Ancient India

The earliest human remains (mainly tools and no human fossils) were found in Jwalapuram, Andhra Pradesh, South India which shows hominid habitation before and after the Toba event, which has occurred about 77,000 years ago. These archaeological sites provide evidence of humans (Homo [19] sapiens) in India 80,000 years ago. It is unclear what species of humans settled Jwalapuram as no fossil remains have yet been found, and these evidences present here show oldest humans remain in [20] India which is dated back around 80,000 years anatomically modern human remains found in South Asia date from approximately 30,000 years [21] ago. Nearly contemporaneous Mesolithic rock art sites have been found in many parts of the Indian [22] subcontinent, including at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh. Around 7000 BCE, the first known Neolithic settlements appeared on the subcontinent in Mehrgarh and other sites in western [23] [24] Pakistan. These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation, the first urban culture in [25] [26] South Asia; it flourished during 25001900 BCE in Pakistan and western India. Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan, and relying on varied forms of [25] subsistence, the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade. During the period 2000500 BCE, in terms of culture, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned [27] [28] from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age. TheVedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were [29] composed during this period, and historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in [27] the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain. Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the north[30][28][31] west. The caste system, which created a hierarchy of priests, warriors, and free peasants, but which excluded indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure, arose during this [32] period. On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of [27] a chiefdom stage of political organisation. In southern India, a progression to sedentary life is [33] indicated by the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period, as well as by [33] nearby traces of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions.

Paintings at the Ajanta Cavesin Aurangabad, Maharashtra, 6th century

In the late Vedic period, around the 5th century BCE, the small chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were [34][35] known as the mahajanapadas. The emerging urbanisation and the orthodoxies of this age also [36] created the religious reform movements of Buddhism and Jainism, both of which became [37] independent religions. Buddhism, based on the teachings of Gautama Buddhaattracted followers from all social classes excepting the middle class; chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the [36][38][39] beginnings of recorded history in India. Jainism came into prominence around the same time [40] during the life of its exemplar, Mahavira. In an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held

up renunciation as an ideal, and both established long-lasting monasteries. Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of Magadhahad annexed or reduced other states to emerge as [34] the Mauryan Empire. The empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent excepting the far south, but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large [42][43] autonomous areas. The Mauryan kings are known as much for their empire-building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka's renunciation of militarism and far-flung [44][45] advocacy of the Buddhistdhamma. During the period 230 BCE to 220 CE, Satavahana dynasty covered much of India. The Satavahanas are credited for establishing peace in the country, resisting the onslaught of foreigners after the decline of Mauryan Empire. Satavahanas are also credited with furthering Budhism in India [46][47][48] including Ajanta caves. The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that, between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the southern peninsula was being ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas, dynasties that [49][50] traded extensively with the Roman Empire and with West and South-East Asia. In North India, Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family, leading to increased subordination of [51][34] women. By the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Empire had created in the greater Ganges Plain a complex system of administration and taxation that became a model for later Indian [52][53] kingdoms. Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion rather than the [54] management of ritual began to assert itself. The renewal was reflected in a flowering [53] of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons among an urban elite. Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well, and Indian science, astronomy, medicine, andmathematics made [53] significant advances.

[41]

[34]