Citrograph: Ted Batkin With CRB's New President Ken Keck

P R S R T S T D
U . S . P O S T A G E P A I D
P O N T I A C , I L 6 1 7 6 4
P E R M I T 1 2 5
C I T R U S R E S E A R C H B O A R D , P . O . B o x 2 3 0 , V i s a l i a , C A 9 3 2 7 9
A d d r e s s S e r v i c e R e q u e s t e d
Citrograph
Citrograph
May/June 2013
Ted Batkin
with CRBs
new President
Ken Keck
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May/June 2013 Citrograph 3
IN THIS ISSUE
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statements made in any of the advertisements. The Board does not warrant, expressly or implicitly, the ftness of any product
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ADVERTISING INFORMATION
PRODUCTION INFORMATION
Canadian & Foreign:
Louise Fisher, Managing Editor
Dr. MaryLou Polek, Chief Science Editor
Dr. Mary Lu Arpaia
Ted Batkin
Richard Bennett
Franco Bernardi
Dan Dreyer
Dr. Ben Faber
Jim Gorden
Julia Inestroza
Dennis Laux
EDITORIAL BOARD
4 Editorial
6 Chairmans View
12 Maintenance of citrus microirrigation
systems
22 How does nitrogen move in the soil?
30 VRI: Thinking outside the rectangle
36 Technical and fnancial assistance
from NRCS
38 Advanced Pumping Effciency Program
42 A Thank You note to John Pehrson
48 Understanding citrus branch canker
and dieback in the Southern California
desert regions
52 New postharvest treatments for
improved management of green mold,
sour rot, and brown rot of citrus
60 Citrus Roots: The Building Boom
of 1925-26 caused a relinquishment of
citrus acreage
SCIENCE REVIEW PANEL
Dr. Mary Lu Arpaia
James A. Bethke
Dr. Abhaya Dandekar
Dr. Akif Eskalen
Dr. Stephen Garnsey
Dr. Joseph Smilanick
Editorial services provided by Anne Warring,
Warring Enterprises, Visalia, CA 93277
FAX: 559-738-0607
Web Site:
http://www.citrusresearch.org
MAY/June 2013 VoluMe 4 nuMber 3
4 Citrograph May/June 2013
EDITORIAL
BY TED A. BATKIN, Citrus Research Board president August 1993/May 2013
The Final Word!!
I
have always wanted to say that! However, this will be my fnal
editorial as President of the Citrus Research Board. As of June
1st, Ken Keck has taken the helm of the CRB. Please note the
wonderful cover photo by Teresa Ferguson from the CRB staff.
The program will be in great hands with Ken, as he brings a wealth of
experience to the Board and to the program. You read about his back-
ground in the March/April Citrograph and will, of course, learn much
more about him in upcoming issues.
I do want to take this opportunity to thank you, the growers of
citrus in California, for the opportunity to serve this noble industry
for the past 20 years. When I frst took the leadership, we had a staff
of one (me) and have grown to a program with multiple elements and
15 full-time staff members in three locations throughout the state. We
operated with a staff of four for the frst 15 years. In 2008, with the
introduction of the Asian citrus psyllid (ACP), we expanded to over
40 personnel with the statewide trapping and detection program. Last
year we transferred many of those duties to CDFA for regulatory pur-
poses, leaving the current staff levels.
The ACP and huanglongbing issues are still with us and will be
for many years to come. This devastating HLB disease will haunt the
growers from now on until a permanent solution can be found through
scientifc development. I fully believe that there will be a cure for HLB
that will keep the California industry alive and vital for centuries to
come. The scientifc community is close to unlocking the critical fac-
tors to bring resistant rootstocks and early detection diagnostic
technologies to provide you, the growers, the tools necessary to sur-
vive the disease.
There will be more challenges to the industry from invasive
pests and diseases -- some of which we already know and others
that have not even been discovered yet. This is just the evolution-
ary cycle of things in agriculture. I also believe that the industry
will continue to build on the knowledge base currently available
to meet these challenges and survive the threats as they come
forward.
There is not enough room in this entire magazine to thank all of
the wonderful folks who have made my career the true joy that it has
been. Everyone that I have been associated with has added to my life
and brought something of value to me and to the program. To all of
you, a very heartfelt THANK YOU!! l
I do want to take this
opportunity to thank
you, the growers of
citrus in California, for
the opportunity to serve
this noble industry for
the past 20 years.
District 2 Southern California Coastal
Member Alternate
Earl Rutz, Pauma Valley Alan Washburn, Riverside
Joe Barcinas, Riverside John C. Gless, Riverside
District 1 Northern California
Member Alternate
Allan Lombardi, Exeter Justin Brown, Orange Cove
Donald Roark, Lindsay Dan Dreyer, Exeter
Jim Gorden, Exeter Dan Galbraith, Porterville
Joe Stewart, Bakersfeld Franco Bernardi, Visalia
Etienne Rabe, Bakersfeld John Konda, Terra Bella
John Richardson, Porterville Jeff Steen, Strathmore
Kevin Olsen, Pinedale Tommy Elliott, Visalia
Richard Bennett, Visalia Dennis Laux, Porterville
CITRUS RESEARCH BOARD MEMBER LIST BY DISTRICT 2012-2013
Citrus Research Board
217 N Encina, Visalia, CA 93291
PO Box 230, Visalia, CA 93279
(559) 738-0246
FAX (559) 738-0607
E-Mail Info@citrusresearch.org
District 3 California Desert
Member Alternate
Mark McBroom, Calipatria Craig Armstrong, Thermal

Public Member
Member Alternate
Ed Civerolo, Kingsburg Steve Garnsey, Fallbrook
The Mission of the Citrus Research Board:
Develop knowledge and build systems for grower vitality.
Focus on quality assurance, clonal protection, production research,
variety development, and grower/public education.
DO YOU KNOW...?
CALENDAR
August 20-22 Crb research - Presentation of Proposals and
Crb board Meeting, DoubleTree Hotel, bakersfeld,
CA. For information, contact the Citrus research
board at (559) 738-0246.
September 17 Crb Annual Meeting, lindcove reC, exeter, CA. For
information, contact the Citrus research board at
(559) 738-0246.
october 10 California Citrus Quality Council (CCQC) Conference
and Workshop, Visalia Convention Center, Visalia, CA.
For information, contact CCQC at (530) 885-1894.
october 15-17 Citrus Health research Forum, embassy Suites,
Denver, Co. For information, contact the Citrus
research board at (559) 738-0246.
november 7 California Citrus Mutual (CCM) Annual Meeting,
Visalia Convention Center, Visalia, CA. For
information, contact CCM at (559) 592-3790.
When, and under what circumstances, was
the slogan Dont Bug Me used in a public
service ad campaign in Southern California?
(Go to page 34 for the answer.)
Map of Asian citrus psyllid detections in California and neighboring portions of Arizona and Mexico
through June 6, 2013.
CHAIRMANS VIEW
BY EARL RUTZ, Chairman of the Board
Find HLB at all costs!!
T
he war on the Asian citrus psyllid
(ACP) is slowly being lost in all
areas where it has been found!
The costs have been staggering in the
residential areas. Only more ACP are
being found, which has prompted the
CDFA and CPDPC to stop most trap-
ping and treatments for ACP. Some
resources have been reallocated to col-
lecting ACP and some plant material for
testing for huanglongbing (HLB).
We as growers must encourage
all agencies to devote all resources to
fnding any possible location of HLB,
especially in the proximity of the com-
mercial groves. If found, all our war
must be waged in those areas to elimi-
nate all sources of HLB and the popu-
lations of ACP nearby.
The need to screen extensive sam-
ples of ACP and host plant material
could delineate where HLB is and, as
importantly, where it is not. This would
allow us to focus our chemical treat-
ments to the HOT areas and not just
as we are doing now, which is area-
wide, 800m radius and limited residen-
tial treatments.
We are proving that the chemicals
are not effective as being used and
New manager for CPDPC
T
he Citrus Pest and Disease Prevention Committee
(CPDPC) has a new Program Manager at the Cali-
fornia Department of Food and Agriculture.
Victoria Hornbaker took the post in April, succeed-
ing Susan McCarthy who is now Branch Chief of CDFAs
Plant Pest Diagnostics Center.
Hornbaker joined the Department in
2008 as a Supervising Senior Agricultural
Biologist, managing the Vertebrate Pest Re-
search Program and serving as secretary to
the Vertebrate Pest Control Research Advi-
sory Committee.
In 2011, she became a Program Super-
visor within the Integrated Pest Control
Branch, and, in addition to her work with the
Vertebrate Program, took over management
of the Pink Bollworm Program and the Cot-
ton Pest Control Board as well as the Beet
Curly Top Virus Control Program and its ad-
visory board.
Hornbaker was responsible for managing all three
programs in their entirety, including mapping and treat-
ment operations, regulatory issues, environmental compli-
ance, budgets and personnel, and outreach.
Business background
Hornbakers background includes business experi-
ence, as she worked in the private sector for a number of
years before changing direction and getting a bachelors
degree in biological sciences in 2001 from California State
University, San Bernardino.
While at CSU, she interned at the Eastern Municipal
Water District in the city of Perris, in the Environmental
and Regulatory Compliance Group, working primarily on
air quality and water quality issues.
She began her career with the State of California
right after graduation, as a hazardous materials coordi-
nator with the Department of Developmental Services in
Pomona where she implemented an integrated hazardous
materials management plan for the 1,600-
acre facility.
Then in 2002, she took a position with
the Department of Pesticide Regulation in
Sacramento as an Environmental Scientist
with duties including registering pesticides,
reviewing effcacy data, managing the fumi-
gant and device registration program, and
coordinating risk assessments. She was with
Cal EPA until 2008.
Consistency in messaging and focus
Hornbaker says that her goals and ob-
jectives coming into the job as Citrus Pro-
gram Manager are aimed at positioning
California as a leader in Asian citrus psyllid/HLB con-
trol.
Her approach, she says, will be based on consistency
in messaging and focus for all aspects of the citrus pest
and disease control program.
Specifcally, she lists collaboration with other enti-
ties -- state, federal, local, university, non-governmental
organizations -- to keep moving forward with the latest
technologies for treatments of ACP and early identifca-
tion of huanglongbing disease; emphasizing research for
long-term solutions, including biocontrol, rootstocks, etc.;
and, implementing area-wide treatment programs and in-
creasing grower involvement through the use of grower
liaisons and focused outreach. l
Victoria Hornbaker
not sustainable fnancially. We need to
defne our defensible spaces by such
extensive testing that we develop con-
fdence in the distribution of HLB.
With this type of information, we can
focus our efforts where they will be
effective.
The development of benefcials
such as Tamarixia combined with the
natural predators may begin to help
us in, especially, the residential areas
where we cannot effectively treat for
ACP.
There is early evidence that after
a couple of years, this invasive species
is doing what may be expected. The
population curve is dropping. After
further research on this topic, we may
be able to include this information
in our overall strategy. Our environ-
ments of California are very different
that other areas of the United States,
and that may play in our favor.
The various new technologies
that are helping us detect signals of
HLB earlier will become very criti-
cal in this overall search for HLB. The
combination of biology, new technol-
ogy, natural and imported benefcials,
new chemicals, and hopefully resis-
tant rootstocks and scions will all be
needed and are being developed now.
For any combination of tools to work,
we must do everything in our power to
fnd where HLB is, and is Not, with as
much confdence as possible.
We will survive this disease if we
do the right job now! Correctly focus
our efforts and resources! l
We as growers must encourage all agencies to devote all resources to fnding any
possible location of HLB, especially in the proximity of the commercial groves.
T
he Rutaceae family of plants includes not only spe-
cies within the genus Citrus but also several other
genera and species that may not be easily recognized
as having any relationship to citrus at all.
However, many of these citrus relatives are used for or-
namental, culinary, or religious purposes. Their fruit, leaves
and/or budwood are sometimes brought into the United
States illegally through various routes and are often hosts
of citrus pathogens and pests of quarantine signifcance.
Part of reducing the risk posed from illegal introduc-
tions of Rutaceae which may harbor the huanglongbing
(HLB) associated bacteria. Candidatus Liberibacter spp.,
begins with the ability to identify these species.
Thats the important message on the inside front
cover of the booklet Field I.D. Guide to Citrus Relative
Hosts of Asian Citrus Psyllid & Huanglongbing.
The guide is a laminated, spiral bound, pocket-size
notebook -- a very handy and easy-to-use format. It pro-
vides a photo array and key information on each of 24
species and types of citrus relatives most likely to be pres-
ent in California and posing a risk.
The species are arranged in categories by leaf type
for quicker reference. The notes on each indicate whether
the item is a host of ACP or HLB or both.
Collaborative effort
The concept for this fip book came from Robin
Wall, the California Agriculture Liaison for U.S. Customs
and Border Protection (CBP), and the Citrus Research
Boards director of communications and fnance, Louise
Fisher.
Fisher took the idea to the researchers working on
the CRB-funded Unforbidden Fruits project (see Un-
forbidden fruits: preventing citrus smuggling by introduc-
ing varieties culturally signifcant to ethnic communities,
Citrograph, September/October 2012).
The members of the unforbidden fruits team who
developed the 54 pages of material were Toni Siebert,
David Karp and Dr. Tracy Kahn at UC Riverside and Dr.
Robert Krueger with the USDA-ARS National Clonal
Germplasm Repository for Citrus and Dates in Riverside.
Production was a collaborative effort of CRB, the
Citrus Pest & Disease Prevention Program (CPDPP), the
University of California, and USDA.
The guide is in use by trappers, feld inspectors and
surveyors working throughout the state. The frst 2,400
copies went to supplying the Customs and Border Protec-
tion agriculture specialists to enhance ACP/HLB aware-
ness at the international borders. l
Anne Warring
Flip book alerts to
possible sources of HLB
Sample pages from the new pocket-size Field I.D.
Guide to Citrus Relative Hosts of Asian Citrus Psyllid &
Huanglongbing.
Murraya paniculata
Orange jessamine
Botanical name:
Murraya paniculata
Common name:
Orange jessamine, orange jasmine,
Hawaiian mock orange
Fruiting season:
May to December
Characteristics:
Small tree or large shrub up to 20 feet tall. Leaves
are pinnate and glossy. No spines. Large, fragrant
white fowers occur nearly year-round. Round to
oblong fruits are smooth and dark red-orange in
color. Fruits are said to be sweet and contain 1
to 2 seeds.
Uses:
Murraya was originally prized for its wood and
medicinal propertes. Presently it is considered an
appealing ornamental tree or hedge.
Risk to California Citrus:
HIGH. Murraya has adapted to many diferent soil
types and climates. It is easily propagated by seed
and is spread by animals. Preferred ACP Host.
ACP Host: YES
HLB Host: YES
25
Murraya paniculata
Orange jessamine
YaraMila
YaraLiva
Early
Vegetative
Growth/
Flush
Flowering
Fruit
set
Fruit
fill
Post
harvest
20% of
total N
30% of
total N
20% of
total K
2
O
30% of
total K
2
O
25% of
total K
2
O
15 - 15 - 15
20% of
total N /
10% of
total K2O
30% of
total N /
15% of
total K2O
CN-9
/ Tropicote
13 - 0 - 46
YaraVita
Correction of nutrient deficiencies based on tissue analysis

For more information, please contact:
Ron Naven, Northern California: 916 632 3120
Jon Collison, South Central Coast: 661 589 8796
Leonard Hammer, Central California: 559 834 4616
Andy Hancock, Southern California: 928 345 2276
The Yara Complete
Citrus Crop Program
Scan for crop advice &
support documents
I
n 2008, the State Legislature passed legislation seeking
to determine the scope of groundwater contamination. A
contract was awarded to UC Davis, and the focus for the
evaluation became Salinas Valley and the San Joaquin Valley
(SJV). The results were announced in May 2012.
On a parallel path, Regional Water Quality Control
Boards assumed the responsibility of addressing the issue
and almost immediately suggested draconian measures to
clean up groundwater. Not to be outdone, the UC Davis
report placed most of the blame on agriculture citing the
need for a massive taxation policy on fertilizer users, there-
by creating a revenue path to clean up the
groundwater.
UC Davis authors chose to market their
report. The Regional Water Quality Boards
chose a transparent runaway train process to
establish rules and regulations to be followed.
The California citrus industry, primarily Cali-
fornia Citrus Mutual (CCM), chose to take
the issue head-on. The Davis report chastised
farming in the SJV with examples of contami-
nation drawn from East Side communities.
Our response was measured. One, there
was a problem which was well known for de-
cades. The UC Davis report presented nothing
new but was a repackaging of old information.
We approached the Administration who had
inherited the problem but nevertheless was sitting on bond
money that should have been made available to address the
underserved communities problems.
We approached the University of California for a more
even-keel approach, suggesting their partnerships and good
work in the past decade was being ignored relative to nitrates.
We joined with other agricultural groups and approached
the State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB) seek-
ing a broader report that contained some balance. We chal-
lenged the Davis report in meetings, in the media, and in
other forums where opportunity was provided.
Fast forward to May 2013 and the issue is still fester-
ing with no solution in sight. But, there is a more mature
approach working towards a solution. We never said there
was not a problem; we only said we wanted to be part of the
solution. We did get a commitment from the Administration
to initiate a balanced approach to a solution. That effort,
however, has trickled along like a dry riverbed.
We did get the report from the SWRCB citing a broader
problem that should just not be solely nitrate-focused. We
have a Regional Water Board, after signifcant bloodletting,
OPINION
Nitrates, nutrition: fact and fction for
the California citrus industry
Joel Nelsen, President, California Citrus Mutual
approaching the issue in a more balanced manner, and we
have a legislature that is taking the CCM principles for a
solution to heart.
What are those principles?
One, recognize the research conducted by industry
and the University that has led to new farming practices
relative to irrigation and nitrate application.
Two, priority one of any package must be the ability of
our citizens to access clean water.
Three, if a tax is to be imposed, all parties identifed as
contributors -- agriculture and non-agriculture -- to the con-
tamination must be subject to the tax. A tax
must be equitable across regions and crops. A
revenue path that creates a vast pool of funds
without controls will not be supported.
Four, a revenue path that contains per-
formance clauses and accountability with a
tiered approach to increases is what we will
support.
Five, since existing rules and regulations
encumber local jurisdictions from accessing
existing money, new language must be pro-
mulgated that corrects the problem. We sup-
ported EPAs April announcement chastising
the state for not using existing funds to fx an
identifed problem.
Six, a sunset provision coupled with a
legislative review must be part of the solution package.
So what will be the impact on the citrus producer? You
may see a mil assessment imposed upon the purchase of fer-
tilizer, hopefully bulk only. You will be burdened with an
online documentation process that will be subject to audit
(infrequently) that among other things stipulates that op-
erators conduct an analysis before deciding what and how
much of a fertilizer to apply. Our industrys history of part-
nership and research with UC coupled with practice modi-
fcation will be the documentation or proof of performance.
It will become an asset in telling a story rather than a liabil-
ity. This will not be submitted nor become a public docu-
ment. The form will look worse than it is. It will require
that producers maintain and fund membership into an exist-
ing coalition.
How we get there is still a winding road with activists
and policymakers advocating different solutions. We believe
existing practices for meeting the requirements for main-
taining a healthy tree and optimum production are safe. The
industry took a proactive approach years ago, and that will
pay dividends into 2013/2014. l
Joel Nelsen
We put a powerful insecticide through some big changes. The result:
Vulcans new chlorpyrifos formulation delivers the high-speed knockdown
and performance you need while reducing the odor you dont. When
youre ready to see and smell the difference an enhanced formulation
makes, ask your PCA or retailer for Vulcan
.
DIAL BACK THE SMELL
NOT THE PERFORMANCE
2013 MANA Crop Protection. 3120 Highwoods Blvd. #100, Raleigh, NC 27604. Vulcan is a Restricted Use
Pesticide. Always read and follow label directions. Vulcan is a trademark of a Makhteshim Agan Group
Company. 19910-CTRO
I NSECTI CI DE
Maintenance of citrus microirrigation systems
Larry Schwankl and Ben Faber
Introduction
Microirrigation systems (drip and
microsprinklers) used in citrus allow
the manager to irrigate effciently, ap-
plying just the right amount of water at
the desired time. The systems are cost-
ly, so it is important that they operate
as designed to deliver their maximum
performance.
This requires that the microirriga-
tion system be maintained properly,
with particular care given to make sure
that the drippers or microsprinklers
are not clogged.
A clogged microsprinkler or drip
emitter results in the trees receiving
less water than planned, and defcit ir-
rigation of the trees can hurt yield and
quality.
Drippers or microsprinklers that
are totally clogged are more easily
spotted, but partial clogging is often
not easily detected, especially with drip
emitters. Even totally clogged drippers
or microsprinklers will not be found
if the microirrigation system is not in-
spected regularly. Therefore, frequent
system inspections (during each irri-
gation) are the frst important step to
maintaining a drip or microsprinkler
system.
Leaks -- also a problem with mi-
croirrigation systems -- can be checked
for during the routine system inspec-
tions. Leaks, which can be caused by
animal or human damage to the system
or simply by a ftting coming loose, are
often easily detected by sight or sound.
The emitters can be clogged due
to a variety of reasons, and sometimes
multiple issues may be involved. For
this article, it is useful to break the
sources of clogging into categories
to discuss their causes and solutions.
Clogging caused by suspended materi-
al, by organic materials, and by chemi-
cal precipitates will be discussed.
Clogging caused by suspended
materials
Suspended materials in irrigation
water may be inorganic (sand, silt, and
clay), organic (algae, bacteria, plant
debris, fsh, insects, insect larva, and
IRRIGATION
bacterial slimes), or any other foating
or suspended matter. These materials
must be removed from irrigation water
by fltering prior to use in microirriga-
tion systems to prevent emitter clog-
ging.
Filtration equipment for removing
suspended materials includes:
centrifugal sand separators
sand media flters
pressurized screen flters
suction screen flters (installed on
the intake of centrifugal pumps)
gravity fow screen flters
disc flters
Centrifugal sand separators re-
move larger particles of sand. Water
entering the separator rotates around
it, developing centrifugal forces that
cause the sand particles to move to the
outer edge of the separator. These par-
ticles then settle out of the water into
a collection chamber at the bottom of
the unit. Clean water fows out of the
separator at the vortex of the rotation.
Gravity fow screen flters operate
by having water fow by gravity through
a screen with the contaminants being
captured on the screen while the clean
water drops through the screen where
it is collected and pressurized for use in
the microirrigation system.
Pressurized screen flters operate
under the same pressure as the rest
of the microirrigation system. As wa-
ter is forced through the screen flter,
the contaminants are caught on the
screen. Periodically, the screen must
be cleaned, either manually or some
screen flters have automatic backwash
systems.
Typical reddish staining on building resulting from water
high in iron striking the building during irrigation.
Sand media flters.
Disk flters consist of a stack of
discs, each containing a series of very
small grooves. As water fows through
the grooves, the contaminants are
caught and removed. The clean water
passes into the microirrigation system.
The degree of fltration for screen
and disk flters is expressed as mesh
size or equivalent mesh size. The mesh
size is the number of openings per inch.
For example, a 200-mesh flter has 200
openings per inch in the flter. The
emission device manufacturer often
provides the required degree of fltra-
tion, so they should be contacted for
information.
The degree of fltration for sand
media flters is determined by the par-
ticle size of the sand used. The table
below shows the correspondence be-
tween sand size and mesh sizes. It is
most common to fnd number 16 or
number 20 sand used in sand media
flters.
Sand No. Equivalent Mesh Size
8 70
11 140
16 170
20 230
30 400
Screen flters, disc flters, and sand
media flters can all be designed to
remove the same size particle, so the
best flter to use depends on the type
of material suspended in the irrigation
water. Generally, sand media flters are
used to remove algae and other organic
material; they are effective in removing
these materials without the need for
frequent backfushing. Screen and disc
flters can remove organic material, but
they can clog rapidly and require fre-
quent backfushing.
Clogging caused by organic materials
Biological growths in drip lines and
emitters can be a serious problem when
the irrigation water contains organic
sediments, dissolved iron, or hydrogen
sulfde. The primary biological growths
in drip systems are algae and bacteria.
Algae occur in surface waters used
for irrigation; their food sources include
carbon dioxide, nitrogen and phospho-
rus. While the fltration of microirri-
gation systems removes some of the
algae, small particles of algae can pass
through the flter into the drip system.
Algae also provide an organic carbon
food source for slime organisms.
Bacteria discolor the water and
form precipitates and slimes that stick
to the walls of the emitter fow passag-
es. Bacterial clogging occurs when min-
eral food sources are available in the
water along with suspended particles
to which the bacteria can attach. Food
sources include organic carbon (dead
algae), carbonates and bicarbonates,
iron, and hydrogen sulfde.
Iron rich water leads to the forma-
tion of iron bacteria, which convert sol-
uble iron to insoluble iron precipitates.
The result is a reddish slime in the drip
lines and emitters. The source of the
iron bacteria is not clear but may be
the result of well contamination during
construction. Iron concentrations of 0.2
ppm are suffcient for bacterial growth.
Hydrogen sulfde in the irrigation wa-
ter results in sulfur bacteria, a whitish
slime with a rotten egg odor.
Preventing biological growths
Chlorine is often added to irriga-
tion water to oxidize and kill biologi-
cal microorganisms such as algae, fun-
gi, and bacteria that can cause emitter
clogging. While these microorganisms
may be present in water from any
source, they are most likely to exist
at high levels in surface irrigation wa-
ter from rivers, canals, reservoirs, and
ponds.
A common solution to this prob-
lem is either continuous injection to
maintain a residual chlorine concen-
tration of 1 to 2 ppm, or periodic injec-
Venturi injector with an electric booster pump bypass system.
A diaphragm pump injector in the foreground, and in the background a bypass
venturi injector with an electric booster pump.
tions of 2 hours or more with chlorine
concentrations of 10 to 20 ppm. The
frequency of the periodic injections
depends on the severity of the biologi-
cal growths. Flushing of lateral lines is
recommended after a periodic chlorine
injection.
High levels of microorganisms in
water introduced into a microirriga-
tion system may clog the emitters. Us-
ing a good flter (such as a sand media
flter) and acidifying the water can cut
down on organic clogging, but some
organic material may still pass through
the flter into the drip lines. Thus, chlo-
rination or some other biocide usually
is needed to prevent clogging from or-
ganic material.
While chlorine is the most common
biocide used in microirrigation systems,
there are other products, such as cop-
per-based chemicals, which are also ef-
fective biocides.
Desired chlorine concentrations
Continuous injection of chlorine
should be used if the irrigation water
has high levels of algae and bacteria.
The recommended level of free chlo-
rine is 1 to 2 ppm at the end of the
irrigation system. It is important to
check the concentration at the end of
the lateral line since chlorine is used
to oxidize the organic materials and
reacts with any iron and manganese in
the water. The chlorine concentration
can be determined with a good quality
swimming pool or spa chlorine test kit.
Periodic (e.g. once per month)
injections at a higher chlorine concen-
tration rate (10 to 20 ppm) for 2 hours
or more may be appropriate where
algae and bacterial slimes are less of
a problem. The frequency of injection
depends on the potential organic clog-
ging.
Forms of chlorine
Common sources of chlorine are
chlorine gas, sodium hypochlorite
(household liquid bleach), and calcium
hypochlorite (powder or granules).
Adding chlorine to water produces
mainly hypochlorous acid and hypo-
chlorite, both referred to collectively as
free available chlorine. Hypochlorous
acid is the most effective agent for con-
trolling biological growths. Its concen-
tration depends on the pH of the water.
When a pH of 7 or less is maintained,
at least 75% of the chlorine in the wa-
ter is hypochlorous acid, while at a pH
of 8 only about 25% of the chlorine is
hypochlorous acid. At a pH of less than
3, chlorine gas predominates.
Chlorine gas: Dissolving chlorine
gas in water produces hypochlorous
acid, hydrogen, and chloride. Chlorine
gas contains 100% available chlorine
because it lowers the pH of the water
to a level that results in mostly chlo-
rine and hypochlorous acid. While us-
ing chlorine gas is generally considered
Injection method Chlorine concentration
at the end of the
last lateral
Continuous injection 1 2 ppm
Periodic injection 10 20 ppm
the least expensive method of injecting
chlorine, it is the most hazardous and
requires extensive safety precautions.
Trained personnel are needed for in-
stalling and using chlorine gas injection
systems.
The chlorine gas injection rate can
be calculated from the following equa-
tion:
IR = Q x C x 0.012
where:
IR = the injection rate in pounds
per day (the most common unit used
for chlorine gas injection systems).
Q = the irrigation system fow rate
in gallons per minute (gpm).
C = the desired chlorine concentra-
tion in the water in parts per million
(ppm).
Sodium hypochlorite: Sodium
hypochlorite ([commercial?] liquid
bleach) is usually available with up to
15% available chlorine. Household
bleach is sodium hypochlorite with
5.25% available chlorine. Most liquid
fertilizer injection equipment is capa-
ble of injecting liquid chlorine. If the
injection point is downstream of the fl-
ters, it may be necessary to hand treat
the flters with chlorine.
Adding sodium hypochlorite to
water produces hydroxyl ions, which
raises the pH of the water and, in do-
ing so, may decrease the effectiveness
of chlorination. If the water pH rises
above 7.5, acid injection may be neces-
Disc flter. Irrigation reservoir with organic contaminants that should
be mitigated for prior to use with a microirrigation system.
sary to reduce the pH and increase the
chlorines effectiveness.
Do not mix chlorine (e.g. commer-
cial or household liquid bleach) and
acids together because that can cause
the formation of chlorine gas, which
is highly toxic. Use different storage
tanks and injection ports for acid and
chlorine.
Use the following equation to de-
termine the chlorine injection rate
when using sodium hypochlorite:
IR = (0.006 x Q x C) S
where:
IR = the injection rate in gallons
per hour (gph).
Q = the irrigation system fow rate
in gallons per minute (gpm).
C = the desired chlorine concentra-
tion in the water in parts per million
(ppm).
S = the strength of the sodium hy-
pochlorite source expressed as a per-
centage.
Example: Sufficient household
bleach (5.25% chlorine) is to be inject-
ed into a drip irrigation system with a
fow rate of 500 gpm so that the fnal
chlorine concentration in the irrigation
water is 5 ppm. What should the bleach
injection rate be?
IR = (0.006 x 500 x 5) 5.25 = 2.9 gph
Calcium hypochlorite: Calcium
hypochlorite normally contains 65 to
70% available chlorine. Note that 12.8
pounds of calcium hypochlorite dis-
solved in 100 gallons of water forms a
1% chlorine solution. A 2% chlorine
solution therefore requires adding 25.6
pounds of calcium hypochlorite to 100
gallons of water.
Any chlorine stock solution can be
mixed following the same pattern. The
equation used for sodium hypochlorite
injection rates can be used for the cal-
cium hypochlorite solution once the
percent concentration stock solution
is determined. Use caution when dis-
solving calcium hypochlorite in water
because of the possible formation of
chlorine gas.
Clogging caused by calcium
carbonate precipitation
Precipitation of calcium carbonate
(lime) is a common clogging problem
in microirrigation systems. Water with
a pH of 7.5 or higher and a bicarbonate
level of 2 meq/l (120 ppm) is suscep-
tible to calcium carbonate precipita-
tion if comparable levels of calcium are
present naturally in the system or if a
material containing calcium is injected
into the system.
Causes of calcium carbonate
precipitation
The occurrence of calcium carbon-
ate in water at atmospheric pressure
depends on the pH and temperature of
the water. At a pH less than 6, mostly
dissolved carbon dioxide and a small
amount of carbonic acid exist in the
water. At pH values between about 6.5
and 10, bicarbonate is dominant. At
pH values greater than about 10.5, the
carbonate ion dominates. The causes of
the precipitation include the following:
Pumping groundwater reduces
the pressure of the water as it fows
into the well. This reduction releases
dissolved carbon dioxide gas, causing
the pH of the groundwater to increase,
which in turn can cause calcium car-
bonate precipitation.
Evaporation increases the con-
centration of chemicals dissolved in
the water remaining in the emitter.
Because of its low solubility in water,
calcium carbonate readily precipitates
during evaporation.
The solubility of calcium carbon-
ate is reduced as the water temperature
rises. The water temperature of surface
microirrigation systems can increase as
the water fows down the laterals.
The injection of certain chemi-
cals such as aqua ammonia and bleach,
or the injection of calcium containing
fertilizers or materials such as gypsum,
can cause precipitation.
Preventing and correcting calcium
carbonate clogging problems
Lowering the pH dissolves any ex-
isting calcium carbonate precipitates
and prevents the formation of addi-
tional carbonate salts. The usual treat-
ment for calcium carbonate precipita-
tion is to inject acid to acidify the water
and lower the pH to 7 or below. Com-
mon acids used include sulfuric acid,
muriatic acid, and hydrochloric acid.
Other acids such as citric acid and ni-
tric acid can be used, but they are more
expensive.
An acid fertilizer compound such
as urea sulfuric acid is safer to use than
a straight acid product. However, the
injection of nitrogen containing acid
products may be a problem over the
course of a season for crops sensitive to
excessive nitrogen applications, such as
apples and wine grapes.
Researchers have evaluated other
compounds such as phosphonates or
phosphonic acid materials and found
them to be effective in preventing cal-
cium carbonate precipitation.
The recommended treatments for
preventing calcium carbonate clogging
are as follows.
Schematic of venturi injector plumbed as a bypass
with a booster pump.
Inject acid continuously to main-
tain the pH between 5 and 7.
- Inject acid for the latter part of
each irrigation event. This will save in
the cost of acid and, if a urea sulfuric
acid product is being used and excess
nitrogen applications are of concern,
this method will reduce the nitrogen
application.
Inject acid intermittently to
maintain the pH under 5 for at least
60 minutes. The injection frequency
depends on the rate at which carbon-
ate precipitation occurs. When using
pressure-compensating emitters, check
with the manufacturer before lowering
the pH to 4 or below. Brass and other
non-stainless metal fttings can become
pitted at low water pH levels.
The amount of acid needed to low-
er the pH to the desired level depends
on the alkalinity of the water and the
target pH. Two approaches can be used
to determine the amount of acid need-
ed.
- Develop a titration curve, which
shows the amount of acid needed to
lower the pH of the water to a desired
value for a particular irrigation water.
This is usually done by a laboratory
and requires samples of the water and
the acid.
- Use a trial and error approach
by adding acid to the water in incre-
ments and measuring the pH until the
desired level is reached. Litmus paper,
colorimetric test kits for aquariums and
swimming pools, or portable pH me-
ters can be used to determine the pH
of your water. Numerous sources sell
pocket pH meters; they require period-
ic calibration using standard solutions
that also can be purchased.
Safety measures
Do not directly mix acid and chlo-
rine; this causes chlorine gas to form.
Do not add water to acid; always add
acid to water.
Clogging caused by iron
precipitation
Iron in a soluble form is commonly
found in groundwater, the result of the
waters contact with rocks and other
aquifer material containing iron. The
soluble iron, called ferrous iron, is sol-
uble in water and does not cause ma-
jor clogging in microirrigation systems.
However, under certain conditions, the
soluble iron can be oxidized or con-
verted to insoluble iron (ferric iron).
This iron precipitates out of the water
as an iron oxide, a reddish brown de-
posit; iron concentrations as low as 0.2
ppm can clog drip irrigation systems.
Causes
Pumping groundwater lowers the
water pressure, releasing dissolved car-
bon dioxide gas and raising the water
pH.
Schematic of a venturi injector plumbed as a bypass
across a pressure drop (partially-closed gate valve).
Schematic of venturi injector.
Aeration of the groundwater can
occur when water cascades in the well
or if there are leaks on the suction side
of a centrifugal pump used for pumping
shallow groundwater. Aeration causes
ferrous iron to become ferric iron, a
process called oxidation. At pH below
about 5, the oxidation rate is very slow
compared with that at a higher pH, and
thus little ferric iron is formed. Ferric
iron is insoluble in water that is alka-
line or weakly acidic. Aerated water
with a pH between 7 and 8.5 contains
mostly insoluble ferric iron.
Frequently, bacteria are found
when iron is present in the water. The
source of the bacteria is unclear, but it
may the result of well contamination
during drilling. These bacteria derive
their energy from converting soluble
ferrous iron to insoluble ferric iron.
This process results in iron precipita-
tion along with the formation of bac-
terial slime inside pipelines, drip lines,
and emitters.
Sampling for iron
If the water is to be analyzed for
iron, the sample must be acidifed to
pH 4.0 or less or the ferrous iron in
solution will precipitate as ferric iron
prior to reaching the lab. If this hap-
pens, the water analysis will show little
iron in solution. Thus, if iron and other
dissolved constituents are to be deter-
mined, two samples must be collected:
an acidifed sample for iron, and a non-
acidifed sample for the remaining con-
stituents in solution. The laboratory
can provide a sample bottle with the
correct amount of acid in it for gather-
ing the iron sample. Do not rinse the
bottle prior to collecting the sample.
Water treatment to prevent iron
clogging problems
Once iron has precipitated, it is
very diffcult to dissolve the precipi-
tate. The focus should be on treating
the irrigation water to precipitate the
iron prior to its use in microirrigation
systems or preventing the iron precipi-
tation from occurring. Recommended
treatment methods are as follows.
Aeration
Aerate the water to oxidize the
iron and then allow the precipitate to
settle out before using the water for
irrigation. This method requires a res-
ervoir or settling basin large enough to
allow the precipitated iron to settle out
before the water is used for irrigation.
Chlorine or copper compounds may be
needed to control algae growth in the
reservoir or basin.
Aeration may be the only practical
method for dealing with high iron con-
centrations. It causes oxygen to dissolve
in the water, which changes the iron to
an insoluble form; it releases dissolved
carbon dioxide gas, increasing the pH
of the water; and, it releases or partially
releases other dissolved gases such as
hydrogen sulfde.
The oxidation rate under aeration
depends on the pH of the water and the
contact time. At a pH of 5, the oxida-
tion rate of iron is slow, and little of the
ferrous iron is oxidized. At a pH of 7, al-
most all the ferrous iron can be oxidized
by air after 15 minutes of contact time.
Chlorine injection
Inject chlorine to oxidize the iron
and cause rapid precipitation. Injec-
tions must occur upstream of the flters,
usually sand media flters, to remove
the iron precipitate. The rate at which
the chlorine is mixed in the water is
also a factor in the process. Centrifugal
sand separators installed immediately
downstream from the injection point
can increase the rate of mixing of the
chlorine in the water. Some rules of
thumb are:
Inject chlorine at a concentration
of 0.64 times the ferrous or soluble iron
concentration to maintain 1 ppm of
free residual chlorine at the end of the
drip line. Chlorine oxidizes the iron at a
lower pH than does aeration. For prac-
tical purposes, however, a pH of about
6.5 to 7.5 is recommended for chlorine
oxidation.
After injecting chlorine to cause
iron precipitation, discharge the water
into a reservoir to allow the iron to
periodically for 1 to 2 hours at a con-
centration of 10 to 20 ppm. Also, inject
chlorine into the well to control any
bacteria that may be growing there.
Flushing the system
Filters should be backfushed peri-
odically to remove any collected partic-
ulate or organic matter. Clogged flters
reduce the pressure to the system and
decrease the water application rate.
Backfushing can be done either manu-
ally or automatically.
Small particles will pass through
flters, so mainlines, submains, and par-
ticularly lateral lines should be fushed
periodically to remove accumulated
particulates. Mainlines and submains
are fushed by opening the fush valves
built into the system for that purpose.
The fush valves should be sized large
enough to allow suffcient water velocity
to move particulates out of the system.
Opening the ends of the lines and
allowing water to fow out of them un-
til they fow clean fushes the drip lines.
This practice is essential since the fl-
ters trap only the larger contaminants
entering the system, allowing drip lines
to collect material that may eventually
clog the emitters.
There are self-fushing end caps
available that allow water to fush when
the irrigation system is turned on and
off but close when the system comes
to operating pressure. This reduces the
labor required for fushing, but a peri-
odic, thorough hand fushing may still
be advantageous.
Summary
A microirrigation system can be a
great tool for achieving excellent citrus
yield and quality while also achieving
effcient irrigation, but the microir-
rigation system must be maintained
in order to do this. Emitters can clog
without good maintenance, eventually
leading to ineffcient irrigations with
water being lost to deep percolation.
Deep percolation losses can also result
in nitrate leaching if nitrate is present
in the root zone.
Dr. Lawrence J. Schwankl is Irri-
gation Specialist, UC Cooperative Ex-
tension. Working with the Department
of Land, Air, and Water Resources at
UC Davis, Schwankls offce is at the
Kearney Agricultural Center in Parli-
er. Dr. Ben A. Faber is a UCCE Farm
Advisor in Ventura and Santa Barbara
counties. l
settle out, or use a sand media flter to
remove the precipitated iron.
pH control
Continuously inject acid to de-
crease the pH to 4 or less to prevent
iron precipitation. At low pH, the oxi-
dation rate of ferrous iron to ferric iron
is very slow. Acid must be injected into
the water before the iron changes to
the insoluble form. This practice, how-
ever, can be expensive and may dam-
age the irrigation system.
Threshold inhibitors
Inject an inhibitor that prevents
iron precipitation. Compounds such
as polymeric acid, phosphonate, and
phosphonic acid have been used as
inhibitors. These compounds must be
injected prior to any oxidation of fer-
rous iron to ferric iron, and they do not
work if ferric iron has already formed.
The injection rate of the inhibitors is
usually less than 5 ppm.
Iron bacteria
Chlorine is recommended for con-
trolling iron bacteria. Inject chlorine
continuously to maintain a free chlo-
rine concentration of 1 ppm or inject
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Overview of soil moisture sensors
Larry Schwankl and Ben Faber
S
oil moisture sensors fall into two
broad categories: volumetric and
tensiometric methods. One tells
you how much water is in the soil, and
the other tells you how tightly the soil
holds on to the water. Volumetric meth-
ods require a calibration of the sensor to
the soil, whereas tensiometric is good-
to-go when installed.
For both methods, the grower
learns to keep soil moisture within a
given range of values, and, in theory, the
plant is kept in a better condition with
improved health and yields and poten-
tial improved irrigation effciency.
The most common volumetric
methods rely on utilizing the dielectric
constants of the soil and water, with
waters dielectric constant being much
greater than soils. The velocity of an
electromagnetic wave or pulse depends
on soil moisture content.
These sensors have become wide-
ly used because they have a good re-
sponse time, do not require mainte-
nance, and can provide continuous
readings, allowing for automation.
There are several different meth-
odologies used: Time Domain Refec-
tometry (TDR), Frequency Domain
Refectometry (FDR) (Capacitance),
Amplitude Domain Refectometry
(ADR) (Impedance), Phase Transmis-
sion (PT), and Time Domain Transmis-
sion (TDT).
Volumetric Sensors
TDR FDR ADR PT TDT
Appx. Cost $400-20,000 $100-3,500 $500-700 $200-400 $400-1,300
(including
logger/reader)+
Field Maintenance no no no no no
Affected by salts High levels Minimal no >3dS/m High levels
Soil type not organic, salt, none none none organic,
recommended high cay salt high clay
+ Prices as of 2009
Tensiometric Sensors
Tensiometer GB GMS HD SP
Appx. Cost $50-300 $400-700 $200-500 $300-500 $500-1000
(including
logger/reader)+
Field Maintenance Yes no no no no
Affected by Salts no >6 dS/m >6dS/m no maybe
Soil Type not Sandy Sandy, high Sandy, high Sandy Sandy, high
recommended clay clay clay
Soil moisture sensors
fall into two broad
categories: volumetric
and tensiometric
methods. One tells you
how much water is in the
soil, and the other tells
you how tightly the soil
holds on to the water.
There is quite a range in: (1) prices
for these different devices, (2) require-
ments for calibration with soil moisture
content, and (3) requirements for close
soil contact. Some devices are affected
by the chemical nature of the soil. Even
if they are not calibrated, they can be
used as relative change in moisture
content over time.
The tensiometric methods include:
Tensiometers, Gypsum Blocks (GB),
Granular Matrix Sensors (GMS), Heat
Dissipation (HD), and Soil Psychrom-
eter (SP). These techniques require the
sensor to come into equilibration with
the soil moisture and generally are un-
affected by soil salinity. Gypsum blocks
and Granular Matrix are not very re-
sponsive in sandy soils and require
good soil contact. These methods are
less affected by salinity and do not re-
quire soil calibration because they are
refecting the soil moisture tension the
roots are seeing.
All soil moisture sensors need to be
placed in a position that represents the
irrigated area. They need to be placed
in the active root zone where water is
applied and taken up and must be near
trees representative of the whole irri-
gated area. They should not be next to
a sick tree, a smaller tree compared to
the other trees, or be in an area that ob-
structs applied water (such as under a
canopy that intercepts applied water).
It is always best to reinforce sensor
values with manual feld measurements
with a soil probe to ensure that sensor
placement and response is truly refec-
tive of what is going on in the feld, be-
fore completely relying on the sensor
values.
As with all feld equipment, oc-
casional visual inspection of the feld
and sensor readings should be made
to make sure the situation has not
changed, such as an emitter has clogged
or broken near the sensor.
These sensors can be purchased in-
dividually and installed by the grower,
or increasingly there are companies
that provide a monitoring station that
includes soil moisture sensors for esti-
mating plant evapotranspiration , data
logger and software that determines an
irrigation schedule for the crop. Sys-
tems are available by either an outright
purchase or through a lease agreement.
In the future, there will be afford-
able satellite imagery that can help in
irrigation scheduling, showing how rap-
idly this technology is changing.l
IRRIGATION
How does nitrogen move in the soil, and what
are the factors that infuence its movement?
T
he quality of groundwater is
specifcally vulnerable in climatic
regions where agricultural pro-
duction is possible only by irrigation
such as in California and in many other
(semi-) arid regions of the world.
The regular application of nitro-
gen fertilizers with irrigation water is
likely responsible for the increase in
nitrate concentrations of groundwater
resources such as in Californias main
agricultural areas in the Salinas Valley
and the Tulare Lake Basin. Therefore,
improved irrigation water and soil
management practices are needed that
tactically allocate water and dissolved
fertilizers to maximize their applica-
tion use effciency, by minimizing fer-
tilizer losses through leaching towards
the groundwater.
Currently, the growers incentive
IRRIGATION
Editors Note: An introduction to this
subject was presented by Dr. Hop-
mans at the Citrus Research Boards
2012 California Citrus Conference.
for adopting improved fertigation
practices may be limited since fertil-
izer costs are only a small fraction of
the total production costs, and changes
in proposed fertigation practices may
not affect crop yield. However, ground-
water contamination regulations are
going to be implemented; improved
fertigation practices may become
an essential part of California farm-
ing operations. We note that fertilizer
manufacturing consumes about 3-5%
of the worlds annual gas production.
Moreover, increased nitrogen use ef-
fciencies are key towards minimizing
environmental and health impacts of
agricultural practices.
Microirrigation has the potential
of precisely applying water and plant
nutrients both in amount and in loca-
tion throughout a feld. Microirrigation
systems can be designed and operated
so that water and nutrients are applied
at a rate, duration, and frequency so as
to maximize crop water and nutrient
uptake while minimizing leaching of
nutrients and chemicals from the root
zone of agricultural felds.
As stated by Bruulsema et al.
(2008), optimal fertigation practice can
only be realized if knowledge of the 4
Rs (right source, right rate, right place,
and right time) are developed. To opti-
mize fertigation practices it is essential
that irrigation is applied and fertilizers
injected at the optimal concentration,
place, and time to ensure that deposi-
tion patterns coincide with maximal
root uptake.
In addition to water and nutrients,
sound and sustainable irrigation sys-
tems must maintain a long-term salt
balance that minimizes both salinity
impacts on crop production and salt
leaching to the groundwater.
The application of irrigation wa-
ter and fertigated nutrients, as well as
root growth, nutrient and water up-
take, however, all clearly interact with
soil properties and fertilizer source in
a complex manner that cannot easily
be resolved with experience or feld
experimentation alone.
While high feld-wide uniformities
are possible under microirrigation, the
distribution of both water and nitrate
about the drip line is very non-uniform.
Both soil moisture content and nutri-
ent concentration will be the highest
near the drip line after application
but will redistribute thereafter as con-
trolled by soil layering and other soil
physical properties.
Because of these types of non-uni-
form wetting patterns, it is possible that
percolation below the root zone and
nitrate leaching occurs, despite that ap-
plied irrigation water is equal or less
than crop evapotranspiration (ET).
The shape of the wetted soil vol-
ume under microirrigation and the
spatial distribution of soil water and
nitrate concentrations are dependent
on many factors, including soil layer-
ing, soil hydraulic properties (water
retention and hydraulic conductivity),
emitter discharge rates, spacing, and
their placement (above or below the
soil surface), irrigation quantity and
frequency, crop water uptake rates, and
root distribution patterns.
In addition to the effect of soil
type, irrigation water and nutrient ap-
plication, effciency is determined by
crop-specifc root development. Water
and nutrients should not be applied in
areas where roots are absent, or at a
rate higher than the roots can possibly
take up.
In general, root development is
constrained to the soil volume wetted
by the emitters, with root length den-
sity decreasing with depth, whereas
plants can quickly adapt their spatial
pattern of water and nutrient uptake in
response to irrigation water application
distribution. Also, roots can adjust their
uptake patterns, thereby compensating
for local stress conditions by enhanced
or preferential uptake in other regions
of the rooting zone with less stressful
conditions.
To optimize fertigation
practices, it is essential that
irrigation is applied and
fertilizers injected at the
optimal concentration, place,
and time to ensure that
deposition patterns coincide
with maximal root uptake.
Jan W. Hopmans and
Maziar M. Kandelous
Fig. 1. Tensiometer types for soil suction measurements using vacuum gauges
and electronic pressure transducers, as illustrated in Or, Tuller and Wraith (2004).
A better understanding of the in-
teractions of irrigation method, soil
type, crop root distribution, and uptake
patterns and rates of water and nutri-
ents or solutes will provide improved
means for proper and effcient microir-
rigation water management practices.
A comprehensive review of the
functional role of plant root water and
nutrient uptake was presented by Hop-
mans and Bristow (2002). We note that
elemental nitrogen becomes available
for the plant in different forms and is
typically applied by synthetic fertil-
izer and/or manure applications. Other
forms of nitrogen come from soil or-
ganic matter and through nitrogen fx-
ating legumes.
In most applications, the nitrogen
is originally bound in organic form and
must be mineralized to become avail-
able for plants in soil solution. When
a synthetic fertilizer is applied in the
form of urea, it must be hydrolyzed by
an enzymatic reaction. Natural organic
forms such as soil organic matter and
animal wastes are broken down by soil
microbes to nonorganic forms.
Either way, whether by hydrolysis
or mineralization, it becomes available
as ammonium (NH
4
+
), which will fur-
ther be nitrifed microbially to nitrate
(NO
3
-
). Both of these nitrogen forms
are available to the plant; however, am-
monium quickly nitrifes to nitrate so
that most of the soil nitrogen is taken
up in the nitrate form.
In addition to the water-soluble
form, nitrogen may transform in the
gaseous form, into ammonia gas, or by
way of denitrifcation of water-soluble
nitrate into nitrous oxide. The amount
of ammonia volatilization depends on
soil environmental conditions but is
especially high for dry conditions and
high temperatures, so that it is mini-
mized when urea is applied during
wetter and cooler soil conditions. Deni-
trifcation of water-soluble nitrate into
nitrous oxide by anaerobic bacteria can
be particularly relevant in water-satu-
rated conditions, when oxygen concen-
trations are low and soil temperatures
are relatively high.
How does irrigation water move
through the soil?
In answering the question of how
nitrogen moves through the soil, we
must frst and foremost acknowledge
that much of its movement will occur
Key Terms
Denitrifcation: Loss of soil nitrogen by reduction of soil nitrates to gas-
eous nitrogen by microorganisms in a series of biochemical reactions, in-
cluding to nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N
2
O) and nitrogen gas (N
2
). Oc-
curs especially in anaerobic and wet soil conditions.
Perching: Development of water logging conditions in soils, as caused by
low permeability soil layers that prevent soil water drainage.
Evapotranspiration: Soil water depletion by combination of soil and plant
leaf evaporation. The latter is called plant transpiration and occurs by root
water uptake and subsequent water evaporation through small openings
(stomata) in plant leaf surfaces.
Hydraulic conductivity: Soils ability to transmit water. Its magnitude var-
ies with soil water content and soil type, as it is controlled by connectivity
of the water-flled soil pores.
Diffusion: Mixing of water dissolved nutrients in soil solution, as a result
of thermal motion of molecules. It magnitude is proportional to differences
in concentration, and moves nutrients from regions of higher to lower con-
centration.
Dispersion: Tendency towards mixing of water dissolved nutrients in soil
solution, as a result of soil water movement (advection), as caused by wa-
ter velocity variations in the water-flled soil pores.
Cbar: Unit of soil water suction (pressure), with 1.0 cbar equal to one hun-
dredth of a bar or 1.0 kPa.
Macropores: Soil pores that contribute to soil structure (as opposed to
soil texture). These are the larger pores as created by plant roots, soil fau-
na, or by soil shrinking, and are the pathways for rapid water movement,
likely leading to leaching of water and nutrients below the rooting zone,
especially at or near soil saturated conditions.
Soil adsorption: Capability of soil particles to adsorb chemicals, including
nutrients. Magnitude is typically controlled by the soils cation exchange
capacity and specifc electrical charge of chemical adsorbed.
Vadose zone: The region between the ground surface and the groundwater
(vadose is from the Latin for shallow). Often is also referred to as the
unsaturated zone.
in a water-soluble form. Therefore, in
irrigated agricultural systems, nitrogen
transport in soils is largely controlled
by its movement with the irrigation wa-
ter. So, to better understand the fate of
nitrogen in irrigated felds, we must ac-
cept certain soil physical principles that
control soil water movement.
The two main soil properties that
defne water fow are the soil water
retention and hydraulic conductivity
curves, both of which are very soil-spe-
cifc and largely depend on soil texture
and structure, and specifcally on soil
pore size and pore connectivity.
The soil-water retention func-
tion determines the relation between
the soils suction forces and soil water
content, u, and is also known as the
soil-water release or soil-water char-
acteristic curve. The soil water suction
(S) is caused by the soils capillary and
adsorptive forces. These suction forces
increase as the size of the water-flled
Fig. 3. Spatial distribution of soil solution urea, ammonium, and nitrate concentration of DRIP irrigation for various days
during the simulation period. The times (days) correspond to the end of the frst irrigation/fertigation (1.5), beginning of
the second irrigation (3.5), beginning of second fertigation (3.54), end of second fertigation (3.63), end of second irrigation
(5.0), beginning of third irrigation (7.0), end of last irrigation/fertigation (26.0), and end of simulation period (28.0).
Fig. 2. Soil water retention and hydraulic conductivity curves for different soil
types. Shaded portions represent the variation in hydraulic values as a result of
variations in measured soil water suction values across the feld.

pores and corresponding soil water
content decrease, as may occur by
drainage, plant root water uptake or by
soil evaporation.
The measurement of soil water
suction is a diffcult one and is usually
done by a tensiometer. A tensiometer
consists of a porous cup, usually ceram-
ic, connected to a closed water-flled
tube. The soil suction force draws water
from the tensiometer into the soil until
equilibrium is achieved, at which time
the suction of water in the tensiometer
is read by a vacuum gauge or pressure
transducer (Figure 1). This can be done
manually, or in real-time and 24/7 with
data transmitted to an offce computer
using wireless capabilities. Other devic-
es that are used include buried porous
blocks from which the electrical resis-
tance is measured.
Many devices are currently avail-
able to monitor soil water content at
multiple soil depths, and can be used
to calculate the soils water storage as a
means for irrigation scheduling purpos-
es to estimate irrigation timing and ap-
plied water amounts. However, as will
be explained in detail later in this ar-
ticle, soil water content measurements
are much less useful for in-situ leaching
estimation and instead require soil wa-
ter suction measurements across a pair
of tensiometers.
Typically, for any given soil wa-
ter suction, the soil water content de-
creases as the soil is coarser (Figure 2),
thereby affecting both soil water stor-
age and hydraulic conductivity. The re-
tention function provides an estimate
of the soils capacity to hold water at
feld capacity, the minimum soil wa-
ter content available to the crop (per-
manent wilting point), and the crops
available soil water.
The relation between the soils hy-
draulic conductivity, K, and volumetric
water content,u, is the other essential
fundamental soil physical property re-
quired to quantify soil water fow rates.
The hydraulic conductivity controls the
rates of soil infltration and leaching
and is much reduced as the soil water
content decreases. For relatively wet
soils when leaching is important, the
hydraulic conductivity is much lower
for clayey soils than for silts and sands.
Very few measurements are available
to estimate the soils hydraulic con-
ductivity at unsaturated conditions, so
therefore, it is mostly inferred from lim-
ited information in the literature. How-
ever, the uncertainty of its magnitude
is the main reason that feld leaching
measurements are mostly not available.
To allow an estimation of leaching
rates below the rooting zone, the only
quantitative means available is applica-
tion of the so-called Darcys equation.
This mathematical equation relates soil
leaching rate (qleaching) to the difference
in soil water suction across a small soil
layer of thickness, T, as described by

,
where (S1-S2)/T is defned as the
suction gradient. We note that the units
of qleaching are in inches of water/day,
and the most right-hand term quanti-
fes the effect of gravity on soil water
fow. Clearly, interpretation of the Dar-
cy equation shows that leaching rates
will be larger if the soil conductivity
(K) and/or suction difference (S1-S2)
is larger. Regarding the effect of K, its
magnitude is larger if the soil water
content is increasing and for coarser-
textured soils. Typically, leaching rates
through perching clay layers in the sub-
soil are relatively low.
Large differences in soil suction in
the subsoil typically occur only when
the soil is relatively dry, but in these cir-
cumstances the soils water content is
suffciently low so that K is very small.
For typical irrigated conditions the soil
is relatively wet, and the suction differ-
ence (S1-S2) approaches zero, so that
the drainage rate in the subsoil below
the rooting zone (i.e. qleaching) is close
to the soils conductivity at that high
soil water content, as calculated from
the Darcy equation above. In summary,
the maximum leaching rates are likely
to occur when the soil is wet.
Leaching vulnerability is solely
determined by subsurface soil texture
and the presence/absence of fne-tex-
tured low-conductivity soil layers. Fig-
ure 2 presents the various soil layers
with textures identifed in an almond
orchard in Kern County, with the gray
areas indicating the uncertainty of the
soils conductivity, K, depending on soil
largely uncertain, especially for alluvial
soils that are variable in texture both
with soil depth as across the feld.
Several methodologies have been
developed to measure soil nutrient
concentrations; however, none of the
existing methods allow for in-situ mea-
surement of nitrate concentration.
Instead, typically, porous cups as
used for tensiometers are installed at
relevant soil depths, and pore water
solution is extracted using a vacuum
technique. Solution samples are sub-
sequently kept at low temperature and
analyzed for solution nitrate in a soil
testing laboratory. Alternatively, soil
samples can be collected for N-analysis
in a soil testing laboratory; however,
this is a much more destructive tech-
nique and precludes repeated soil ni-
trate measurements.
Either way, in order to determine
nitrate leaching rates, one must sample
the nitrate solution concentration at
the depth of the suction measurements
and multiply the nitrate concentration
with the leaching rates as calculated
with Darcy equation.
In the following example that is il-
lustrated in Figure 3, we show the sim-
ulation results of fertigation of liquid
nitrogen (N), using a known mixture of
urea, ammonium and nitrate by way of
a drip irrigation system, as presented by
Hanson et al. (2006). In the absence of
experimental data, we applied a com-
puter simulation model HYDRUS-2D
of Simunek et al. (2008) to analyze wa-
ter fow and nutrient transport for such
complex systems.
The HYDRUS model allows for
specifcation of root water and nitrate
uptake, affecting the spatial distribu-
tion of water and nitrate availability
between irrigation cycles, and analyzes
the interrelationships between rates,
fertilizer application, root distribution,
root water and nitrate uptake, and ni-
trate leaching.
The example is for a loamy soil
with drip fertigation frequency of 3.5
days for a grape vine with a 90 cm deep
rooting zone and a mixture of urea/am-
monium/nitrate of 2:1:1 that is applied
during a 2-hour fertigation, one hour
after the onset of irrigation.
Both soil water content and nutri-
ent concentration will be the highest
near the drip line after application, but
water and dissolved nutrients will re-
texture. For example, at a soil suction
value of 20 cbar (20kPa), the K-value
can range from near zero to about 0.12
inches/day (0.3 cm/day). The same fg-
ure also demonstrates the large reduc-
tion in K as the soil suction decreases
and is approaching zero for S-values
larger than 50 cbar.
How does nitrogen move through
the soil?
As water-dissolved nutrients move
through soils, various physical, chemi-
cal and biological soil properties con-
trol their fate.
The dominant transport of nutri-
ents occurs with the fowing soil water
as controlled by Darcys fow. While
moving through the water-flled soil
pores, nutrient concentrations may
change by both diffusion and disper-
sion as caused by variations in water
velocity within and between soil pores.
Increasing dispersivity/diffusion values
cause greater nutrient spreading, there-
by decreasing its peak concentration.
Preferential fow is an extreme case
of dispersion, causing applied irrigation
water to rapidly move through macro-
pores and soil cracks, bypassing the soil
and root matrix and potentially making
applied nutrients unavailable for root
uptake and leading to low applied ni-
trate effciencies.
Much of the fate of nutrients is in-
fuenced by their level of sorption to
soil particles and by microbial transfor-
mations. The magnitude of soil sorption
is controlled by the ionic charge of the
dissolved ion and soil type, soil particle
surface area, and organic matter frac-
tion. For example, ammonium (NH
4
+
)
is likely to be adsorbed to many soils
as mineral surfaces are predominantly
negatively charged, thereby delaying
largely their movement deeper down
the soil profle.
Soil microbes largely are responsi-
ble for mineralization, nitrifcation and
denitrifcation of soil nitrogen, thereby
controlling soil ammonium and nitrate
concentrations between fertigations,
plant root available water and nutri-
ents, as well as nitrate losses by both
denitrifcation and leaching.
However, the magnitude of trans-
formation rates depend on a wide
range of soil conditions, including soil
moisture, temperature, pH, and oxygen
concentration, and typically these are
distribute thereafter as controlled by
soil physical properties. Because of the
typical non-uniform wetting patterns,
it is essential to use multi-dimensional
modeling to develop optimal fertiga-
tion practices for maximum nutrient
use effciency. The contour plots show
the simulated concentrations of N-spe-
cies in the soil water.
The frst panel shows a band of
urea along the periphery of the wetted
soil volume with little or no urea near
the drip line, except immediately after
fertigation (t=3.63 days). There was rel-
atively little change during subsequent
irrigation cycles, indicating that little
urea accumulation occurred in the soil
profle. However, urea concentrations
decreased with time between irriga-
tions as a result of hydrolysis.
As expected, at 3.63 days, the urea
was concentrated near the drip line,
immediately after fertigation. Some
slight preferential lateral movement
occurred, likely because of occasional
soil surface ponding.
As expected, ammonium remained
concentrated in the immediate vicin-
ity of the drip line at all times, because
of soil adsorption and subsequent fast
nitrifcation and/or root uptake. In
contrast to ammonium, nitrate moved
continuously downwards during the
28-day simulation period, as nitrate is
not adsorbed.
As expected, high nitrate concen-
trations occurred near the drip line
immediately after fertigation, but little
nitrate remained near the drip line at
the end of the irrigation (t = 5.0 days),
because of root uptake and downward
transport. At this time, most of the ni-
trate was distributed near the periph-
ery of the wetted region due to leach-
ing following the fertigation. However,
by the start of the next irrigation (t =
7.0 days), nitrate levels near the drip
line increased, the result of nitrifcation
of ammonium. Between irrigations, ni-
trate concentrations near the drip line
decreased due to redistribution and
root water uptake.
In general, except for times imme-
diately after fertigation, nitrate concen-
trations were relatively low, with the
highest values along the wetting front.
Bands of nitrate refect the wetting pat-
terns after each irrigation cycle. At the
end of the last irrigation event of the
simulation period, nitrate was distrib-
uted throughout the wetted soil profle
to a soil depth of about 150 cm, indicat-
ing potential leaching after 28 days.
General discussion
Whereas simulation models such
as HYDRUS-2D are enormously use-
ful to evaluate different irrigation
management practices, much of what
is lacking is continuous feld experi-
mental data of soil water content, suc-
tion and soil nitrate concentration, al-
lowing adequate model testing.
Moreover, to date our work has
clearly demonstrated the large impor-
tance of soil type and soil layering on
water and nutrient leaching, and much
better soil characterization is required
especially for the typical highly vari-
able soils in alluvial settings such as in
the San Joaquin Valley.
Whereas current experimental ef-
forts are largely limited to monitoring
of the soil zone, and quantifcation of
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leaching potential out of the rooting
zone, additional efforts are required to
quantify fow and movement of nitrates
to the groundwater.
Relatively few experimental stud-
ies have studied the deeper soils and
vadose zone and the importance of
deep subsurface formations on perch-
ing, nitrate transport to the groundwa-
ter, and denitrifcation. An exception is
a 52-feet deep experimental study by
Harter et al. (2005) in Fresno County,
demonstrating that the alluvial sedi-
mentary geology is highly heteroge-
neous, and must be considered when
interpreting deeper transport of ni-
trates to the groundwater.
Though, in general, basic concepts
of soil nitrate transport are well un-
derstood, many challenges remain. We
tentatively conclude that (a) nitrate
leaching rates are largely controlled by
irrigation type and soil heterogeneity
(texture, layering), and (b) soil water
suction measurements such as by ten-
siometers are critical towards quanti-
fying nitrate leaching rate towards the
groundwater.
Much more research is required
to assess travel times of soil solution
nitrate and to relate soil solution with
groundwater nitrate concentration.
Improved subsurface monitoring tech-
nologies must be developed to allow
for accurate real-time nitrate leaching
rates, especially as related to nitrate so-
lution concentration and fow rates.
Furthermore, crop nitrate demand
at specifc phenomenal stages are need-
ed so that fertigation timing can be op-
timized, dosing the applied nitrate with
that needed for maximum crop pro-
duction. Additional fundamental plant
root studies would have to be designed
to understand root water and nutrient
uptake by plant roots, as controlled by
changing soil conditions such as water
and salinity stresses and root zone nu-
trient concentration. Whereas leaching
is among the major potential losses of
feld-applied nitrate, denitrifcation of
nitrate into gaseous forms of N
2
O and
N
2
is another major way that may re-
duce nitrate use effciency. Therefore,
much more experimental work is need-
ed to help mitigate those losses.
Global Framework for Fertilizer BMPs
Better Crops with Plant Food. IN Bet-
ter Crops with Plant Food, Vol. 92(2):
13-15.
Dawson, C.J., and Jilton, J. 2011.
Fertilizer availability in a resource-lim-
ited world: Production and recycling of
nitrogen an phosphorus. Food Policy.
Doi:10.1016/j.foodpol.2010.11.012.
Hanson, B.R., J. Simunek, and J.W.
Hopmans. 2006. Evaluation of Urea-
Ammonium-Nitrate Fertigation with
drip irrigation using numerical model-
ing. Agricultural Water Management
86:102-113.
Harter, T., Y. Onsoy, K. Heeren, M.
Denton, G. Weissman, J.W. Hopmans,
and W.R. Horwath. 2005. Deep vadose
zone hydrology demonstrates fate of
nitrate in the eastern San Joaquin Val-
ley. California Agriculture. 59(2):124-
132.
Harter, T. and J.R. Lund, 2012. Ad-
dressing Nitrate in Californias Drink-
ing Water. With a Focus on Tulare Lake
Basin and Salinas Valley Groundwater.
Center for Watershed Sciences, Uni-
versity of California, Davis.
Hopmans, J.W., and K.L. Bristow.
2002 Current capabilities and future
needs of root water and nutrient up-
take modeling. Advances in Agronomy.
Volume 77: 104-175, 2002.
Or. D., M. Tuller, and J. M. Wraith.
2004. Water potential. In D. Hillel (Ed.),
Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environ-
ment - Volume 4, Elsevier Ltd., Oxford,
U.K., pp.270-277.
imnek, J., van Genuchten, M.
Th. and ejna, M. 2008. Development
and applications of the HYDRUS and
STANMOD software packages, and re-
lated codes, Vadose Zone Journal, 7(2),
587-600. l
2131 Piedmont Way, Pittsburg, CA 94565
Jim Bergantz - Sales Engineer
925-597-0780
jim.bergantz@agratech.com www.agratech.com
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Mark Campbell of Willits &
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Though, in general,
basic concepts of soil
nitrate transport are
well understood, many
challenges remain.
Jan W. Hopmans is Professor of
Vadose Zone Hydrology and Maziar
Kandelous is a graduate student in the
Department of Land, Air and Water
Resources at UC Davis. Dr. Hopmans
serves as Associate Dean of the College
of Agricultural and Environmental
Sciences at UC Davis and is the pres-
ident-elect of the Soil Science Society
of America.
The authors note that some of the
discussion in this article was made pos-
sible through a research grant by the
Almond Board of California.
References
Bruulsema T.W., C.W., Fernando
Garca, Shutian Li, T. Nagendra Rao,
Fang Chen, and S. Ivanova (2008). A
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W
hen it comes to managing
a farming operation, West-
ern growers often think and
work in rectangles. Farming activities
take place in terms of blocks and rows.
Unfortunately, Mother Earth pays little
mind to their straight lines as she mixes
up the soil into pockets and patterns that
are anything but rectangular.
Soil studies by the University of
California show that some of Califor-
nias most heavily farmed regions have
an incredible diversity of soils that en-
compass a range of ages, parent miner-
alogy and physical properties possibly
found in no other agricultural area of
similar size in the United States.
The fndings of work by UC Co-
operative Extension soil resource
specialist Anthony OGreen and col-
leagues suggested a vast range of soil
types even within a single farmed plot
of land. As inconvenient as it may be,
these soil patterns can wreak havoc in
an operation set up in rectangles.
The problem of variability
Growers are quick to recognize
variability in their felds. They know
that the soil in an otherwise uniform
feld, orchard, or vineyard -- even the
Thinking outside the rectangle
IRRIGATION
soil under two trees planted side-by-
side -- can show signifcant variability.
It might be a sandy streak here, high
salinity or shallow soil there; it may ap-
pear as a localized nutrient defciency,
or perhaps poor drainage inhibits
growth in one corner of the orchard.
Growers are also quick to recog-
nize that this soil variability can create
signifcant variability in plants, over
time. It is common for growers to ac-
count for soil variability to one degree
or another. Special attention may be
given to weak areas, or perhaps a whole
ranch is simply managed to the weak-
est link.
No matter the approach, it seems
that those weak areas are always go-
ing to be weak, causing increased labor,
nutrient, and irrigation costs; increased
replant rates; and reduced proftability.
Any growers who have experi-
mented with variable management
practices on a small scale know how
challenging and costly it can be, and
such efforts are rarely scalable to their
larger operations. Yet variable rate
practices are being used successfully
elsewhere in the country, particularly
in the Midwest. There, growers farm in
circular plots equally unnatural to the
blocks and rows of the West -- and yet
they have developed a solution to the
challenge of soil variability. The answer
lies in VRI.
The beginning of variability
management
VRI, or variable rate irrigation, is
a relatively recent subset of a farming
management concept called variable
rate technology (VRT). A fundamental
purpose of VRT is to optimize the use
of inputs by observing and responding
to variations within felds.
VRT in the U.S. was frst imple-
mented in the South and Midwest in
hopes of both increasing yield and de-
creasing input costs by avoiding excess
application of amendments, fertilizers
and pesticides to areas with adequate
levels.
VRT practices are based on grid
maps, which plot a grid of sample data
points to reveal patterns within a feld.
The development of GPS and other
mapping equipment, as well as ad-
vancements in equipment allowing a
variable rate application of materials,
has rapidly increased the use of this
technology.
Reducing input costs by re-allo-
cating materials from areas that are
not lacking to areas that are has been
attractive particularly to growers who
farm crops with lower potential prof-
its. Even though no yield improvement
data was readily available, research
showing the effectiveness of VRT
to reduce input costs (especially on
felds with signifcant variability) was
enough. For growers with narrow proft
margins, saving a few dollars an acre on
input costs was worth the effort of im-
plementing variable rate practices even
without reliable yield increase.
However, for Western growers
with higher dollar crops and often
more complicated operations, the re-
duced input costs alone originally pro-
vided little temptation to implement
the technology. Without reliable in-
Evapotranspiration is the sum
of water lost through evaporation
from the soil and transpiration
from the plant. ET measurements
are publicly available and when
adjusted for climate and crop, they
can help determine the crop re-
quirement for water with greater
accuracy.
Randi Gwilliam
Set 2: 456.2 acres
Set 1: 493.8 acres
Conventional block irrigation layout: 950 acres, 6 blocks with 13-75 acre sets
150 acres 150 acres 209 acres
296 acres
75 acres
70 acres
Variable rate irrigation layout: 950 acres, 2 sets
A conventional irrigation
system delivers water
uniformly to rectangular
elds on 6 separate but
identical schedules. e
system runs constantly.
e same eld is better
managed with only two
irrigation schedules
using VRI. e system
shuts o between sets.
From a University of California trial, VRI
system layout shows irregularly shaped
areas and pipe layout for a specifc zone.
Courtesy of Allan Fulton, UCCE, and
Brian Bassett.
Courtesy of Brian Bassett, H2O-Optimizer.
creases in yield or crop uniformity, and
with fertilizer and amendment prices
still low enough, such practices were
seen as penny pincher. They fell un-
der the stereotypical label of precision
ag, which was, to many, another way
of saying unnecessarily complicated
technology.
Introduction to VRI
By 2001, the VRT concept was be-
ing applied to irrigation practices and
developing rapidly. VRI was a com-
bination of the advancements in both
irrigation technology and the ability
to map by soil type. Early center pivot
models aimed to reduce water waste by
shutting sprinklers off over unplanted
areas. Later, controlling the speed of
the center pivot to irrigate by soil type
-- applying more water in sandy areas
and less water in boggy areas -- result-
ed in increased crop uniformity.
With these developments came
new information suggesting that VRI
could not only reduce water waste but
also increase returns by improved crop
uniformity. Studies, including work re-
ported in 2003 at the Georgia Water
Resouces Conference, showed that
water is the major yield determiner in
nearly all agricultural settings, which
suggested a greater potential for VRI
to increase crop uniformity than for all
other VRT.
Additionally, VRI appeared to
be key to the effectiveness of other
VRT. USDA researcher Earl Vories
cautioned, Systems are available to
producers with the ability to make
variable-rate applications of defoliants,
fertilizer, lime, pesticides, plant growth
regulators, and seed. These systems
could potentially offer a producer great
cost savings; however, the full potential of
these benefts and savings cannot be real-
ized if water is not managed properly,
Since water is the vehicle for plant
nutrients and soil amendments, the ef-
fects of VRT on increased plant unifor-
mity are diminished if uniform irriga-
tion is being applied to the feld. VRI
is necessary for, and enhances, the ben-
efts of other variable rate practices be-
cause it creates the environment where
critical plant activities take place.
VRI also avoids many of the prob-
lems caused by uniformly irrigating
a variable feld, which include all the
potentially severe symptoms of over-
and under-watering. This is done not by
adjusting the amount of water applied,
but by applying a fairly equal volume
of water at the necessary frequency and
duration for each soil type.
Brian Bassett is a California-based
agronomist who specializes in both
center pivot and drip VRI. He uses
rough numbers to illustrate how a VRI
schedule is calculated: Lets say that
sand holds 1 inch of plant available wa-
ter, loam holds 2 inches, and clay holds
3 inches. If the evapotranspiration (ET)
is 0.3 inches, then divide the water hold-
ing capacity (1, 2 or 3 inches) by the ET
(0.3 inches) to fgure out how often the
Conventional vs VRI Systems
crop should be irrigated. Thats your
frequency. In this case, it would be ev-
ery 3 days for sand, 7 days for loam
and 10 days for clay. Thats a pretty big
difference between soil type, and its
refective, relatively, of what the real
numbers show.
Duration can then be calculated
by dividing the volume of water by fre-
quency. He further explains that accu-
rate calculations require soil samples to
identify soil texture; sample locations
are determined using the soil variabil-
ity map, in order to provide the best
representation of the soil composition
of the feld.
Its true that some felds have a lot
of variability, and the thought of a suff-
ciently complex VRI system to manage
it can be intimidating. However, Bas-
sett assures that no matter how much
the soil varies within a given feld, that
feld can probably be economically and
effectively managed with only two or
three unique irrigation sets.
The set may be broken up into
irregular-shaped areas throughout the
feld, shaped by soil type instead of by
the shape of the feld, but a single ir-
rigation schedule applies to an entire
set, he says. Thats only two or three
schedules to manage, which is much
less complicated than many growers
expect.
The economics of VRI
VRI makes a lot of sense to a lot of
growers, but some still remain intimi-
dated or skeptical. By 2004, VRI was
available commercially but it didnt
take off right away.
Even though VRI makes good
sense, it is not a small decision and it
takes time to adjust to change, like with
anything else, says Tyler Bennett, who
designs VRI drip systems in California.
In his experience, growers recognize
the value of VRI, especially on trees
and vines.
In response to concerns about the
extra cost of using and maintaining a
VRI system, he says, growers can fully
automate the entire VRI system and
reduce labor costs, if thats what they
want to do, but if not, there really isnt
a big management difference from a
conventional drip system. He says the
learning curve with VRI isnt as bad as
some growers expect, and some pick
it up naturally, especially if theyre al-
ready on a drip system.
Cole Fredrick, the VRI product and
application manager for a Midwestern
irrigation company, acknowledges that
the initial cost of implementing VRI
can be daunting. The value of VRI is
pretty widely accepted here, he says.
Growers understand the value of
putting water where it belongs. Still,
its not something you jump into over-
night. Weve been doing VRI systems
for the past three years and are getting
quite a bit of interest, but the cost has
to be justifed.
Estimating the cost-effectiveness
of VRI is diffcult because it varies so
much case by case, and there are no
specifc standards for designing or eval-
uating VRI systems.
While the cost of a VRI system is
comparable in many ways to a high
quality conventional irrigation system,
Every feld is different as to what po-
tential yield improvement is possible
for each crop being grown. Thus, [an]
important component to consider is the
recommendation to use a knowledge-
able, local consultant or advisor to help
analyze each particular situation.
Evans gives an example of a feld
where uniform irrigation was effective
for all but 27% of the feld, and the
roughly 27% that is under or over irri-
gated will probably not be able to reach
its full yield potential, even with good
irrigation scheduling. A VRI system
would be able to compensate for these
differences. Calculations such as this
one can be helpful for a grower who
wants to the estimate the basic yield
improvement potential of his felds.
VRI benefts for citrus growers
While VRI isnt right for every
crop, it may be a good ft for many cit-
rus growers. Citrus growers in particu-
lar see the value of tree uniformity and
go to great lengths to create it every-
where else in their groves. Such efforts
would only be enhanced with VRI.
According to Bennett, When
youre thinking about a tree thats
going to be around for 30 years, and
youre doing everything else to make it
uniform, VRI is pretty obvious.
Considering the rising cost of in-
puts, including water, citrus growers
would likely beneft both from in-
creased tree uniformity and from input
cost savings. This is assuming only mild
to moderate soil variability,
An especially valuable consider-
ation for VRI on citrus is the potential
for VRI to help increase trees resis-
tance to stress. Put simply, too much
water makes trees weak; too little wa-
ter makes trees weak, also. Weak trees
are susceptible to the threats of pests,
disease and weather, which is a serious
problem for permanent crops -- espe-
cially with the threat of devastating
pests like the Asian citrus psyllid, says
Bassett. VRI signifcantly reduces the
root causes of tree stress so that trees
become stronger and more able to en-
dure stress, or to recover more quickly.
Another beneft of VRI is better
nutrient management, which may be a
major motivation for adoption in the
near future due to increasing regula-
tory scrutiny. VRI systems provide a
means of variable rate fertigation, al-
lowing applied materials to be closely
there are also costs unique to VRI.
Each system requires custom design
and ongoing monitoring in order to be
effective.
Calculating the savings of VRI pri-
marily includes input cost savings and
reduced labor caused by non-uniform
trees. Input cost savings vary, but on
average, growers with permanent crops
can save 18-22% on their water budget
with VRI, says Bassett. A 2007 study
by the University of Georgia showed
an average of 12% savings on 44 center
pivot felds.
The impact of VRI on increased
tree uniformity varies, and may be re-
duced in mature trees. However, the
savings generated by improved tree
uniformity typically outweigh those of
cost savings in citrus. This is due to a re-
duced need for pruning, hedging, extra
labor, root disease, and replant costs
caused by variability.
Regarding yield increase estima-
tions, USDA researcher Robert Ev-
ans, exploring the merits of VRI, notes,
The learning curve
with VRI isnt as
bad as some growers
expect, and some pick
it up naturally.
monitored for both effciency and regulatory purposes.
Terrain complicates nutrient management for citrus
grown in the foothills. Keeping track of nutrients in western
soil is more diffcult than in the fatlands because much of
the soil is water-formed and hilly, which means it has vari-
ability both laterally and vertically, says Bassett. Depth of
soil horizon is a major factor for western growers in nutrient
management.
Additionally, VRI maintains the proper moisture envi-
ronment for nutrients to be retained in the soil, rather than
leaching out of the root zone and into water supplies. This is
important in crops with deep roots that may span multiple
soil horizons, like citrus.
Whatever the benefts of improved irrigation may be to
a citrus grower, VRI puts the reins in the growers hands.
In my opinion, the biggest beneft is control. Control of the
root zone, by soil type, says Bennett. Water conservation
is important also, but the control that VRI gives a grower
over the nutrients and activity going on in the root zone is
invaluable.
Randi Gwilliam writes on behalf of the Tulare-based
TAP Family of Companies, focusing on agronomic princi-
ples and practices in California.
References
LaRue, J., and R. Evans. 2012. Considerations for Vari-
able Rate Irrigation. Proceedings of the 24th Annual Central
Plains Irrigation Conference, February 21-22, 2012, Colby,
Kansas. (Kansas State University, 2012.)
OGreen, A.T., Pettygrove, S., Southard, R.J., Minoshi-
ma, H. and Verdegaal, P.S., 2008. Soil-landscape model helps
predict potassium supply in vineyards, California Agricul-
ture 62(4):195-201. DOI: 10.3733/ca.v062n04p195.October-
December 2008. (UCANR, 2008)
Perry, C., and S. Pocknee. 2003. Development of a Vari-
able-Rate Pivot Irrigation Control System. Proceedings of
the 2003 Georgia Water Resources Conference, held April
23-24, 2003, at the University of Georgia. (University of
Georgia, 2003.)
Perry, C.D. and Milton, A.W. 2007. Variable-rate irriga-
tion: concept to commercialization. Proceedings of the 29th
Southern Conservation Agricultural Systems Conference,
2527 June, 2007, Quincy, Florida. (University of Georgia,
2007.)
Vories, E.D. 2008. Variable Rate Irrigation. 14th Annual
Judd Hill Cotton Technology Field Day Tour Book, Tru-
mann, Ark., Judd Hill Field Day Committee. 2008. (USDA,
2008.) l
THE ANSWER
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TREES NOT
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All Lines of Crop Protection
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Ivanhoe - Lindsay - Terra Bella
559.562.4946

Providing Quality
Service to Growers
Since 1920
(From Page 5, Do You Know?) It was in 1983, after the
Medfy crisis was over and it was feared that the public might
become complacent, assuming that the fruit fy danger had
passed. The ad agency Foote, Cone & Belding/Honig and the
L.A. County Ag Commissioners offce joined in an L.A.-area
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ing fruit inspected please.
Meet the faces of Dandycitrus.
For 85 years, Duda Farm Fresh Foods has been providing farm fresh fruits and vegetables to businesses and consumers.
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with a year-round supply of the most sought after citrus products. With a trusted network of growers, both domestic
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JOIN OUR COMMUNITY.
Technical and fnancial assistance from NRCS
IRRIGATION
Brandon Bates and Marcos Perez
T
he USDA-Natural Resources
Conservation Service (NRCS)
provides both technical and
fnancial assistance for improving irriga-
tion. This assistance can help make on-
farm improvements more economically
feasible and bring to light technologies
proven to beneft the land.
For example, 40 years ago, NRCS
in California invested in soil moisture
sensors and demonstrated to growers
how measuring soil moisture can help
conserve water. This technology has
since become more available to grow-
ers, and NRCS still provides technical
and fnancial assistance for those inter-
ested in learning more.
Also, NRCS gives fnancial assis-
tance in those scenarios where chang-
ing irrigation systems will conserve wa-
ter. In some cases this means changing
from food irrigation systems to micro/
drip irrigation. In other cases, it may
mean changing pumping systems to
more effcient means of pumping. This
includes variable frequency drives for
electrical pumps.
NRCS conservation planners are
here to help. Growers are encouraged
to discuss farm goals and improve-
ments with NRCS conservation plan-
ners. They will help show growers how
NRCS can help them achieve their
goals.
The NRCS does not work alone.
Partnerships between the NRCS and
local farmers are critical to fulfll-
ing the NRCS vision of maintaining
healthy and productive lands. Local
farmers help guide how we do business
and what conservation practices are
Important dates:
National Water Quality Initiative
application deadline July 12, 2013
Environmental Quality Incentives
Programs 2014 applications due
Fall 2013
Conservation Technical Assistance
offered all year round
Go to www.usda.nrcs.gov.
Photo courtesy of USDA Natural
Resources Conservation Service.
most needed in the diverse landscapes
across California. For information
about how to apply for programs or
get involved, please contact your local
USDA Service Center. Service Centers
may be located online at http://offces.
sc.egov.usda.gov.
USDA: The Peoples Department
What originally began as the Soil
Conservation Service in 1935 is now
known as the Natural Resources Con-
servation Service (NRCS), a name
change that highlights our broader mis-
sion of conservation. Bringing 60 years
of scientifc and technical expertise to
the conservation industry, we are in-
volved with activities that help beneft
soil, water, plants, air, and animals.
munities across North America, work-
ing hand-in-hand with landowners and
our partners to improve our natural
resources. Our passion is derived from
stewardship of the land -- benefts we
all enjoy, such as cleaner air and water,
improved soil and abundant wildlife
habitat.
Programs
CTA
Conservation technical assistance
(CTA) is the help NRCS and its part-
ners provide to land users to address
opportunities, concerns, and problems
related to the use of natural resources
and to help land users make sound
natural resource management deci-
sions on private, tribal, and other non-
federal lands.
This assistance can help land users:
Maintain and improve private
lands and their management.
Implement better land manage-
ment technologies.
Protect and improve water qual-
ity and quantity.
Maintain and improve wildlife
and fsh habitat.
Enhance recreational opportuni-
ties on their land.
Maintain and improve the aes-
thetic character of private land.
Explore opportunities to diver-
sify agricultural operations.
Develop and apply sustainable
agricultural systems.
This assistance may be in the form
of resource assessment, practice design,
resource monitoring, or follow-up of
installed practices.
Although the CTA program does
not include fnancial or cost-share
assistance, clients may develop con-
servation plans, which may serve as a
springboard for those interested in par-
ticipating in USDA fnancial assistance
programs.
CTA planning can also serve as a
door to fnancial assistance and ease-
ment conservation programs provided
by other federal, state, and local pro-
grams.
With 70% of U.S. land privately
owned, partnership with private land-
owners is critical to the health of our
nations land. By providing assistance
to these landowners, we help to culti-
vate productive lands and healthy eco-
systems.
As part of the USDA, the NRCS is
an agency committed to helping peo-
ple help the landour mission is to
provide resources to farmers and land-
owners to aid them with conservation.
Ensuring productive lands in harmony
with a healthy environment is our pri-
ority. With operations in the United
States, the Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico,
and Guam, our agency touches the
lives of a diverse range of individuals.
NRCS employs approximately
12,000 people in its 2,900 offces with
90 percent working outside of Wash-
ington, D.C. We are in numerous com-
EQIP
EQIP is a continuous sign-up,
voluntary, conservation program ad-
ministered by the Natural Resources
Conservation Service that provides
fnancial and technical assistance for
approved conservation practices based
on a current conservation plan.
The purposes of the Environmen-
tal Quality Incentives Program (EQIP)
is to promote agricultural production,
forest management, and environmen-
tal quality as compatible goals; opti-
mize environmental benefts; and help
farmers and ranchers meet federal,
state, tribal, and local environmental
regulations.
NRCS encourages customers to
submit an application at any time.
EQIP applications are accepted on a
continuous basis with periodic applica-
tion ranking cutoffs when applications
are ranked for funding. Applications
received after the application ranking
cutoff will be considered in the next
ranking period.
Interested applicants are encour-
aged to request conservation planning
and technical assistance from a local
NRCS feld offce to help with the de-
velopment of a conservation plan. A
conservation plan is the basis for an
EQIP application.
Organic
How the Organic Initiative works
(smaller subhead)
This assistance helps producers
plan and implement conservation prac-
tices to allow their organic operations
to be environmentally sustainable.
Some highlights of the organic provi-
sions in the 2008 Farm Bill and require-
ments for participation in the program
include:
Financial and technical assistance
to implement conservation practices
and planning related to addressing re-
source concerns associated with organ-
ic operations.
Financial assistance is limited to
totals of a maximum of $20,000 per fs-
cal year AND no more than $80,000
over a rolling six year Farm Bill for
ALL contracts approved through this
authority.
Producers must meet all the oth-
er eligibility requirements associated
with EQIP.
Participants are required develop
and work toward implementing an Or-
ganic System Plan (OSP) to meet Na-
tional Organic Program certifcation
through USDA.

2013 EQIP Organic Initiative
Each fscal year, NRCS will fo-
cus fnancial and technical assistance
through the EQIP Organic Initiative to
applicants who are:
Certifed organic producers
Transitioning to organic produc-
tion, or
Producers selling less than $5000
organic products annually
The 2013 Organic Initiative pro-
vides fnancial assistance to implement
COME SEE WHAT WE'VE BEEN UP TO
Visit our Website and see what's happening in the Citrus
Nursery World. Not only will you find Citrus Nursery News,
Upcoming Events, and the latest Research Reports, but also
the Citrus Nurseryman's ultimate resource, THE BOOK,
which gives you everything you need to know about
Government Agencies, Trade Information, Laws &
Regulations, Pesticide Issues, a comprehensive
list of Industry Organizations and other Citrus
Nursery Resources. Please let us know
what you think!
a broad set of conservation practices
to assist organic producers meet their
resource concerns and fulfll many of
the requirements in an Organic System
Plan (OSP) including, but not limited
to, assistance with:
Developing a conservation plan.
Developing a transition to organ-
ic production plan.
Establishing boundaries and buf-
fer zones.
Improving soil quality and or-
ganic matter while minimizing erosion.
Improving pest management.
Developing a grazing plan and
improving grazing resources.
Improving waste utilization and
composting.
Improving irrigation effciency.
Enhancing cropping systems and
nutrient management.
Brandon Bates is the District Con-
servationist in the Bakersfeld USDA
Service Center. Marcos Perez is the Ag-
ricultural Engineer in the Bakersfeld
USDA Service Center. l
C I T R U S A V O C A D O S O L I V E S
Contract Growing
for 2015
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Contract Growing
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Advanced Pumping Effciency
Program (APEP)
IRRIGATION
Staff, Center for Irrigation
Technology (CIT), CSU Fresno
T
he Advanced Pumping Effciency
Program (APEP) is an educa-
tional and incentive program
intended to improve overall pumping
effciency and encourage energy con-
servation in California.
Pumping water for delivery, pres-
surization, purifcation, and sewage
consumes approximately one-ffth of
the total electricity and one-third of
the total natural gas used in California.
APEP can help you minimize your en-
ergy use for pumping.
Since 2006, APEP has provided
cash incentives and subsidized pump
effciency tests for farmers, cities, large
turf growers, golf courses, and water
agencies totaling:
19,800 pump effciency tests with
$3.3 million in subsidies.
$5.7 million in incentives for
pump retroft/repair projects.
96 educational seminars.
Eligibility
Eligibility extends to all owners or
users of a non-residential, PG&E elec-
tric or natural gas utility account that
is primarily used for pumping water for
production agriculture, landscape or
turf irrigation, or municipal purposes,
including potable and tertiary-treated
(reclaimed) water but excluding pumps
used for industrial processes, raw sew-
age, or secondary-treated sewage, and
who are paying the Public Purpose
Programs Charge. Other factors may
apply. Refer to the Policies and Proce-
dures Manual, available on the APEP
web site at www.pumpeffciency.org or
contact APEP for full eligibility crite-
ria.
APEP offers four services to water
pumpers
1. Education Free educational
seminars on various aspects of pump-
ing and water management are provid-
ed throughout PG&Es service area.
The APEP web site at www.pumpeff-
ciency.org has an events calendar that
lists all presentations and seminars.
You can also call any of our regional
offces at the numbers listed at the end
of this article.
2. Technical assistance Program
personnel are available to help in locat-
ing pump effciency testers, completing
a pump retroft/repair incentive rebate
application form, or answer general
questions as to pumping plant design
and use (site-specifc engineering ser-
vices are not available). Call any of the
regional offces at the numbers listed at
the end of this article.
3. Subsidized effciency tests
Pump effciency tests provide impor-
tant data, including fow rates, well lifts
(if applicable), discharge pressures,
motor loading, and most importantly,
the Overall Pumping Effciency (OPE).
The pump test report contains
measurements and calculations that
result from the test as well as a pump-
ing cost analysis. This cost analysis pro-
vides an estimate of how much money
could be saved as the result of a pump
retroft. Subsidies, subject to funding
availability, are paid directly to APEP
participating pump test companies.
4. Pump retrofts Cash incentives
are available for retroft of working,
electric or natural gas- powered water
pumps. The only project-type eligible is
retroft of either or both of the pump
impeller or bowl. Pump retroft proj-
ects cannot have started prior to Janu-
ary 1, 2006 and will require pump ef-
fciency tests both before and after the
retroft project is complete (although
these tests do not have to be by APEP
testers).
Program success for cities
APEP has provided over $2 mil-
lion in incentives for over 350 retrofts
involving municipal, water agency, and
private water company pumping plants
since 2006. This has resulted in over 29
million kilowatt-hours saved in the frst
year after the retroft alone. These proj-
ects included water supply wells, boost-
er stations, and golf course and soccer
feld sprinkler systems. These projects
not only save energy use and costs but
also increase system reliability.
Program success for agriculture
In a two-year period, Alpaugh Irri-
gation District (AID) decided to repair
fve 200 horsepower deep well pumps.
These pumps, along with well cleaning,
cost over $100,000 to bring them back
to peak effciency. The energy savings
for these pumps was over 1.2 million
kilowatt hours per year, and the Dis-
trict received over $50,000 in incentive
rebates.
Through the implementation of
these repairs, AID has been able to
control its operating costs and offer
competitive rates for its customers.
This program has been very benefcial
to AID, says Kevin Couch, District
Manager. In addition, it has helped
reduce overall energy demand in the
state.
What is a pump effciency test?
A pump test measures various as-
pects of the pumps operation includ-
ing fow, discharge pressure, well lift (if
applicable), and power use. The end re-
sult of a pump test is an estimate of the
overall effciency of your pump and the
cost of running it under the conditions
of the test. The test may also give an
indication of water well performance.
The APEP pump effciency test is sub-
sidized. You are responsible for know-
Since 2006, APEP has
provided cash incentives
and subsidized pump
effciency tests for
farmers.
ing how much the test company will
charge you and whether you will have
to provide funds in addition to the Pro-
gram subsidy.
How to obtain a subsidized pump
effciency test
Subsidized pump effciency tests
are available, subject to budget avail-
ability, from APEP-approved partici-
pating pump test companies.
Important restrictions include:
Only one test is available per
pump every 23 months.
The pump must be 25 horsepow-
er or greater.
In the case of a well, the pump
tester must be able to measure the
pumping water level.
Tests are not available for real
estate transactions or to satisfy a man-
date of any government or quasi-gov-
ernment agency.
Other restrictions may apply.
To obtain a pump test
1. Contact the participating pump
test company of your choice to arrange
a test. Log on to the Program web site
or call one of the Program offces listed
at the end of this article if you need as-
sistance in locating a test company.
2. You will have to sign an Access
Agreement (granting legal access to
your pump) before the test and a Re-
cord of Test (providing proof to the
California Public Utilities Commission
that the test was performed) after the
test.
3. The tester will provide both you
and the Program with a pump test re-
port. You can discuss the results of the
test with the test company or Program
personnel.
4. The subsidy will be provided di-
rectly to the test company by the Pro-
gram and the test company will take
care of all other paperwork.
How to apply for a cash incentive for
a pump retroft
The Program offers cash incentives,
subject to budget availability, for retro-
ftting eligible pumps of any size to in-
crease effciency. The incentive is based
on your annual energy use. The more
energy you use, the larger the poten-
tial incentive. However, the maximum
incentive possible is 50 percent of the
project cost.
Note these important program rules:
Only one incentive can be paid
per individual pump in any one six-
year period.
A valid pump effciency test must
be performed before the retroft proj-
ect is started and also after the project
is completed. These tests cannot be
more than three (3) years apart. Cop-
ies of the test results must be submitted
with the application.
The post-project pump test must
be performed within one (1) year of
the project completion.
An application can be submit-
ted for a project that has already been
started or completed. However, an ap-
plication package must be completed
and approved within two (2) years of
project completion.
Projects involving multiple
pumping systems are not eligible for
APEP incentives. Contact APEP or
PG&E to determine whether PG&E
has other programs for which your
project may be eligible.
The pump must be operational at
the time of retroft.
The incentive cannot be com-
bined with any other grant, incentive,
ww w. c i t r u s t r e e s o u r c e . c o m
Stronger Roots
make Super
Citrus Trees
Stronger Roots
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rebate, or service offered for the proj-
ect by one of the investor owned utili-
ties or any state or local agency.
Other restrictions may apply.
If the Program has a copy of a
pump test done for your pump, we can
prepare an application that is substan-
tially complete for you. All that will be
needed is your signature, information
on who will receive the incentive, and
information regarding the retroft per-
formed.
To participate
1. Obtain an Application form by
either calling the Program offce or
downloading a form from the Program
web site. Participating pump test com-
panies and many pump service compa-
nies may also have copies.
2. Fill out the form as directed
and submit to the main Program of-
fce along with a copy of the pump ef-
fciency test performed before the ret-
roft. An Application can be submitted
either before or after the project has
been completed.
3. The Program will review the
Application. They may ask for more
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information and may recalculate the
estimated incentive. The Program will
notify you when it is approved, and
your estimated incentive amount.
4. If the Application is being sub-
mitted before the project is complete,
you must notify the Program when the
project is fnished and submit required
documentation. The Program will veri-
fy all information, may recalculate the
incentive based on the post-test, and
will inform you when the Application
is fully approved.
APEP can help you to minimize
your pumping costs
The Advanced Pumping Effciency
Program can help you improve overall
pump effciency and save energy. We
are here to help every step of the way.
APEP maintains regional offces in
Northern California, the San Joaquin
Valley, and the Central Coast. Log on
to the web site at www.pumpeffciency.
org. Here you will fnd summaries of
all Program components, a calendar
of upcoming events, application forms,
phone numbers and e-mail addresses
of the regional offces, and a knowl-
edge-base to help you conserve energy
and water.
Contact us to see how a pump ef-
fciency test can provide you with the
critical information required to make
a decision as to a retroft. Applying for
the retroft incentive is easy and we are
here to help every step of the way.
Northern California regional of-
fce (559) 260-6148.
San Joaquin Valley (main offce)
(800) 845-6038, fax to (559) 278-2998.
Central Coast regional offce
(San Mateo County to Ventura County)
(805) 709-4180, fax to (805) 619-7506.
Or, call your PG&E account repre-
sentative.
The Center for Irrigation Technol-
ogy ( CIT) is an independent testing
laboratory, applied research facility,
and educational resource center based
at California State University, Fresno.
CIT is dedicated to advancing water
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feld research, analytical studies and
special projects, and education. Visit
www.fresnostate.edu/jcast/cit/. l
Editors Note: Ray Copeland and John Pehrson were child-
hood friends in Orange County, never imagining that as
grownups their careers would take them both to Tulare Coun-
ty where they would work closely together for 20 years.
M
any times at Citrus Field Days in the San Joaquin
Valley the question arises, How is John Pehrson
and what is he doing these days? The question in
itself is a tribute to John in that citrus growers and industry
people alike recognized, appreciated and sought his advice,
frst as a University of Cali-
fornia Cooperative Extension
farm advisor and then as an
area-wide Citrus Specialist.
Thus, we as an industry pay
tribute to John and say Thank
You.
John Pehrson, Jr. began
life in Downey, California
on September 10, 1927, to
be joined later by two sis-
ters, Corinne and Hildred.
His father, John, managed a
40-acre citrus grove for the
Peterson family as well as the
Pehrsons own 10-acre citrus
grove adjacent to the Peter-
son groves.
John Sr. had moved
from his birthplace in Somo-
lan, Kansas, to the Redlands-
Highlands area to work on a
citrus farm of a relative cousin rather than farm with his
father in Kansas, but soon after he moved to the Downy
area or Los Angeles County between the Rio Hondo and
San Gabriel rivers where the sandy loam soils were deep
and water was plentiful.
The Roaring 20s following the devastating freeze of
Flowers to the Living
A Thank You note to John Pehrson
Citrus specialist, master teacher, consummate farm advisor
Ray D. Copeland and Neil V. OConnell
John and Mary Beth Pehrson in a photo taken at an event
some years ago at the University of Californias Lindcove
Research and Extension Center. Photo courtesy of the
Lindcove REC.
1913, and the First World War gave rise to citrus plantings
in the wonderful climate of Southern California. John, Jr.
grew up in the shadow of his father, learning frsthand at an
early age all that that was required to be a successful citrus
farm manager when citrus growers were experimenting with
wind machines and all types of heaters to prevent freezing
weather from devastating the industry.
In September of 1933, John started his formal schooling,
attending Gallatin Grammar School, a two-room 1st through
6th grade school which served the farming area. The Long
Beach earthquake on March 10 of 1933 severely damaged
the Gallatin school building
to the point that it was con-
demned, so that starting class
in the fall of 1933 found their
classrooms were tents until
1936 when the WPA fnished
construction of new class-
rooms.
After his six years at
Gallatin Grammar School,
where the highest academic
achievement was expected
of every student, it was off to
Downey Junior High School
for the next three years and
then to Downey High School
where John became a life
member of the California
Scholastic Federation as well
as a participant in class plays
and musicals.
He graduated from
Downey High in June of 1945, just after the Second World
War had ended in Europe but still raged in the Pacifc with
Japan. Like all young men of Johns age, the military was
waiting to greet him with his draft notice for induction into
the U.S. Army, shipping him to Fort Lewis, Washington, for
basic training. Before reaching his duty assignment, John
also trained at Fort Belvoir and then was sent to Panama
where he served in survey crews in the jungle.
Soil science degree from UC
Returning from service in the Army, John started his
collegiate education at Fullerton Junior College, receiving
his Associate of Arts degree in June of 1949. From there, he
went on to the University of California, studying at both
the Davis and Berkeley campuses and receiving his Bach-
The backstory
Thank You articles such as this one are a recur-
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appreciate what someone is doing or has done in this
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This faded newspaper clipping is from a 1961 article in the Orange County
Register reporting on orange trees being hit by quick decline.
elor of Science degree in soil science in 1951.
At UC, he had studied under some of the great soils pro-
fessors and scholars, so he was well prepared for his frst work
experience in 1951 as a soils technician mapping soils in the
San Joaquin Valley. He spent many long days in the feld lay-
ing out grids and then pounding a soil tube into the ground
to obtain samples for future analysis and classifcation for the
preparation of the maps we use today in agriculture.
In May of 1953, John began his career with the Univer-
sity of California Cooperative Extension Service as a farm
advisor in Orange County, where he soon met his future
wife, Mary Beth. They were married the next year.
In the years that followed, three children were born to
John and Mary Beth -- Karen, who is a high school English
teacher, John R., an environmental engineer, and David, an
engineer specializing in aerodynamics.
John worked as an advisor in the Orange County offce
until 1966, when he moved to the Tulare County Coopera-
tive Extension offce as the citrus farm advisor. In June of
1980, he moved to the Universitys Kearney Research and
Extension Center as the subtropical horticultural specialist.
Desiring to be closer to the citrus belt, John requested trans-
fer to the Universitys Lindcove Research and Extension
Center, arriving at LREC in 1982. He remained based at the
Lindcove feld station until his retirement in 1991.
While John worked for the UC Cooperative Extension
Service, he was quite active in community affairs as a school
board member for the Exeter elementary school, as a board
member to the Exeter Presbyterian Church, a member of
the Exeter Kiwanis Club and a participating member of the
Giant Oaks Barbershop Choral Group.
Expert at dissecting problems
The many citrus growers who called John for his advice
or had him make a farm call to look at a problem are always
quick to tell you how he could dissect a problem, whether
it be a soils, rootstock, fertility, entomological or irrigation
problem, and provide them with meaningful answers that
were scientifcally based and recommend solu-
tions to the existing problem.
John has always been eager to understand
new scientifc discovery -- maintaining good
contact with principal researchers -- and learn
how to apply it to his feld of expertise in a
manner that laymen could understand. Thats
the true calling of a farm advisor, to be a mas-
ter teacher.
These teaching skills were always evident in
the content and preparation that John put into
his Citrus Field Days or Citrus Meeting and
were certainly apparent as John became an ar-
ea-wide Citrus Specialist working with the farm
advisors responsible for citrus crops in his area.
In addition to his teaching, John was a
gifted researcher. The citrus industry was the
recipient of his extensive research activities.
His educational background made him
uniquely qualifed to address a radical change
in water management. The change was the con-
cept of applying irrigation water in small vol-
umes on a very frequent basis by means of mi-
crosprinklers. At the same time, he addressed
a related concept that the water requirements
of an orchard could be estimated based upon
the size of the tree canopy and current weath-
er conditions and allow a person to accurately
schedule irrigation based upon this estimate.
Integrating new irrigation concepts
John conducted extensive research inte-
grating the two concepts into a practical water
management plan for the industry. Water ap-
plication could be much more precise with mi-
crosprinklers and utilizing ET. John developed
John has always been eager to understand new scientifc discovery and learn how
to apply it to his feld of expertise in a manner that laymen could understand.
The Visalia Times-Delta covered a special feld day that Pehrson conducted on Lane
Late navels.
what he referred to as his check-
book method of irrigation schedul-
ing -- calculate what you have spent
(how much water the tree has used)
and replace that amount. The use of
irrigation scheduling utilizing ET or
evapotranspiration is now in wide-
spread use in citrus in California.
John was held in high regard by
his peers. He was regarded as highly
professional. His co-workers were
often the benefciaries of his exten-
sive knowledge of citrus production
and his familiarity with research and
relevant publications in the scien-
tifc literature. They also frequently
beneftted from his willingness to
act as a mentor providing practical,
knowledgable suggestions to the
questions they were investigating.
As a result of the high regard in
which he was held, he was able to
work with all segments of the indus-
try, from growers to campus-based
basic researchers, which resulted in
major contributions to the citrus in-
dustry in Tulare County, in the San
Joaquin Valley, in the entire state of
California.
We asked several members of
the industry to share their thoughts:
Lindcove-area grower John
Kirkpatrick, a past chairman of the
Citrus Research Board, wrote:
In 1966, shortly after I as-
sumed management of a large citrus
farming operation near Exeter and
Woodlake, John Pehrson arrived in
Tulare Countys UC Cooperative
Extension offce. He was selected
to fll the Citrus Farm Advisor position vacated when Karl
Opitz was elevated to the post of Regional Subtropical Hor-
ticulture Specialist.
It didnt take long for the citrus growers of Tulare
County to recognize that John was, as he continues to be,
an inexhaustible source of information. He was versed in all
things citrus, both practical and academic. He was an avid
reader and he had complete recall. John could relate and
summarize what he had read, observed or personally done
in plain, understandable terms. Yet, when needed, he could
cite authors, publication and sources.
John actively participated in and lent leadership to
many citrus industry professional organizations Citrus
Mens Club; UC Citrus Advisory Committee, Citrus Re-
search Board; California Citrus Quality Council (CCQC),
Citrus Clonal Protection Program, Lindcove Field Station
Advisory Committee, and more.
He provided assistance to the founding of California
Citrus Mutual during the citrus hard times of the early 1970s,
and he continued to serve as an active ex-offcio offcer of
CCM until his retirement.
Johns involvement in practical aspects of citrus culture
included several projects relating to resource conservation
and environmental concerns. One was a targeted research
effort into passive approaches to frost protection using na-
scent electronic technology for collecting and recording
temperatures and other weather data. John was an early
advocate of leaf tissue analysis as a tool to avoid excessive
fertilizer applications and reduce operating costs.
John came to the San Joaquin Valley with frsthand ex-
perience of the effects of the Citrus tristeza virus epidem-
ic in the Southern California community where his family
farmed. His southern experience also gave him a sense of
the importance of air qualitys effects on citrus production.
With that knowledge, John was instrumental in directing UC
resources to extensive research into air quality impacts on
citrus and other San Joaquin Valley crops.
Citrograph contributor Anne Warring had a conversa-
tion with him recently and adds:
What John told me about his work as a farm advisor
in Orange County makes me think he has a special feeling
of satisfaction about that time in his career because he hap-
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pened to be in the right place at the right time, as he put
it, to do some things that were very meaningful to him both
personally and professionally.
For one, he was able to provide some very helpful in-
formation and guidance to growers who were losing their
orchards to urbanization and struggling with their decisions
about whether to plant citrus somewhere else and where
they should go.
He talked about a number of aspects of his work that
were interesting and fulflling, both in Southern California
and in the San Joaquin Valley, but then he zeroed-in on
something that he obviously feels especially good about.
He said, Probably the thing Im most pleased about was
that I was able to take the research done by Embleton and
Jones on citrus nutrition and introduce the Orange County
growers to the concept of leaf analysis as your guide to fer-
tilization. Everything that Embleton and Jones had done
showed that the right amount of nitrogen gave you quality
fruit, whereas luxury levels of nitrogen gave you regreening
and coarseness, and other problems.
One thing in particular really brought a smile to his face
when he was talking about Central California, and that was
his role in making growers aware of the Lane Late navel.
Bill Bitters, who was known for not writing up his research,
had included Lane Late in a navel strain trial at the Lind-
cove station, John said, and it had just sat there.
He said, Discussions were going on about what to do
with that plot since Bitters was retired and they couldnt
keep those trees going forever. So, we decided to hold a Field
Day so growers could take a look. We thought they would
Like father, like son. Young John R. Pehrson getting a lesson
in planting an orange tree from his dad, John Pehrson, Jr., in
this 1958 photo taken in Santa Ana. Pehrson family album.
be really interested in the early group of navels, but lo and
behold, as the discussions went on, people were asking what
about this Lane Late; its holding up differently than others.
So we had a few more events where we put Lane Late out
for peoples perusal.
A. G. Salter Award
In 1994, the California Citrus Quality Council (CCQC)
presented Pehrson with the industrys most prestigious prize,
the Albert G. Salter Memorial Award. The inscription on the
plaque read:
In recognition of his long, dedicated and consummately
effective career in serving the citrus industry of California as
a reliable and respected source of information and practical
guidance for citrus growers in the San Joaquin Valley, and in-
terimly in Orange County.Over a span of forty years in vari-
ous assignments within the University of California farm advi-
sors services he came to epitomize the ideal of being a ready
At a feld meeting at Lindcove in 1985, Pehrson discusses his
trials with Flying Dragon rootstock.
The many hats of John Pehrson
As others have related, John was a man of many
talents; he even sang in a barbershop quartet. In other
words, he wore many hats. But he also owned many hats,
and it became a point of interest to see which he would
choose to wear to certain occasions.
He had everything -- slouch hats in many colors,
jaunty English tweed hats, straw hats, warm wintery caps,
and big sun-protective hats. Although I dont remember
him ever wearing one, he probably even had a cowboy
hat or two.
At Johns retirement, the Citrus Mens Club held a
luncheon in his honor, and the invitation was illustrated
with hats, hats and more hats. -- Agriculture communica-
tions specialist Shirley Kirkpatrick
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source of state-of-the-art information about citricultural prac-
tices and seasoned counseling while conjunctively providing
signifcant leadership in problem-solving research at the feld
level, coupled with the helpful summarization and dissemina-
tion of all relevant research fndings.
This past summer, with Mary Beth in failing health,
they decided to relocate to Southern California to be closer
to their children. But before that latest move, they were
happily residing in a senior living complex in Visalia, where
it was understood that John was the resident scientist will-
ing to hold a seminar on almost any scientifc subject from
space travel and astronomy to the water problems of the
state of California, applying the same teaching techniques
he used so successfully in his career.
John will always be a teacher.
Ray Copeland was the Superintendent of the Universi-
ty of Californias Lindcove Research and Extension Center
from 1965 through 1986. Most recently, until his retirement
in September 2012, Copeland was president of Biagro West-
ern Sales in Visalia. He is a hands-on grower who, along with
a business partner, produces navels, Valencias, lemons, man-
darins, and olives in Tulare County. Neil OConnell has been
a UC Cooperative Extension farm advisor in Tulare County
since 1981, dealing exclusively with citrus and avocados. l
Research Project Progress Report
CRB Funded Research Reports
Understanding citrus branch canker and dieback
in the Southern California desert regions
(not just Hendersonula)
Joey S. Mayorquin, Danny H. Wang, Joe Barcinas, Gary Bender, Akif Eskalen
Editors Note: The research reported on here is from
one of several studies under the project titled Investi-
gating important diseases of citrus in California.
Introduction
Growers in the desert regions of Southern California are
concerned about a disease of grapefruit and lemon. This dis-
ease is characterized by branch cankers and dieback, bark
cracking/splitting, gumming, and the presence of black fun-
gal spores underneath the bark.
The causal agent was found to be the fungus Neoscy-
talidium dimidiatum (known as (Hendersonula toruloidea).
Simply known as Hendersonula, this disease remains a prob-
lem for citrus growers in the desert regions.
During a previous statewide survey, samples collected
from lemon and grapefruit trees in the desert regions of Riv-
erside and San Diego counties yielded fungi not previously
found in other counties sampled. These fungi were identi-
fed as species of Eutypella, which belong to the family Dia-
trypaceae.
Interestingly, several members of this fungal family are
associated with grapevine decline in California, and in the
Coachella Valley species of Eutypella are the predominant
fungal species associated with grapevine cankers.
Although N. dimidiatum has been known as a pathogen
of citrus in California since the 1950s, the association of Eu-
typella with citrus branch canker/dieback has been unknown.
This leads to the question, do these Eutypella species play a
role in causing citrus branch canker/dieback or do they exist
in citrus as saprophytes?
The objectives of this study are to: (1) determine the
fungi associated with citrus branch canker/dieback in the
southern California desert regions, (2) assess the pathoge-
nicity and aggressiveness of these fungi, and (3) develop
management strategies for this disease.
How the study was conducted
Citrus groves throughout Riverside, Imperial and San
Diego counties were surveyed for symptomatic trees show-
ing signs of branch canker and dieback. Sampling was fo-
cused in the Coachella and Imperial valleys as well as the
Borrego Springs region.
Symptomatic branch samples were collected from No-
vember 2011 to December 2012. Samples were taken from
both lemon and grapefruit trees in commercial citrus groves
but were also taken from other woody hosts that surrounded
these citrus groves.
Isolations were made from symptomatic tissues, and
the resulting fungi were identifed morphologically. Those
isolates belonging to the families Botryosphaeriaceae and
Diatrypaceae based on colony and conidial (asexual, non-
mobile spore) morphology were further characterized using
molecular methods.
To identify fungi belonging to the fungal family, Bot-
ryosphaeriaceae, two gene loci, internal transcribed spacer
(ITS) region of the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) and a portion
of the translation elongation factor 1-a (EF1-a) gene, were
Figure 1. 10-day-old cultures on Potato Dextrose Agar of (A)
Neoscytalidium dimidiatum, (B) Eutypella microtheca, (C)
Eutypella citricola, (D) Eutypella sp.
Phylogenetic(s) refers simply to the relationship
among organisms inferred through an observable char-
acteristic. In this study, DNA sequences of unknown
fungi were compared to those of known fungi in order to
determine fungal identity.
Morphological refers to the physical characteris-
tics (color, shape, size, etc.) of an organism.
Perithecia fask shaped structure that contains sex-
ual fungal spores (ascospores).
Figure 2. Photographs of various symptoms of citrus branch canker and dieback: (A) citrus tree in a commercial grove
showing signs of dieback (red arrow); (B) branch of lemon showing bark peeling. Underneath the bark, fungal spores of
Neoscytalidium can be seen as a black powdery mass; (C) cross section of a branch showing the brown necrotic canker (red
arrow); (D) lemon tree and Tamarix (on the right) showing signs of dieback (red arrows); (E) branch showing bark splitting
and exudation of gum; (F) cross section of cankered branch of Tamarix from photo D. Red arrow points to canker.
A B C
D E F
used for molecular phylogenetics to confrm the identities of
these fungi.
Similarly for fungi belonging to the Diatrypaceae, the
ITS region and a portion of the b-tubulin gene were used in
the phylogenetic analysis.
To determine the pathogenicity of selected fungi, de-
tached green shoots of Allen Eureka lemon were stem-
wound inoculated by removing a piece of cambium with a
cork-borer and then placing agar plugs infested with one
isolate of representative fungi on the wound. Control shoots
were inoculated with uninfested agar plugs.
Shoots were incubated at 258C under humid conditions
for two weeks. Resulting lesions were measured and isola-
tions were made from these shoots to confrm pathogenicity.
Results and future outlook
Surveys conducted throughout the southern California
desert regions revealed the predominate fungi associated
with citrus branch canker and dieback are a Neoscytalidium
species as well as three distinct Eutypella species based on
morphology (Figure 1). These fungi have been detected in
all three previously mentioned counties and can be found
associated with both lemon and grapefruit trees.
Symptoms frequently observed included cankers --
which ranged in color from gray, chocolate brown to black
-- splitting of the bark often accompanied by gum exudation,
sloughing off of bark revealing a layer of black fungal spores
underneath, and progressive dieback (Figure 2).
Samples collected from other woody hosts surrounding
citrus groves, for example Tamarix, also show an associa-
tion of Eutypella spp. with symptoms of branch canker and
dieback; however, it is unknown if Eutypella is the cause of
dieback on Tamarix. The Neoscytalidium sp. is the most com-
mon canker fungus isolated from symptomatic tissues.
Throughout this survey, numerous perithecia of Eutypel-
la were observed on dead branches. These fungi were found
associated with all varieties of citrus that have been sampled
and all ages of trees are presumed to be susceptible to infec-
tion by these fungal species (Table 1).
Phylogenetic analysis supports our morphological
identifcation and confrms that the species Neoscytalidium
dimidiatum causes the disease known as Hendersonula.
These analyses also confrm two of the Eutypella spp. as E. cit-
Table 1: Representative Neoscytalidium and Eutypella
isolates collected from this study
Species Strain County Host Variety
Neoscytalidium DC08 Imperial Citrus paradisi Rio Red
dimidiatum
N. dimidiatum DC29 Imperial Citrus paradisi Rio Red
N. dimidiatum DC132 Riverside Citrus limon Allen Eureka
N. dimidiatum DC173 Imperial Citrus limon Lisbon
N. dimidiatum DC176 Imperial Citrus paradisi Rio Red
Eutypella citricola DC83 Riverside Citrus limon Allen Eureka
E. citricola DC91 Imperial Citrus paradisi Rio Red
E. citricola DC186 Imperial Citrus paradisi Ruby
E. citricola DC272 San Diego Citrus limon Lisbon
E. citricola DC291 San Diego Tamarix sp.
E. citricola DC293 San Diego Citrus limon Lisbon
Eutypella microtheca DC09 Imperial Citrus paradisi Rio Red
E. microtheca DC37 Imperial Citrus paradisi Rio Red
E. microtheca DC148 Imperial Citrus limon Lisbon
Eutypella sp. DC210 Imperial Citrus paradisi Ruby
Eutypella sp. DC211 Imperial Citrus paradisi Ruby
Eutypella sp. DC276 San Diego Citrus limon Lisbon
Eutypella sp. DC287 San Diego Tamarix sp.
ricola and E. microtheca. The third
Eutypella species remains uniden-
tifed at this time, but phylogenetic
analysis shows it is closely related
to Peroneutypa scoparia, formerly
Eutypella scoparia. Future work
will be aimed at determining the
identity of this Eutypella species.
Based on the results of the de-
tached shoot assay (Figure 3), E.
microtheca and Eutypella sp. are
pathogenic on citrus as both were
able to produce lesions (~10mm)
and could be isolated from inocu-
lated shoots; however, E. citricola
failed to produce lesions and could
not be recovered from inoculated
shoots. N. dimidiatum produced
the largest lesions (~60mm) and
was included in this experiment
for comparative purposes even
though it was reported as a patho-
gen of citrus in previous studies.
Statistical analysis was con-
ducted to compare mean lesion
lengths, and these results suggest
that Eutypella spp. poses a low to
moderate virulence in comparison
to N. dimidiatum, as lesions caused
by Eutypella spp. were not statisti-
cally different from the negative/
healthy control.
It is necessary, however, to further explore the role of
Eutypella spp. as pathogens of citrus and grapevine, particu-
larly in regions where these two commodities are grown in
close proximity.
For example, the predominance of Eutypella in the
Coachella Valley region likely suggests an adaptation to the
climate of these regions which experience wide fuctuations
in temperature.
Results from a growth rate assay of fungi in different
temperatures reveal optimal growth temperatures for both
N. dimidiatum and Eutypella spp. to be between 308C and
358C (Figure 4). Studies are underway to explore the effect
of temperature on disease expression and development.
Additionally, studies are being planned to investigate
the interaction between N. dimidiatum and Eutypella spp. In
a few cases, both N. dimidiatum and Eutypella spp. could be
isolated from the same diseased branch sample, raising ques-
tions regarding the interaction of these two fungi.
The nature of this interaction is unknown, but of particu-
lar interest is whether or not this interaction has any effect
on disease development. If a degree of antagonism exists be-
tween Neoscytalidium and Eutypella, then it is possible that
colonization of the plant by one fungus could preclude or at
least limit later colonization of the plant by the other fungus.
Conversely, these two fungi could act together to produce a
greater degree of disease than either one individually.
These greenhouse and feld studies will aid in better un-
derstanding the role of these fungi in the overall dieback of
citrus in this region.
Management of this disease is currently under investi-
gation, but growers are advised to maintain good cultural
practices to ensure proper grove hygiene. These practices
include: avoiding excessive pruning/mechanical damage, as
open wounds serve as infection sites for these pathogens; re-
moving diseased branches and properly disposing of them;
and, disinfecting contaminated tools so as to reduce the risk
of spreading the pathogen.
In cases where branch canker and dieback are severe,
growers may beneft from the use of chemical applications.
Efforts are being made to screen commercial fungicides cur-
rently on the market that may be effcacious in the control
of these pathogens. Initial results from an in vitro fungicide
Figure 3. Mean external lesion lengths on inoculated green
shoots of Allen Eureka lemon. Asterisk denotes means that
are signifcantly different at p=0.05.
N. E.citricola E. Eutypella sp. Control
dimidatum microtheca
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
M
e
a
n

E
x
t
e
r
n
a
l

L
e
s
i
o
n

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
m
m
)

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Neoscytalidium dimidiatum
Eutypella microteca
Eutypella citricola
Eutypella scoparia
Temperature C
A
v
e
r
a
g
e
d
a
i
l
y
g
r
o
w
t
h
(
m
m
)

Figure 4. The growth rate of fungi in different temperatures.
screen show that a number of commercial products currently
registered on citrus are capable of reducing fungal growth,
some of which are highly effective at very low concentra-
tions.
Field studies will be necessary to evaluate fungicide eff-
cacy and appropriate application methods. These results will
be made available to growers through the UC IPM online
website (http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu).
Taken together, these results underscore the need for
further investigation into this unique disease complex faced
by desert growers. Conclusion of these studies will provide
the industry with the appropriate management strategies
to maintain lucrative production in this area.
Project leader Dr. Akif Eskalen is Assistant Coop-
erative Extension Specialist and Plant Pathologist, Joey S.
Mayorquin is a graduate student, and Danny H. Wang is a
Laboratory Assistant in the Department of Plant Pathology
and Microbiology at the University of California Riverside.
Joe Barcinas is a grower and pest control advisor. Dr. Gary
Bender is a UCCE Farm Advisor in San Diego County.
CRB research project reference number 5400-140.
Additional reading
Adesemoye, A. and A. Eskalen. First report of Eutypella
spp. associated with branch canker of citrus in California. Plant
Disease. 95.9 (2011): 1187
Adesemoye, A. O., Mayorquin, J.S., Wang, D.H., Twizey-
imana, M., Lynch, S.C., and A. Eskalen. Identifcation of species
of Botryosphaeriaceae causing cankers in citrus in California.
Plant Disease. Submitted.
Calavan, E C and J M Wallace. Hendersonula toruloidea
Nattrass on citrus in California. Phytopathology. 44 (1954): 635
Crous, P.W., Slippers, B., Wingfeld, M.J., Rheeder, J., Mara-
sas, W.F.O., Phillips, A.J.L, Alves, A., Burgess, T., Barber, P., and
J.Z. Groenewald. Phylogenetic lineages in the Botryosphaeri-
aceae. Studies in Mycology. 55 (2006): 235
Trouillas FP, Urbez-Torres JR, and W.D.Gubler. Diversity
of diatrypaceous fungi associated with grapevine canker diseas-
es in California. Mycologia. 102(2) (2010):319 l
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Fax: (559) 635-4955
ENTOMOLOGICAL SERVICES, INC.
Editors Note: The research reported
on here is part of ongoing work under
the project titled Evaluation of new
postharvest treatments to reduce post-
harvest decay and improve fruit qual-
ity in citrus packinghouse operations.
W
ith the introduction of new
postharvest fungicides in
recent years, there have been
major changes in postharvest decay
management strategies for citrus. Never
before in the history of postharvest de-
cay control in citrus have there been as
many choices available for domestic use
as we have today and for international
export in the near future.
Choosing the most appropriate
approach for minimizing decay has be-
come more diffcult because it involves
knowledge of chemical classes and
their spectrum of activity, compatibili-
Research Project Progress Report
CRB Funded Research Reports
New postharvest treatments for improved
management of green mold, sour rot,
and brown rot of citrus
Jim Adaskaveg and Helga Frster
ties with fruit coatings and sanitizers,
regulatory aspects concerning MRLs,
as well as economic considerations.
Moreover, previously, fungicide re-
sistance was an issue accepted as part
of the postharvest handling of citrus,
whereas now a priority should be to in-
tegrate all possible strategies to avoid
resistance development against the
newer modes of action.
Newer fungicides both registered
and in development in addition to the
older compounds are listed in Table 1.
The new compounds belong to fve
chemical classes that have unique modes
of action. The Fungicide Resistance Ac-
tion Committee (FRAC) assigns num-
bers for these groups instead of using
the chemical name. Thus, thiabendazole
(TBZ), imazalil and propiconazole, py-
rimethanil, azoxystrobin, and fudioxo-
nil belong to FRAC Groups 1, 3, 9, 11,
and 12, respectively. This provides users
of these products a simple method for
identifying different modes of action
and for implementing resistance man-
agement practices by not over-using any
one class or FRAC group.
Four of these classes are new to
citrus postharvest decay control; but
propiconazole (FRAC 3) is a member
of the same class as imazalil (i.e., the
demethylation inhibitors - DMIs) and,
thus, there is cross-resistance between
the two fungicides.
Propiconazole was federally reg-
istered in 2012 and registered in Cali-
fornia in January 2013 because of its
unprecedented activity against sour rot
caused by Galactomyces citri-auran-
tii. Previously, sodium ortho-phenyl-
phenate (SOPP) was the only fungi-
cide with activity against this decay, but
its use has been in decline over recent
years due to disposal and human safety
concerns.
Azoxystrobin, fudioxonil, and py-
rimethanil are mostly effective against
Penicillium decays, especially P. digi-
tatum, the most important postharvest
decays of citrus in semi-arid climates
like California. Potassium phosphite
is the frst postharvest fungicide regis-
tered for management of Phytophtho-
ra brown rot.
Some of these new fungicides such
as azoxystrobin will only be avail-
able in pre-mixtures with other fungi-
cides; others will also be marketed by
themselves. Currently registered pre-
mixtures include imazalil/pyrimeth-
anil (Philabuster) and azoxystrobin/
fudioxonil (Graduate A
+
). Additional
pre-mixtures are in development (Fig-
ure 1). Graduate Max is a multi-pack
of fudioxonil and thiabendazole.
Although the new fungicides were
proven to be highly effective in numer-
ous studies and they have domestic tol-
erances and registrations, actual com-
mercial use of some of them has been
limited to date. This is because maxi-
mum residue limits (MRLs) have not
been established in some of the major
export markets, and fruit treated with
these fungicides can only be marketed
domestically. Potassium phosphite is
exempt from residues in the United
States, but not in many other countries.
Overcoming these limitations in
the use of new postharvest fungicides
is a major effort that demands the co-
ordinated effort of researchers, citrus
industry representatives, the chemical
industry, and national and internation-
al regulatory agencies.
Obtaining the food additive toler-
ance (FAT) for fudioxonil in Japan in
2011 and for azoxystrobin (pending) in
2013 are major breakthroughs in inter-
national trade of California citrus. Cur-
rently imazalil, TBZ, and SOPP are the
only other fungicidal compounds that
have FAT status in Japan.
Over the years, our program has
been instrumental in many aspects of
postharvest fungicide development for
citrus. We conducted studies for opti-
mizing treatment effcacy and provid-
ed information on best usage strate-
gies. In this article, we provide updates
on the management of green mold
and sour rot with the new posthar-
vest fungicides azoxystrobin/fudioxo-
nil (Graduate A+), fudioxonil/TBZ
(Graduate Max MP), and propicon-
azole (Mentor) as well as on new post-
Fig. 1. Postharvest fungicide mixtures and pre-mixtures registered or in
development for citrus.
Fig. 2. Fungicide application methods on an experimental packingline. A. Recircu-
lating, in-line aqueous fungicide drench. Delivery pipe across the top pours the
fungicide suspension into a distribution pan that allows the fungicide stream over
the passing fruit rotating on a PVC roller bed. Fungicide is collected below the
rollers and returned to the fungicide reservoir (not shown). B. Controlled droplet
application (CDA) of fungicide-fruit coating mixtures to fruit that are moved on
the active rollers and conveyed down the roller bed.
harvest treatments for management of
Phytophthora brown rot.
Management of green mold and sour
rot
In an advanced stage of develop-
ment of fudioxonil and azoxystrobin,
Graduate A
+
(a pre-mixture of both
fungicides) was evaluated and com-
pared to imazalil in a commercial pack-
inghouse study.
For this, aqueous in-line drench
and low volume, controlled droplet
(CDA) systems were utilized in the
sequential application of fungicides
(Figure 2A, B). Fungicides were mixed
with a commercial packing fruit coat-
ing (pack wax) for the CDA system.
Multiple lines were utilized for each
base fungicide (e.g., either imazalil or
fudioxonil) to prevent cross contami-
nation of fungicides on the inoculated
lemon and orange fruit.
These studies demonstrated the
high effcacy of Graduate A+ applied
in a pack wax using a CDA system that
was similar to the industry standard
imazalil on lemons (Figures 3, 4). The
effcacy of the fungicides was signif-
cantly increased by using an aqueous,
in-line drench prior to the CDA appli-
cation that resulted in zero or near-zero
levels of decay on lemons and oranges.
Graduate A
+
FRAC Groups
11/12 and the mixture of imazalil and
pyrimethanil FRAC Groups 3/9 (sim-
ilar to Philabuster) have two active in-
gredients that have different modes of
action on the pathogen and provided
the highest performance of the treat-
ments and resistance management as
compared to when using single active
ingredients.
Fig. 3. Green mold of lemons. A. Inoculated, untreated fruit showing white
mycelium and green sporulation. B and C. Inoculated fruit treated with imazalil/
pyrimethanil or fudioxonil/azoxystrobin (Graduate A+), respectively.
Fig. 4. Commercial packinghouse study for the management of green mold.
Treatments were applied 10 to 16 hours after wound-inoculation (favedo
injury) with an imazalil-sensitive isolate of Penicillium digitatum. For
evaluation of sporulation control, a separate set of fruit was inoculated at the
center. Fludioxonil/azoxystrobin treatments were applied using Graduate A+.
Graduate A
+
was applied at a
fraction of the rate of imazalil in the
wax treatment. On oranges, the per-
formance of Graduate A
+
was lower
than for imazalil when applied only as
a CDA-wax treatment. This indicated
that Graduate A+ was possibly bound
by the wax and prevented the fungicide
from inhibiting the pathogens growth
when fruit were inoculated 16 hours
prior to treatment.
For sporulation control, the activ-
ity of Graduate A
+
was comparable to
imazalil considering that a highly sensi-
tive isolate was used, and a sporulation
rating of 1 on a scale of 0 to 4. This indi-
cated that sporulation was inhibited on
over 90% of the fruit surface.
In numerous postharvest fruit in-
oculation studies, we previously identi-
fed propiconazole as one of the most
effective fungicides against sour rot
(Figure 5). Propiconazole can be also
used for controlling Penicillium de-
cays, similar to imazalil. With greater
safety standards than imazalil, it may
potentially replace imazalil as the rep-
resentative DMI for postharvest use on
citrus. Propiconazole can be effectively
used in integrated decay management
programs because it is compatible with
chlorine (at 100 mg/L) and sodium bi-
carbonate (at 2%).
In an experimental packingline
study, we evaluated the comparative
effcacy of propiconazole and new for-
mulations of SOPP and OPP (provided
by UPI-Decco) against sour rot; the ef-
fcacy as aqueous, storage wax, and dual
treatments applied sequentially on a
PVC-roller bed; as well as the effcacy
of propiconazole-SOPP/OPP combi-
nation treatments. Lemon fruit were
inoculated with G. citri-aurantii and
treated after 18 hours. Aqueous treat-
ments were applied as high-volume,
in-line drench applications, whereas
storage wax treatments were applied as
low-volume spray applications.
The results presented in Figure 6
indicate that the effcacy of propicon-
azole (Mentor) was signifcantly higher
Fig. 5. Sour rot of lemons. A. Natural incidence of decay showing melting of
decayed fruit; B. Inoculated, untreated fruit showing lesions with water-soaked
margins and white mycelial growth in the center; C. Inoculated fruit treated with
propiconazole show little to no decay. Note for inoculated fruit, black lines on
fruit indicate inoculation sites.
Fig. 6. Evaluation of postharvest fungicides in an experimental packingline study
for management of sour rot of lemons. Fruit were treated 18 hours after wound-
inoculation with G. citri-aurantii.
than that of SOPP or OPP and that
a combination treatment of the two
fungicides did not provide a beneft as
compared to propiconazole alone.
Additionally, propiconazole was
most effective when applied as an
aqueous treatment, and the effcacy
was signifcantly reduced when applied
in storage wax. An aqueous drench ap-
plication of propiconazole followed by
a spray application of the fungicide in
storage wax did not provide addition-
al benefts in decay control but it was
benefcial for sporulation control of
Penicillium decays.
In a study on green mold and sour
rot, we evaluated the comparative ef-
fcacy of propiconazole, imazalil, a mix-
ture of fudioxonil and TBZ, as well as
a mixture and a new pre-mixture of
fudioxonil and propiconazole on lem-
on and orange fruit that were inoculat-
ed with imazalil-sensitive and -resistant
isolates of Penicillium digitatum and
with G. citri-aurantii.
Re-circulating aqueous drench ap-
plications were used in this study, and
fungicide treatments were followed
by a storage fruit coating low-volume
spray application.
Propiconazole and imazalil did not
reduce the incidence of green mold
when using the imazalil-resistant iso-
late (cross-resistance), but the mixture
and pre-mixture of propiconazole and
fudioxonil effectively reduced decay
caused by both isolates on lemon and
oranges (Figure 7A). The fudioxonil-
TBZ mixture was also effective. Sour
rot was reduced to very low levels by
all treatments that contained propicon-
azole, and there was no negative inter-
action between fungicides (Figure 7B).
These studies also demonstrate
that in-line, recirculating drenches are
an excellent application strategy that
optimizes decay control.
Propiconazole is currently being
registered on citrus, stone fruit, and to-
mato crops for the management of sour
rot and other decays. On citrus it is al-
ready federally registered with Califor-
nia state registration pending.
These studies were also targeted to-
ward the planned development of new
mixtures and pre-mixtures (see Figure
1). Our data indicate that mixtures of
fudioxonil and TBZ or of fudioxo-
nil and propiconazole are highly ef-
fective against green mold caused by
DMI-sensitive and resistant isolates
of the pathogen. The latter mixture
is also effective against sour rot. The
planned triple mixture of fudioxonil,
azoxystrobin, and propiconazole or
a tank mixture of the frst two fungi-
cides and imazalil will also be effective
against the two decays, but has built-in
resistance management with two com-
ponents (i.e., fudioxonil and azoxys-
trobin) active against imazalil-resistant
strains of P. digitatum.
This built-in resistance manage-
ment of pre-mixtures can be described
based on the natural resistance fre-
quencies that are inherent to any fun-
gicide-pathogen interaction and that
vary among fungicides and pathogens
involved.
For example, resistance frequen-
cies in natural populations of P. digi-
tatum to fudioxonil and pyrimethanil
were calculated by us as 9.5 x 10
-7
to 1.5
x 10
-6
and 7.3 x 10
-6
to 6.2 x 10
-5
, respec-
tively. This implies that resistance fre-
quencies of a fudioxonil-pyrimethanil
mixture would be approximately 7 x
10
-12
to 9 x 10
-11
.
These numbers seem very low, but
considering the enormous spore pro-
duction potential of Penicillium species,
resistance development is still likely to
occur if the full spectrum of anti-resis-
tance strategies is not employed.
Management of brown rot
Brown rot of citrus fruit is caused
by species of Phytophthora including P.
citrophthora, P. syringae, P. parasitica,
and P. hibernalis. The disease common-
ly occurs in California during the winter
Table 2. Interaction of potassium phosphite with selected registered
postharvest fungicides for management of green mold and brown rot.
Mixtures Brown rot Green Mold
Potassium phosphite -
Imazalil
No interaction No interaction
Graduate A+
Negative Interaction* No interaction
Penbotec
Variable Variable
sodium bicarbonate
Variable Not done
* - A negative interaction indicates a decrease in efficacy. Potassium phosphite
was used at 900 mg/L whereas the other fungicides were used at labeled rates.
Fig. 7 Evaluation of postharvest fungicides in an experimental packingline study
using in-line recirculating drench applications of inoculated fruit for management
of green mold.
Fig. 8. Evaluation of new postharvest treatments for
management of Phytophthora brown rot of navel orange
fruit.
season when high rainfall may occur.
Although losses may occur in the
orchard, the most serious aspect of the
disease involves mixing symptomless,
infected fruit at harvest with healthy
fruit. Decay may then spread quickly
from fruit to fruit in storage and during
transit, and a large number of fruit may
become affected.
Preharvest treatments with cop-
per or other fungicides can be done,
but no postharvest treatments with
international tolerances are currently
available. Phosphonate fungicides have
exempt status in the United States, and
several formulations have postharvest
registrations. These could be especially
valuable when preharvest copper treat-
ments were not applied. Thus, we initi-
ated studies on the evaluation of new
postharvest treatments that included
potassium phosphite, mandipropamid
(Revus), fuopicolide (Presidio), and
azoxystrobin.
Orange fruit were inoculated with
zoospores of P. citrophthora and treat-
ed with aqueous solutions of the fungi-
cides after 12 hours (post-infection ac-
tivity), or treated fruit were inoculated
after 24 hours (pre-infection activity).
In these postharvest studies, all
treatments evaluated were highly effec-
tive as pre-infection treatments (Figure
8; data for azoxystrobin not shown).
Potassium phosphite and fuopico-
lide, but not mandipropamid, were also
effective as post-infection treatments
and, thus, these could be used to pre-
vent decay from pre-existing infections
that occur before harvest in the orchard.
Potassium phosphite, when used at
a rate of 900 mg/L, demonstrated excel-
lent post-infection activity even when
fruit were treated 18 hours after inocu-
lation. Thus, if no protective feld appli-
cations are done, fruit harvested after
an infection period can still be pro-
tected from brown rot by postharvest
treatments with potassium phosphite.
Still, postharvest treatments with
mandipropamid or azoxystrobin that
demonstrated no post-infection ac-
tivity in these experiments could still
be benefcial because new infections
from contact with diseased fruit can
be prevented.
For the integration of potassium
phosphite into current postharvest
treatment strategies that include the
management of other decays, we con-
ducted studies on the interaction of
potassium phosphite with registered
postharvest fungicides.
For this, the effcacy in reducing
brown rot and green mold of mixture
Table 2. Interaction of potassium phosphite with
selected registered postharvest fungicides for
management of green mold and brown rot.
treatments was compared with single-fungicide applications.
The results are summarized in Table 2 and indicate that potas-
sium phosphite in some cases had no effect on the effcacy of
other fungicides, sometimes effects were variable, and some-
times the effcacy of other fungicides was decreased. Negative
interactions, however, were considered of minor impact and
may not be noticeable under commercial conditions because
highly favorable conditions for disease development were
used in the studies we conducted.
As indicated above, potassium phosphite has an exempt
status in the United States but not in many export markets. The
compound is labeled for use against green mold and brown rot.
Rates required to obtain a reduction in green mold, however,
are extremely high (i.e., 8,000 to 12,000 mg/L) compared to
rates needed for brown rot management (i.e., 600 to 900 mg/L).
Efforts are underway for registration of potassium and calcium
phosphites through the IR-4 program to establish international
MRLs with our trade partners.
Additionally, we were successful in requesting a pre- and
postharvest registration of fuopicolide (Presidio) for use on
citrus for managing Phytophthora root rot in the orchard and
brown rot of fruit in the orchard and during storage, transpor-
tation, and marketing.
We also recommend mandipropamid (Revus) for pre-
and postharvest use on citrus, and acceptance into the IR-4
program is pending for the 2013 cycle. These materials were
selected because they have different modes of action against
the pathogens. Fluopicolide, mandipropamid, and the phos-
phonates belong to FRAC groups 43, 40, and 33, respectively.
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continued on p. 58
Registrations of several fungicides
will ensure that resistance management
strategies such as rotations or mixtures
can be implemented to ensure the long-
term usage of these compounds.

Conclusions
The development of postharvest
fungicide treatments for managing de-
cays of citrus fruit requires a constant
effort due to the ongoing necessity to
identify effective fungicides often from
numbered products, develop usage
strategies of these products based on
their chemical characteristics, establish
tolerances for domestic use, work with
our international trade partners to es-
tablish MRLs, and to develop resistance
management practices that ensure the
long-term usage of registered materials.
This effort not only prevents crop
loss but allows new strategies for mar-
keting fruit and allows the fresh market
citrus industry to have products avail-
able that can manage indigenous and
potentially invasive pathogens that are
introduced.
Sandy Creighton, Sales Manager Phone: 559-201-9225
E-mail: screighton@farmprogress.com
W
hether you're selling tractors or other farm equipment,pickup trucks,
irrigation equipment, fertilizer or pesticides...consider the value of your
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Following this model for the devel-
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sour rot decays. Furthermore, with the
recent and ongoing establishment of
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the fresh market citrus industry is on
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decay management.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Syngenta Crop
Protection, Janssen Pharmaceutical,
and Decco Postharvest for providing
fungicides used in these studies, rec-
ognize the outstanding assistance of
representatives from Sunkist, Syngenta
Crop Protection, and Decco Posthar-
vest in the commercial packinghouse
studies, and thank the commercial
packinghouses in California for their
cooperation in these studies.
Additional reading
Eckert, J.W., and I.L. Eaks 1989.
Postharvest disorders and diseases of
citrus fruits. In The Citrus Industry. Vol-
ume V. W. Reuther, E.C. Calavan, and
G.E. Carman (eds.). Oakland: Universi-
ty of California Division of Agriculture
and Natural Resources, 179-260.
Kanetis, L., H. Frster, and J. E.
Adaskaveg. 2007. Comparative eff-
cacy of the new postharvest fungicides
azoxystrobin, fudioxonil, and pyrimeth-
anil for managing citrus green mold.
Plant Disease 91:1502-1511.
Kanetis, L., H. Frster, and J.E.
Adaskaveg. 2008. Optimizing effcacy of
new postharvest fungicides and evalu-
ation of sanitizing agents for managing
citrus green mold. Plant Disease 92:261-
269.
Kanetis, L., H. Frster, and J. E.
Adaskaveg. 2010. Determination of nat-
ural resistance frequencies in Penicil-
lium digitatum using a new air-sampling
method and characterization of fudiox-
onil- and pyrimethanil-resistant isolates.
Phytopathology 100:738-746.
Klotz, L.J. 1978. Fungal, bacterial,
and nonparasitic diseases and injuries
originating in the seedbed, nursery, and
orchard. Pages 1-66 in: The Citrus In-
dustry. Volume IV. W. Reuther, E.C. Ca-
lavan, and G.E. Carman (eds.). Oakland:
University of California Division of Ag-
riculture and Natural Resources.
McKay, A. H., H. Frster, and J. E.
Adaskaveg, 2012a. Effcacy and appli-
cation strategies for propiconazole as a
new postharvest fungicide for managing
sour rot and green mold of citrus fruit.
McKay, A. H., Frster, H., and J. E.
Adaskaveg. 2012b. Toxicity of selected
fungicides to the postharvest pathogens
Galactomyces citri-aurantii, G. geotri-
chum, and Penicillium digitatum and
resistance potential to propiconazole.
Timmer, L.W., S.M. Garnsey, and
J.H. Graham (Eds.). 2000. Compendium
of Citrus Diseases. The American Phy-
topathological Society Press. St. Paul,
MN: 128 pp.
Dr. J. E. Adaskaveg is Professor and
H. Frster is Project Scientist, Depart-
ment of Plant Pathology and Microbi-
ology, University of California River-
side.
CRB research project reference
number 5400-103. l
Citrus Roots
Preserving Citrus Heritage Foundation
Richard H. Barker
The views of the writer may not be the same as this foundation.
We are proud of our accomplishments as a volunteer
organization, which means each donated dollar works
for you at 100% [for we have no salaries, wages, rent,
etc.]. All donations are tax deductible for income tax
purposes to the full extent allowed by law.
Citrus Roots Preserving Citrus
Heritage Foundation
P.O. Box 4038, Balboa, CA 92661 USA
501(c)(3) EIN 43-2102497
Our Mission is to elevate the aware-
ness of California citrus heritage through
publications, education, and artistic work.
Buy our books, crate labels, make a cash contri-
bution ...Or give to Citrus Roots Foundation your
crate labels, books, citrus memorabilia ...you will
save FED and CA taxes to the full extent allowed.
Our website is a reference center
www.citrusroots.com
In this years January/February issue,
we referred to the heritage behind the
Sunkist trademark as really being the
bedrock supporting that value within
the trade name. Very recently, I received
the annual report from Reliance Steel &
Aluminum Co. The theme of the report
was Our history tells the story of our
future. That says it all. The California
packers of citrus would add value to
their name if they rooted it to their
heritage. Richard Barker
R
eal estate or building cycles occur at intervals of
between 18 to 20 years, as we discussed when we ex-
amined the Boom of 1887. The Bungalow Boom was
around 1906, and the Boom of 1925-26 began to strengthen
in 1921. It is the Boom of 1925-26 which we will presently ad-
dress, along with how it affected the California citrus industry.
The real estate bubble on the East Coast began around
1921 and defated around 1926. The housing prices com-
menced to turn down in 1926 and led to a rise in foreclo-
sures. In the Midwest, heavy mortgages were placed during
WW I in expectation of continued high prices on farm com-
modities, though the postwar collapse of agricultural goods
caused widespread foreclosures. On the West Coast, residen-
tial property rose steadily, though when the stock market
crashed in 1929, values fell and foreclosures on residential
property peaked in 1933-34 and did not recover until WW II.
We are very fortunate to have as our source the working
papers of the legendary Harold J. Ryan, Commissioner of
Horticulture for Los Angeles County. (He held this posi-
tion for decades.) This study was dated August 12, 1927, and
the manuscript was originally written for Citrus Leaves, a
monthly paper devoted to the citrus industry and coopera-
tive activities of the Pacifc Coast.
Mr. Ryan commenced with an explanation of the ag-
gregation of the County of Los Angeles citrus in 1927 with
in excess of 50,000 bearing acres (90%) and the remaining
10% mainly in young Valencias. The breakdown was bearing
Valencias totaling 22,809 acres and navels about 30% less,
or 16,359 acres; lemons were about half of the Valencia total
or 11,898, and seedlings and grapefruit accounted for only
1,234 acres.
As to this 1927 study, Mr. Ryan chose to start his descrip-
tion of the Los Angeles County citrus growing region with a
solid block of about 30,000 acres beginning north of Puente
The Building Boom
of 1925-26 caused a
relinquishment of
citrus acreage
at Baldwin Park extending northeasterly to Azusa and then
east along the foot of the San Gabriel Range 14 miles to the
county line. He reported that through this area there was
hardly a ten-acre parcel of level land that was not planted to
citrus except where towns had risen.
Between Pomona and Puente along Valley Boulevard
and in the North Whittier Heights district there were 3,600
acres, while south of the hills was a 10,000-acres block in the
Whittier, Rivera, Downey district. This area had scattered
plantings of walnuts.
The balance of the county citrus plantings were scat-
tered from Monrovia and Pasadena through La Canada to
San Fernando, Owensmouth, and Chatsworth.
Practically all of the 6,000 acres lying in the Alhambra,
Glendale, Sierra Madre, Monrovia quadrangle in 1927 were
threatened with an early extinction by subdivision.
This completes the census by section of the county ex-
cept, as Ryan stated, there were a few spots between Bev-
erly Hills and Santa Monica that totaled 305 acres, and this
area was soon to be subdivided the way of the old groves of
Photo album: Pasadena
Now Orange Grove
Boulevard takes on a
new meaning
Pasadena 1882. Pasadena 1886.
Pasadena Orange Growers Association 1894.
Pasadena 1910.
Circa 1923. Arroyo Seco Bridge, Pasadena.
Pasadena with developed orchards.
Photo album: Hollywood
Photo album: San Gabriel Valley
1940 aerial of Azusa, Covina and Gendora looking to Mt. Baldy.
Hollywood 1905. Hollywood 1905, Immaculate Heart High School (later college).
Pasadena, Altadena, and Colegrove (the Hollywood area).
The writer thought it would help the reader to under-
stand the vast area of Los Angeles County which had origi-
nally been under citrus cultivation.
Now, let us look at the table Citrus Taken Out By Sub-
division, etc. Mr. Ryan wrote, The most noticeable trans-
formation was found in the triangular area of the county
between Glendale (including Pasadena), Alhambra and
Monrovia. In the process of turning fruit trees to frewood or
door-yard ornamentals, retired California ranchers sold over
3,862 acres of citrus land for retired Iowa farmers to build
houses upon.
To look at it another way, out of the 19 citrus bearing
communities within the county, the aforementioned four cit-
Citrus Roots
Preserving Citrus Heritage Foundation
Keeping citrus heritage alive in the minds of those living in California through publications, educational exhibits and artistic works
Citrus Roots...Our Legacy - Volume I
Selling the Gold - History of Sunkist
and Pure Gold
Citrus Roots...Our Legacy - Volume II
Citriculture to Citrus Culture
Citrus Roots...Our Legacy - Volume III
Our Legacy...Baldy View Entrepreneurs
- 25 men & women who left a legacy
All donations are tax deductible for income tax
purposes to the full extent allowed by law.
Citrus Roots Series...
Citrus Roots...Our Legacy - Volume IV
Citrus Powered the Economy of Orange County
for over a half century Induced by a Romance

By: Rahno Mabel MacCurdy, V.A. Lockabey and others...
compiled and edited by R.H. Barker
GOLD
History of
Sunkist
and Pure Gold
CITRUS ROOTS . . . OUR LEGACY Volume I of III

Selling the
$1500
American Business Cycles from 1810 to 1978
vs. the Life Span of Twenty-Five Entrepreneurs
by Marie A. Boyd and Richard H. Barker
Including a fold out
time line chart of
Our Legacy:
Baldy View
ENTREPRENEURS
CITRUS ROOTS ... OUR LEGACY Volume III of III CITRUS ROOTS ... OUR LEGACY Volume III of III
For ordering information
visit our website
www.citrusroots.com
(Fed. Tax ID # 43-2102497)
GIFT IDEAS!!
ies represented 53 percent of all the acreage sold over the
fve- year period. One must remember that the building
boom continued at a slower pace until 1929. That was the
center of activity regarding the Boom of 1925-26.
The 1930 population diagram by J. J. Jessup illustrates,
at a glance, that the houses had to be built, and the popula-
tion followed the construction. As you can see, the popula-
tion explosion was more pronounced in Burbank, Compton,
Glendale, Pasadena, San Bernardino, San Fernando, South
Pasadena, and Whittier.
Today, most of the population of California have few
clues as to citrus heritage. The footprint of the California
citrus industry has been left to vanish with few exceptions.
Street names harken back to citrus connections. Water rights
are lasting legacies, though few students are exposed to this
subject. Citrus brand labels give some evidence of the past,
though the labels of most of the brands of old Southern
California packers are very rare, and only the very few seri-
ous collectors recognize the name or brand.
This is one reason we went to the trouble of dusting off
this old manuscript, so that the reader could again be famil-
iarized with citrus birthrights -- to return, in a sense, to the
former place, to revert! To strike the anvil one more time.
The citrus industry was on the cutting edge when it
had its frst ad in 1908, the frst saturated marketing cam-
paign, the fatware promotional, etc., but for some reason the
momentum was allowed to slow and disappear. The same
can be said about emphasizing the subject of health and
Average of total packed boxes shipped brought $2.84 per box for Pasadena Orange Growers Assn. in 1918-1919.
also adding the citrus gold rush to the school curriculum
relative to Californias colonization. The citrus dollars built
communities! The jobs associated or linked to citrus carried
a heavy weight regarding the total labor sector.
During the 1920s and 1930s, California citrus revenue
ranked second to the oil industry. The citrus industry had
its distinction, notability and muscle, but failed to preserve
and give it an everlasting inheritance. Citrus heritage is the
bedrock, or store of value to a citrus trade name. Let that
erode and per capita consumption of citrus goes the same
direction as the pull of gravity. (This is a lesson to the present
citrus growing regions in California.)
Richard H. Barker is the founder and president of the
Citrus Roots-Preserving Citrus Heritage Foundation. For a
number of years, he has been leading a drive to bring about
a higher awareness of the role citrus played in developing
California. Dick is a retired investment banker and was
a third generation Sunkist grower. He has published four
volumes on citrus heritage.
Photos and other material courtesy of: The Barker Col-
lection; Huntington Library, San Marino, CA; County of Los
Angeles Agricultural Commissioner/Weights and Measures;
Sherman Library and Gardens, Corona del Mar. l
For Brochure Contact: Roy Pennebaker #0845764 (559)737-0084 or
Matt McEwen #01246750 (559)280-0015 www.citrusboys.com
PEARSON REALTY Farm Sales Specialists for Californias Central Valley
1.44 acs exeter Commercial building ................................................$250,000
1.98 acs Cold Storage Facility, orange Cove (Sale Pending) ...............$385,000
2.62 acs exeter Cold Storage Facility, High Quality..........................$1,975,000
4.2 acs exeter/Farmersville Area Homesite ........................................$149,000
6.48 acs Turnkey Citrus Packing/Cold Storage ................................$1,950,000
6.48 acs Porterville Area ranchette & Homes (SolD) ........................$195,000
8.4 acs oak lined Home Site (SolD) .................................................$325,000
9.72 acs Cutler Area Cold Storage/offces ......................................$2,399,000
10 acs Strathmore Area Citrus (In escrow) .........................................$120,000
14.92 acs lemon Cove navels & Home Site (In escrow) ....................$285,000
15.98 ac lindsay Development Potential ...........................................$280,000
20 acs easton Cherry ranch (SolD) ..................................................$280,000
20 acs Porterville ranch & Home (In escrow) ....................................$405,000
20 acs lindsay-Strathmore Area Citrus & residence .........................$595,000
20 acs orange Cove navels & Home..................................................$450,000
20.18 acs Sanger Citrus/residence ...................................................$875,000
25.96 acs lindsay Area open land (SolD) ........................................$395,000
35.4 acs orosi Area Citrus (SolD) .....................................................$415,000
37.40 acs Cutler Area Citrus ..............................................................$828,000
40 acs Valencia oranges & open .......................................................$360,000
40.16 acs Tulare County olives (In escrow) ........................................$595,000
57.24 acs navel oranges ..................................................................$745,000
59.98 acs American Ave Citrus & olives (In escrow) ..........................$900,000
80.18 acs navel oranges & olives north of reedley ..........................$965,000
90.30 acs Cutler Area navels .........................................................$1,080,000
94.81 acs Porterville Area Walnuts & open (SolD) .........................$1,500,000
95.22 acs Pistachios & Citrus (SolD) .............................................$1,650,000
127.33 acs orange Cove Citrus ranch with Custom Home .............$2,500,000
158.41 acs orosi organic Citrus .....................................................$1,425,000
171.08 acs Stone Corral Area open (In escrow) ..............................$1,625,260
236.4 acs Citrus ranch (In escrow) ................................................$3,000,000
320 acs South County Citrus ranch ................................................$5,120,000
498 acs Antelope Valley ranch .......................................................$3,200,000
604.37 acs Hills Valley ranch .........................................................$1,725,000
Citrus Roots-Preserving Citrus Heritage Foundation
needs your help. Specifcally, we need photos of packing-
houses. In the immediate future, on our Foundations web-
site you will have at your disposal a listing of the more than
2,000 packinghouses (no, thats not a typo) that have been
in operation at one time or another over the history of the
California citrus industry. Visit www.citrusroots.com.
C
elebrating
C
itrus
Something fun and different
MaryLou Polek at a restaurant in
Murcia, Spain.
S
ummer is the perfect time for experi-
menting in the kitchen, and we have
just the thing.
While in Spain for the International
Citrus Congress last fall, a group of Cali-
fornians went on a pre-Congress tour.
They traveled south from the conference
headquarters in Valencia to the city of
Murcia and then on to Andaluca.
Of course, their reason for the touring
was to visit orchards, nurseries, and pro-
cessing plants, but there were side attrac-
tions everywhere, and Murcia just happens
to have some of the very best food in all
of Spain.
Among the delicious discoveries that
the Citrus Research Board delegation just
could not stop talking about when they
were back in California was a delightful
and most unusual dessert called Papara-
jotes, or Sweet Battered Lemon Leaves.
Anne Warring
Y
oud be amazed at the results of a Web search using the keywords lemon
marinades. Just out of curiosity we did some exploring, and on Martha
Stewarts website alone the number that comes up is 189!
In the print world, while looking through the archives of Citrograph, we came
across these Zesty Marinades in the July 1994 edition, in the Citricreations sec-
tion contributed by Sunkists consumer services department. (The step-by-step in-
structions for grilling have been left out here because the information was very
basic.) In that same section, which was all about outdoor cooking, there was also a
recipe for a lemony salsa to go with fsh and chicken.
Something for
the grill
Lemon, Mustard n
Thyme Marinade
(for pork and lamb)
Grated peel of 1/2 lemon
Juice of 1 lemon (3 tbsp)
2 tbsp olive oil
1/2 tbsp grated shallots or purple
onion
2 tsp Dijon mustard
1 tsp fnely chopped fresh thyme
leaves
1/4 tsp garlic salt
Fresh grated pepper to taste
To make the marinade, combine all
ingredients.
Citrus and Rosemary
Marinade
(for fsh and chicken)
2 tbsp vegetable oil
2 tsp fnely chopped fresh rose-
mary leaves
1 med clove garlic, minced
Grated peel and juice of 1/2 lemon
Juice of 1 orange (1/3 cup)
1/8 tsp white pepper
To make marinade, in small non-stick skillet,
heat oil; add rosemary, garlic and lemon
peel. Cook over low heat 1 to 2 minutes to
infuse oil with favors. Remove from heat;
add lemon and orange juices and pepper.
Caribbean Salsa
(for fsh and chicken)
Grated peel of 1/2 lemon
Juice of 1 lemon (3 tbsp)
1 med avocado, peeled, pitted,
fnely chopped
1 med papaya or mango, peeled,
seeded, fnely chopped
1/3 cup diced purple onion
1 tbsp honey
1/2 to 1 small jalapeno pepper,
minced (optional)
Generous dash each cinnamon
and allspice
In bowl, sprinkle lemon peel and juice over
avocado. Add remaining ingredients and
gently stir. Serve at room temperature or
cover and chill 1 to 2 hours. Serve with
grilled or baked halibut or swordfish
steaks, or chicken. Makes about 3 cups.
(You dont actually eat the leaf, just the
pastry.)
Its a delicacy that Murcia is known
for, and its what CRBs Dr. MaryLou
Polek was about to enjoy when she was
caught by Ted Batkins candid camera.
You can easily try this at home be-
cause there are recipes and instructions
on a number of websites. Basically, were
talking about coating fresh lemon leaves --
preferably younger leaves -- with a batter
made of milk, water, four, eggs and sugar
(sometimes with yeast and usually with
lemon zest and cinnamon included), pan
frying them in olive oil, letting them drain
on a paper towel, and fnally dusting them
with sugar and cinnamon.
The version that MaryLou has in-hand
is topped with a drizzle of chocolate, and
several of the write-ups online suggest
serving Paparajotes with ice cream or add-
ing some crme brulee.
To get started, visit:
www.worldsoffavorspain.com
www.regmurcia.com
www.arecetas.com
www.spain.info/en
You can even fnd how-to videos on
YouTube.
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Clonal Avocados Coming Soon

Citrograph: Ted Batkin With CRB's New President Ken Keck

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