l)
= Ihistory(r-At)
1 +R -(vktf) eff
- urn([)),
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6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS
The term l/R,ff = G,ff is the instantaneous term that relates the present time voltage to a present time current contribution, and involves a pure resistance. The term Ihistory(t-At) is the history term as this current source value is a function of quantities at previous time steps where
Ihistory(f-Af)
= ikm(t-Af)
At + -(vk(t-Af) 2L
- vm(f-At))
and
2L Reff = -. At
6.3.3 Capacitance
The differential equation for the capacitor, shown in Figure 6.5, is: ikm = cRearranging it as an integral:
dt
=c
d(vk -urn> dt
(6.10)
165
i
Figure 6.5 Capacitor
(6.13) which, again, is interpreted as the Norton equivalent shown in Figure 6.6. Transforming to the z-domain gives:
(6.16) Combinations of components can be replaced by a single Norton equivalent, thereby reducing the number of nodes and, hence, the computation at each time step. For example, each tuned RLC branch forming part of a harmonic filter bank can be
166
6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS
7
Figure 6.7 Reduction of RLC branch to a Norton equivalent
represented by a Norton equivalent, as shown in Figure 6.7. Equally, the complete filter bank can be represented by a single Norton equivalent that combines the equivalents of the individual filter branches. The reduction process involves a series of Thevenin to Norton transformations, the internal nodes being reduced by Gaussian elimination; the result is a greatly simplified nodal admittance matrix.
167
this occurs in distribution rather than transmission systems. This model is unsuitable for longer lines as the number of nominal PI sections required for an adequate representation makes the solution very inefficient. With the losses ignored, Bergerons method provides a simple and elegant travelling wave model, which is then completed by the addition of series resistance to represent the losses. In its original implementation, EMTP used the concept of natural modes to represent multi-conductor lines and the main effort went into the development of frequency-dependent modal transformations and fitting techniques to try and improve accuracy and thus eliminate prospective instabilities. However, Gustavsen and Semlyen [9] have indicated that, although the phase domain problem is inherently stable, the associated modal domain may be inherently unstable; hence, regardless of the fitting accuracy, the modal line model will be unstable. This has spurned research effort into modelling lines directly in the phase-domain despite the complication of representing couplings between phases [lo- 151.
6.4.1
Consider a lossless distributed parameter line as depicted in Figure 6.8, with L (inductance) and C (capacitance) per unit length. The wave propagation equations for this line are: (6.17a) (6.17b) The general solutions of Equations (6.17a) and (6.17b) are:
i(x, t ) = f l ( x - s t )
+ f 2 ( x + st),
+ st), +
(6.18a) (6.18b)
where f l (x - s t ) and f 2 ( x s t ) are arbitrary functions of ( x - s t ) and ( x sr) to be determined from problem boundary and initial conditions, f 1 ( x - s t ) represents a wave travelling at velocity s in a forward direction and f 2 ( x s t ) a wave travelling in a backward direction.
X=
x=d
Figure 6.8
Propagation of
a wave on a
transmission line
168
6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS
Z, the surge (or characteristic) impedance and s, the propagation velocity for a lossless line are given by:
s=-
m'
(6.19a) (6.19b)
Multiplying Equation (6.18a) by ZC and adding it to, and subtracting it from, Equation (6.18b) gives the required branch equations, i.e.
Note that v(x, t ) Z c i ( x , t ) is constant when ( x - s r ) is constant. This can be interpreted by becoming a fictitious observer travelling along the line as shown in Figure 6.8 with the wave. Then (x - s t ) and v(x, t ) Z c i ( x , t ) will appear constant all along the line. If the travel time to get from terminal k to terminal m of a line of length d is
then the expression v(x,t ) Z c i ( x , t ) seen by the observer when leaving terminal k at time t - t, must be the same when the observer arrives at terminal m at time t , i.e.
vk(t - t)
+ Z C i k m ( t - 7) = v m ( t ) + Zc(-imk(t)).
(6.20)
Rearranging the latter leads to the simple two-port equation for i m k , i.e.
- t) = --vk(t
ZC
- t) - ikm(t
- t).
(6.21)
1 = -vk(t) ZC
I
+ I k ( t - t),
- T) - i m k ( r - 5).
(6.22)
where
Ik(t
- t) = --vm(t
ZC
(6.23)
The expressions ( x - s t ) = constant and ( x + s t ) = constant are called the characteristic equations of the differential equations. Figure 6.9 depicts the resulting two-port model. In this model, there is no direct connection between the two terminals and the conditions at one end are seen indirectly, and with time delay t (travelling time), at the other through the current sources. The past history terms are stored in a ring buffer and hence the maximum travelling time
169
that can be represented is the time step times the number of locations in the buffer. Since the time delay is not usually a multiple of the time step the past history terms either side of actual travelling time are extracted and interpolated to give the correct travelling time. The distributed series resistance of the line is approximated by treating the line as lossless and adding lumped resistances at both ends. Although lumped resistances can be inserted in many places along the line by dividing the total length into many line sections, this makes little difference and, hence, two sections are normally used, as depicted in Figure 6.10. This lumped resistance model gives reasonable answers only if R/4 < < ZC. By assigning half of the mid-point resistance to each line section the representation for a section modelling half the line is depicted in Figure 6.11, where:
and
Ik(t
-1
(EF :\:)
im(t
- 5/21.
(6.25)
By cascading two half line sections and eliminating the mid-point variables, as only the terminals are of interest, the model depicted in Figure 6.12 is obtained. This is in the same form as the earlier models except that the current source representing history terms is more complicated as it contains conditions from both ends on the line at
ikrn(t)
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6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS
512)
Figure 6.12
(t
- t/2). For example, the expression for the current source at end k is:
The EMTDC line model separates the propagation into low and high frequency paths so that the line can have a higher attenuation to higher frequencies.
171
By differentiating a second time one vector either voltage or current may be eliminated giving:
Traditionally the complication of having off-diagonal elements in the matrices of Equation (6.28) and (6.29) is overcome by using natural modes. Eigenvalue analysis is applied to produce diagonal matrices thereby transforming from coupled equations in the phase domain to decoupled equations in the modal domain. Each equation in the modal domain is then solved as for a single phase line by using modal travelling time and modal surge impedance. The transformation matrices between phase and modal quantities are different for voltage and current, i.e. (6.30a) (6.30b) Substituting Equation (6.30a) in (6.28) gives: (6.31) Hence
[%]
= [TYI-'[Zbhasel[Ybhasel[TVIIVmodel
= [A][vmodel.
(6.32)
To derive the matrix IT,] that diagonalizes [ZLhase][ Ybhase], its eigenvalues and eigenvectors must be found. However, eigenvectors are not unique, as when multiplied by a nonzero complex constant they still are valid eigenvectors; therefore, some normalization is desirable to allow [T,] from different programs to be compared. PSCADRMTDC uses the root squaring technique developed by Wedepohl for eigenvalue analysis [ 161. To generate frequency-dependent line models the eigenvectors must be consistent from one frequency to the next, such that the eigenvectors form a continuous function of frequency, so that curve fitting can be applied. A Newton Raphson algorithm has been developed for this purpose [ 171. On completion of the eigenvalue analysis, the following relationships are used:
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6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS
As [z;ha,.[Ybha,] is different from [YbhaSe][Zbhase],the eigenvectors are also and, different, even though their eigenvalues are identical. However, [Ti] = ( therefore, only one of these matrices needs to be calculated. Looking at mode i, i.e. the ith equation of (6.32), gives:
(6.33) and its general solution at point x in the line is: (6.34) where
yi
6,
Equation (6.34) contains two arbitrary integration constants. An n-conductor line has n natural modes and thus requires 2n arbitrary constants. This is consistent with the existence of 2n boundary conditions, one for each end of every conductor. In matrix form, Equation (6.34) becomes: Ymde(x) = [e-YX~ * Y:,de(k)
Y:de(m)
(6.35)
- yB,
(6.36)
(6.37)
where
IF= forward travelling wave,
IB = backward travelling wave.
Thus, the voltage and current at the k end of the line are:
(6.38)
(6.39)
173
~ ( m= ) [e-rr~~F [erX]~
L(m) = Y ~ ( [ ~ - ~ I[er1yB). v~
Hence, the forward and backward travelling voltage waves at terminal k are:
(6.46) (6.47)
+ jwC + jwL
is the per unit length shunt admittance obtained from conductor geometry, and is the per unit length series impedance, also obtained from conductor geometry. Let
Fk(U)
= vk(w)
+ zC(@)i&(w),
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6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS
The functions F and B correspond to forward and backward travelling waves, respectively in the frequency domain. From Equations (6.46), (6.47) and (6.48):
Bk ( w ) = A I ( w > F m (w),
Bm(w) = A I ( W ) F k ( W ) ,
(6.49)
where
Equations (6.49) yield the equivalent circuit of Figure 6.13 with the source terms Bk and B , related to electrical quantities at the other end of the line. To convert the frequency domain circuit of Figure 6.13 to the time domain, it is only necessary to express the source terms Bk and Bm in the time domain. This requires a convolution integral in place of the multiplication in Equations (6.49):
Bk(t) = L'A(u)F,,(t - u)du
B,,(t) = l A ( u ) F k ( r - u)du.
(6.50)
The lower integral limit of t is set equal to the shortest possible !ransmission delay of the line. Evaluating the convolution integrals (Equation (6.50)) at every time step is very slow, and a recursive method is used instead [21]. The recursive convolution method represents A ( u ) in Equation (6.50) by a sum of exponentials in u, and Fk by a low order polynomial. For example, if
n
/=I
and
fm(t
- u ) = f ( t ) au2
+ Bu,
(6.5 1 )
then
Bk(t) =
l
1
xe-"iu(f(t)
+ au2 + ,L?u)du
= C [ a r B t ( t - At)
+ A l f m ( t ) + /I.rfrn(t
- At)
V/fm(t
- 2At)], (6.52)
where 01 and ,L? are obtained by equating the interpolating quadratic to f ( t ) , f ( t - A t ) , f ( t - 2 A t ) and A, p, 21 are constant coefficients obtained by integrating Equation (6.51)
A
vk(w)
Figure 6. 13
175
from t - At to t . The convolution integral is, therefore, replaced by a past-history term B k ( t - A t ) , and a linear combination of past-history terms for electrical conditions at the other end of the line.
Curve fitting for Zc and A @ ) Both Zc and A are readily defined in the frequency domain. Representation in the time domain proceeds by first finding a rational polynomial in s that matches Z or A along the j w axis. In EMTDC, the fitting takes place at 100 frequency points evenly distributed on a log scale between specified lower and upper frequencies. The choice of lower frequency affects the shunt conductance at d.c., giving it a maximum value. Specifying a very low start frequency affects the accuracy and efficiency of the fit at other frequencies. Rational polynomial fitting is an area of active research, with many applications in power system analysis. The method employed in the EMTDC transmission line and cables program directly places poles and zeros in the s plane to obtain a match with the interpolated function. The orders of the numerator and denominator polynomials are incremented until a good match is obtained (up to a specified limit). Finding the rational polynomial directly in terms of poles and zeros,
(6.53)
simplifies the implementation of the function in a form suitable for simulation. A partial fraction expansion yields:
R ( s )= k,
kl k2 k3 +-+... ++S+Pl S+P2 S+P3
(6.54)
which can be readily represented by an RC network in the case of z , or transforming to the time domain for A @ ) , R ( r ) = kle- + k2e-P? + . . . (6.55) k, = 0 since in this case the denominator is of higher order than the numerator. Implementation of the transmission line model is illustrated in Figure 6.14. The transmission line and CABLES program calculates the RC networks, exponential sum
,
Coupled multi-conductor line
I I I
I
I
I
L
c
<
Modal transform
RC network
Modal transform
c -
----.
176
6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS
approximation to the propagation constant, and additionally an exponential sum for every term in the modal transform matrices. This is because the modal transform matrices are frequency dependent but can be treated in the same way as the propagation constant using recursive convolution. In order to obtain continuity in calculated eigenvalues and eigenvectors at the 100 sample points, the solution at frequency N is used as the starting point for a Newton Raphson iterative refinement at frequency N 1.
j g ( w ) , is a function of frequency, while the propagation function (e-(cr(w)+'p(w))') is a function of frequency and line length (1) The variation of the amplitude term e-n(w)' of a single phase line is shown in Figure 6.15(a) for a line length 1 = 100 km. These results illustrate the line low pass characteristics. As the line length is in the exponent, the attenuation of travelling waves increases with it. The variation with frequency of the phase angle of the propagation function, e-jp(w)', is shown in Figure 6.15(b). A negative phase represents a phase lag in the travelling waveform and its counterpart in the time domain is a time delay. The phase angle is a continuous function, becoming more negative with frequency but, for display purposes, it is constrained to be within the range -180" to 180". It is a difficult function to fit and requires a high order rational function to achieve sufficient accuracy. However, multiplication by e-Jsr, where r represents the time for a wave to travel from one end of the line to the other (in this case 0.33597 ms), results in the smooth function shown in Figure 6.15(b). With this procedure, referred to as backwinding, the attenuation (complex function) is easily fitted with a low order rational function. To obtain the correct response, the model must counter the phase advance applied in the frequency domain fitting. This is performed in the time domain implementation by incorporating
Magnitude
IAttenuationl = e-cr(w)'
Phase - (Degrees)
0
-1 00
Angle (Attenuation)=e-i@(w)'
-200
With backwinding
-3OOL
(b)
4 Log ( 2 4
177
(a)
0.4
'
I
1.5
2
2.5
3.5
4.5
Phase (Degrees)
1.5
2.5
3
Log(2nt)
3.5
4.5
(b)
a time delay T. With this purpose, a buffer of past voltages and currents at each end of the line is maintained and the values delayed by T are used. Because t in general is not an integer multiple of the time step, interpolation between the values in the buffer is required to get the correct time delay. Figure 6.16 shows the match obtained when applying least squares fitting of a rational function (numerator order 2, denominator order 3). The number of poles is normally one more than the zeros for the attenuation function magnitude which must go to zero as frequency approaches infinity. Although the fitting is good, close inspection shows a slight error at fundamental frequency. Any slight discrepancy at fundamental frequency shows up as a steady-state error, which is undesirable. This occurs because the least squares fitting tends to smear the error across the frequency range. To control this problem, a weighting factor can be applied to specified frequency ranges (such as around fundamental frequency) when applying the fitting procedure. When the fitting has been completed any slight error still remaining is removed by multiplying the rational function by a constant k to give the correct value at low frequency. This sets the d.c. gain (i.e. its value when s is set to zero) of the fitted rational function. The value of k controls the d.c. gain of this rational function and is calculated from the d.c. resistance and the d.c. gain of the surge impedance, thereby ensuring that the correct d.c. resistance is exhibited by the model. At frequencies when the value of A ( w ) drops below a specified threshold, the travelling waves will have been attenuated by the time they reach the end of the line; therefore the associated terms in the fitted A ( w ) are neglected. Also frequencies well above the Nyquist rate (e.g. 10 x Nyquist frequency for selected time-step) will not influence the simulation results and the corresponding terms are removed.
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6 ELECTROMAGNETICTRANSIENTS
Some fitting techniques force the poles and zeros to be real and stable (in the left hand half of the s-plane) while others allow complex poles and use other methods to ensure stable fits (such as vector-fitting). A common approach is to assume a minimum-phase function and use real half-plane poles. Fitting can be performed either in s-domain or z-domain, each alternative having advantages and disadvantages. The same fitting algorithm can be used for fitting the characteristic impedance (or admittance if using the Norton form). The number of poles and zeros is the same in both cases. Hence the partial expansion of the fitted rational function is:
This can be implemented by using a series of RC parallel blocks (the Foster I realization), which gives Ro = ko, R; = k i / p i . and C; = I / k ; . Either the trapezoidal rule can be applied to the RC network or better still recursive convolution. The shunt conductance G ( w ) is not normally calculated. At low frequencies the surge impedance becomes larger as the frequency approaches zero, i.e.
This trend can be seen in Figure 6.17 which shows the characteristic (or surge) impedance calculated by the transmission line parameter program down to 5 Hz.
Magnitude IZsurgel
650 650
600
550
500 500
t -
Start frequency
7
4 5
6
;
1
Phase (Degrees)
Angle (Zsurge)
-15 1
(b)
Log(2 n f )
180
6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS
(6.58) Forward reduction (arrow 2), followed by back substitution (arrows 3) is then used to get V,(t), i.e.
(3) (2)
(6.59) where
Once V u ( t ) has been found, the history terms for the next time step; are calculated.
Switching components
(6.60)
181
(6.61)
and then forward reduction (arrow 3) and back substitution (arrow 4). i.e.
(4) (3)
(6.62) Transmission lines do not introduce off-diagonal elements. This produces a block diagonal structure for [Guu]. Each block represents a subsystem that can be solved for independently, as any influence from the rest of the system is implemented in the form of history terms. This allows parallel computation and is used extensively in real time digital simulators. PSCADEMTDC performs the triangular factorization on a subsystem basis rather than on the entire matrix.
-----I
Current-source representation (with one time step delay). Compensation method. Piecewise linear representation.
Current-source representation This method uses a current source to model the current drawn by the non-linear component, its value calculated from information at previous time-steps. Therefore it lacks an instantaneous term and appears as an open circuir to the voltages at the present time-step. Thus, to avoid possible related instabilities, a correction source is used in the form of a large fictitious Norton resistance. However there is a one time-step delay in the correction source. Compensation method If there is only one non-linear branch a compensation
method can be applied, whereby the non-linear branch is excluded from the network and replaced by a current source. The total network solution v(t) is then equal to the
182
6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS
value vo(t) found with the non-linear branch omitted, plus the contribution produced by the non-linear branch, i.e. (6.63) v(l) = vO(t) - RTheveninikm(t)t where Rmevenin = Thevenin resistance of the network without non-linear branch connected between nodes k and m, vg(t) = open circuit voltage of network, i.e. voltage between nodes k and m without non-linear branch connected. The Thevenin resistance of the linear network is calculated by taking the difference between the rn th and k th columns of matrix [Guul-' . This is achieved by solving [Gu~]v(t) =1 ; with 1 ; set to zero except for the r n and k elements, which are -1 and 1, respectively. It is equivalent to finding the terminal voltage when connecting a current source (of magnitude 1) between nodes k and m. The Thevenin resistance is precomputed only once, before entering the time step loop, and only needs re-computing whenever switches open or close. Two scalar equations are then solved simultaneously, as shown in the diagram of Figure 6.18, i.e. (6.64) Vkrn(t) = VkmO(t) - RTheveninikmT (6.65) = f ( i k m r dikmldt, t , * * *), If Equation (6.65) is given as an analytic expression, a Newton Raphson solution is used. When Equation (6.65) is defined point-by-point as a piecewise linear curve, a search procedure is used instead. Even though there may be more that one non-linear branch, using the subsystem concept described in Section 6.6, the compensation approach can still be used, as long as there is only one non-linear branch per subsystem. If the non-linear branch is defined by Vkm = f ( i k m ) or Vkm = R(t)iknl the solution is straightforward. For a non-linear inductor the flux (A = f ( i k m ) ) is the integral of the voltage with time, i.e.
Vkrn(l)
A(t) = A(l - A t )
(6.66)
183
AHistory(f
- Af).
(6.67)
where
h ~ i =~ A(ft ~A l ~ ) ~ -v(f
+ At 2
However, numerical problems can occur with non-linear elements when Af is too large because the regions of the non-linear characteristic between samples will be missed. This, as shown in Figure 6.19, may produce fictitious negative damping or hysteresis.
Piecewise linear representation The piecewise linear inductor characteristic, as depicted in Figure 6.20, can be represented as a linear inductor in parallel with a current source representing saturation. This model is very accurate when the compensation is small.
Y =
(6.68)
184
6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS
'Compensation
i'
-j
icompensation
Linear inductor
(b)
Figure 6.21 Separation of two coupled subsystems by means of linearized equivalent sources
Each decoupled block in this matrix is a subsystem, and can be solved at each time step independently of all other subsystems. Figure 6.21(a) illustrates coupled systems that are to be separated into subsystems. Each subsystem in Figure 6.21(b) is represented in the other by a linear equivalent. The Norton equivalent is constructed using information from the previous time step, looking into subsystem (2) from bus (A). The shunt connected at ( A ) is considered
USE OF SUBSYSTEMS
185
and and
Y N =IBA(t
ZTH % 2
When simulating HVDC systems, it can frequently be arranged that the subsystems containing each end of the link are small, so that only a small conductance matrix need be refactored after every switching. Even if the link is not terminated at transmission lines or cables, a subsystem boundary can still be created by introducing a one-time step delay at the commutating bus. A d.c. link subdivided into subsystems is illustrated in Figure 6.22. The method of interfacing subsystems by controlled sources is also used to interface subsystems with component models solved by another algorithm, e.g. components using Numerical Integration Substitution on a state variable formulation. Synchronous machine and SVC models are framed in state variables in PSCADEMTDC and appear
y
I I
I
I
I I I
I
I I I I
I
I I I
186
6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS
to their parent subsystems as controlled sources. As for interfacing subsystems, best results are obtained if the voltage and current at the point of connection are stabilized, and if each componendmodel is represented in the other as a linearized equivalent around the solution at the previous time step. In the case of synchronous machines, a suitable linearizing equivalent is the subtransient reactance, which should be connected in shunt with the machine current injection.
I
Figure 6 . 2 3
Switch representation
187
Figure 6.24 Apparent reverse current in a diode due to placement of simulation time steps
Figure 6.24 for the case of a diode-ending conduction. At (A) the diode should be switched off, but the negative current is only detected at (B) and the conductance matrix is reformed at (C). An effective solution of this problem is to apply a linear interpolation at (B) to find all the nodal voltages at a point very close to (A). An exact solution for the zero crossing is a non-linear problem; however, given the close proximity of points t and t At, a linear interpolation between them introduces no significant error [22,23]. In the above example, the diode model must include logic to detect the switching event and then estimate the instant t T I of its occurrence between t and t + At. For a diode, a linear interpolation on the forward current yields:
r=
The nodal voltages at t
~
Atif(t)
if(?)
- if(f
+ At)
(6.73)
(6.74)
and similarly for branch currents in the system. If simulation proceeds normally from t + T with the new conductance matrix, subsequent solution points will be shifted by t. For convenience, an additional interpolation can be made after the first time step with the new conductance matrix to bring the simulation back onto the original time sequence, yielding the sequence of steps illustrated in Figure 6.25. Another option is
JI
>
Figure 6.25 A double interpolation scheme to find the switching instant and re-synchronise time steps
188
6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS
to accept unequally spaced points in the solution (which complicates Fourier analysis of the resulting waveforms), or to fit a cubic spline to the solution and re-index to any desired time base. In the PSCADEMTDC package, the interpolation scheme of Figure 6.25 is used but with two additional interpolations introduced to eliminate voltage and current chatter, to be discussed in the next section.
P
f
T-2Af T-Af T T+Af T+2At
Figure 6.26
circuit M ..ich will display voltage chatter after the diode switches off
9 0
a
-
U
C
,
T-2Af
T-At
T+At
T+2Af
' -I
" 1 -
Figure 6.27 (a) Correct solution for voltage across the inductor. (b) Chatter voltage at the
diode anode
189
- iL(r - A t ) ) - V L ( t- Ar).
= i L ( t - A t ) = 0,
(6.75)
From (t
so
+ A t ) onwards
iL(t)
V L ( t )= -VL(t - A t ) .
(6.76)
The inductor voltage consequently oscillates between ~ V instead L of falling to zero (Figure 6.27(b)). Note, however, that the average inductor voltage is correct at zero, and that the chatter does not grow larger. PSCADEMTDC uses a double half-time step interpolation method to remove chatter which relies only on trapezoidal integration [28]. With reference to Figure 6.28, the following steps are involved: trapezoidal integration, interpolation back to discontinuity, between (1) and (2), trapezoidal integration with new conductance matrix, interpolation between (3) and (4) of half time step to remove chatter, trapezoidal integration to get past t At, interpolation between (6) and ( 5 ) to re-synchronise time steps, normal integration resumes.
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6 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS
The chatter problem discussed above is associated with the numerical error of the trapezoidal (or any other integration) rule, i.e. it is inherent in the numerical integrator substitution method. With the use of root matching techniques instead of numerical integrator substitution [29], a chatter removal process is not required. Root matching is always numerically stable and more efficient numerically than trapezoidal integration. Root matching is only formulated for the branches containing at least two or more elements (i.e. RL, RC.. RLC, LC..) and these can be intermixed in the same solution with branches solved with other integration techniques.
Careful inspection of this equation shows that the first term is a first order approximation of e- where x = AtR/L. The second term is a first order approximation of (1 - e-X)/2. This suggests that using the exponential expressions in the difference equation will eliminate the truncation error and give accurate and stable simulations regardless of the time step. Equation (6.77) is thus expressed as:
(6.78)
Although the exponential form can be deduced from the difference equation developed by numerical integrator substitution, such an approach is unsuitable for most transfer functions or electrical circuits, due to the difficulty in identifying the form of the exponential that has been truncated. The root-matching technique provides a rigorous method.