Diffraction From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Computer generated intensity pattern formed on a screen by diffraction from a sq uare

aperture. Generation of an interference pattern from two-slit diffraction. Computational model of an interference pattern from two-slit diffraction. Optical diffraction pattern ( laser), (analogous to X-ray crystallography) Colors seen in a spider web are partially due to diffraction, according to some analyses.[1] Diffraction refers to various phenomena which occur when a wave encounters an ob stacle. In classical physics, the diffraction phenomenon is described as the app arent bending of waves around small obstacles and the spreading out of waves pas t small openings. Similar effects occur when a light wave travels through a medi um with a varying refractive index, or a sound wave travels through one with var ying acoustic impedance. Diffraction occurs with all waves, including sound wave s, water waves, and electromagnetic waves such as visible light, X-rays and radi o waves. As physical objects have wave-like properties (at the atomic level), di ffraction also occurs with matter and can be studied according to the principles of quantum mechanics. Italian scientist Francesco Maria Grimaldi coined the wor d "diffraction" and was the first to record accurate observations of the phenome non in 1665.[2][3] Richard Feynman[4] wrote: [N]o-one has ever been able to define the difference between interference and di ffraction satisfactorily. It is just a question of usage, and there is no specif ic, important physical difference between them. He suggested that when there are only a few sources, say two, we call it interfe rence, as in Young's slits, but with a large number of sources, the process be l abelled diffraction. While diffraction occurs whenever propagating waves encounter such changes, its effects are generally most pronounced for waves whose wavelength is roughly simi lar to the dimensions of the diffracting objects. If the obstructing object prov ides multiple, closely spaced openings, a complex pattern of varying intensity c an result. This is due to the superposition, or interference, of different parts of a wave that travels to the observer by different paths (see diffraction grat ing). The formalism of diffraction can also describe the way in which waves of finite extent propagate in free space. For example, the expanding profile of a laser be am, the beam shape of a radar antenna and the field of view of an ultrasonic tra nsducer can all be analysed using diffraction equations. Contents [hide] 1 Examples 2 History 3 Mechanism 4 Diffraction of light 4.1 Single-slit diffraction 4.2 Diffraction grating 4.3 Circular aperture 4.4 General aperture 4.5 Propagation of a laser beam

4.6 Diffraction-limited imaging 4.7 Speckle patterns 5 Patterns 6 Particle diffraction 7 Bragg diffraction 8 Coherence 9 See also 10 References 11 External links Examples[edit]

Solar glory at the steam from hot springs. A glory is an optical phenomenon prod uced by light backscattered (a combination of diffraction, reflection and refrac tion) towards its source by a cloud of uniformly sized water droplets. The effects of diffraction are often seen in everyday life. The most striking ex amples of diffraction are those involving light; for example, the closely spaced tracks on a CD or DVD act as a diffraction grating to form the familiar rainbow pattern seen when looking at a disk. This principle can be extended to engineer a grating with a structure such that it will produce any diffraction pattern de sired; the hologram on a credit card is an example. Diffraction in the atmospher e by small particles can cause a bright ring to be visible around a bright light source like the sun or the moon. A shadow of a solid object, using light from a compact source, shows small fringes near its edges. The speckle pattern which i s observed when laser light falls on an optically rough surface is also a diffra ction phenomenon. All these effects are a consequence of the fact that light pro pagates as a wave. Diffraction can occur with any kind of wave. Ocean waves diffract around jetties and other obstacles. Sound waves can diffract around objects, which is why one can still hear someone calling even when hiding behind a tree.[5] Diffraction ca n also be a concern in some technical applications; it sets a fundamental limit to the resolution of a camera, telescope, or microscope. History[edit]

Thomas Young's sketch of two-slit diffraction, which he presented to the Royal S ociety in 1803. The effects of diffraction of light were first carefully observed and characteri zed by Francesco Maria Grimaldi, who also coined the term diffraction, from the Latin diffringere, 'to break into pieces', referring to light breaking up into d ifferent directions. The results of Grimaldi's observations were published posth umously in 1665.[6][7][8] Isaac Newton studied these effects and attributed them to inflexion of light rays. James Gregory (1638 1675) observed the diffraction pa tterns caused by a bird feather, which was effectively the first diffraction gra ting to be discovered.[9] Thomas Young performed a celebrated experiment in 1803 demonstrating interference from two closely spaced slits.[10] Explaining his re sults by interference of the waves emanating from the two different slits, he de duced that light must propagate as waves. Augustin-Jean Fresnel did more definit ive studies and calculations of diffraction, made public in 1815[11] and 1818,[1 2] and thereby gave great support to the wave theory of light that had been adva nced by Christiaan Huygens[13] and reinvigorated by Young, against Newton's part icle theory. Mechanism[edit]

Photograph of single-slit diffraction in a circular ripple tank Diffraction arises because of the way in which waves propagate; this is describe

d by the Huygens Fresnel principle and the principle of superposition of waves. Th e propagation of a wave can be visualized by considering every point on a wavefr ont as a point source for a secondary spherical wave. The wave displacement at a ny subsequent point is the sum of these secondary waves. When waves are added to gether, their sum is determined by the relative phases as well as the amplitudes of the individual waves so that the summed amplitude of the waves can have any value between zero and the sum of the individual amplitudes. Hence, diffraction patterns usually have a series of maxima and minima. There are various analytical models which allow the diffracted field to be calcu lated, including the Kirchhoff-Fresnel diffraction equation which is derived fro m wave equation, the Fraunhofer diffraction approximation of the Kirchhoff equat ion which applies to the far field and the Fresnel diffraction approximation whi ch applies to the near field. Most configurations cannot be solved analytically, but can yield numerical solutions through finite element and boundary element m ethods. It is possible to obtain a qualitative understanding of many diffraction phenome na by considering how the relative phases of the individual secondary wave sourc es vary, and in particular, the conditions in which the phase difference equals half a cycle in which case waves will cancel one another out. The simplest descriptions of diffraction are those in which the situation can be reduced to a two-dimensional problem. For water waves, this is already the case ; water waves propagate only on the surface of the water. For light, we can ofte n neglect one direction if the diffracting object extends in that direction over a distance far greater than the wavelength. In the case of light shining throug h small circular holes we will have to take into account the full three dimensio nal nature of the problem. Diffraction of light[edit] Some examples of diffraction of light are considered below. Single-slit diffraction[edit] Main article: Diffraction formalism Numerical approximation of diffraction pattern from a slit of width equal to wav elength of an incident plane wave in 3D spectrum visualization Numerical approximation of diffraction pattern from a slit of width equal to fiv e times the wavelength of an incident plane wave in 3D spectrum visualization Diffraction of red laser beam on the hole Numerical approximation of diffraction pattern from a slit of width four wavelen gths with an incident plane wave. The main central beam, nulls, and phase revers als are apparent. Graph and image of single-slit diffraction. A long slit of infinitesimal width which is illuminated by light diffracts the l ight into a series of circular waves and the wavefront which emerges from the sl it is a cylindrical wave of uniform intensity. A slit which is wider than a wavelength produces interference effects in the spa ce downstream of the slit. These can be explained by assuming that the slit beha ves as though it has a large number of point sources spaced evenly across the wi dth of the slit. The analysis of this system is simplified if we consider light of a single wavelength. If the incident light is coherent, these sources all hav e the same phase. Light incident at a given point in the space downstream of the slit is made up of contributions from each of these point sources and if the re

lative phases of these contributions vary by 2p or more, we may expect to find m inima and maxima in the diffracted light. Such phase differences are caused by d ifferences in the path lengths over which contributing rays reach the point from the slit. We can find the angle at which a first minimum is obtained in the diffracted lig ht by the following reasoning. The light from a source located at the top edge o f the slit interferes destructively with a source located at the middle of the s lit, when the path difference between them is equal to ?/2. Similarly, the sourc e just below the top of the slit will interfere destructively with the source lo cated just below the middle of the slit at the same angle. We can continue this reasoning along the entire height of the slit to conclude that the condition for destructive interference for the entire slit is the same as the condition for d estructive interference between two narrow slits a distance apart that is half t he width of the slit. The path difference is given by so that the minimum intens ity occurs at an angle ?min given by where d is the width of the slit, is the angle of incidence at which the minimum intensity occurs, and is the wavelength of the light A similar argument can be used to show that if we imagine the slit to be divided into four, six, eight parts, etc., minima are obtained at angles ?n given by where n is an integer other than zero. There is no such simple argument to enable us to find the maxima of the diffract ion pattern. The intensity profile can be calculated using the Fraunhofer diffra ction equation as where is the intensity at a given angle, is the original intensity, and the unnormalized sinc function above is given by sinc(x) = sin(x)/(x) if x ? 0, and sinc(0) = 1 This analysis applies only to the far field, that is, at a distance much larger than the width of the slit. 2-slit (top) and 5-slit diffraction of red laser light Diffraction of a red laser using a diffraction grating. A diffraction pattern of a 633 nm laser through a grid of 150 slits Diffraction grating[edit] Main article: Diffraction grating A diffraction grating is an optical component with a regular pattern. The form o f the light diffracted by a grating depends on the structure of the elements and the number of elements present, but all gratings have intensity maxima at angle s ?m which are given by the grating equation where ?i is the angle at which the light is incident, d is the separation of grating elements, and m is an integer which can be positive or negative. The light diffracted by a grating is found by summing the light diffracted from each of the elements, and is essentially a convolution of diffraction and interf erence patterns. The figure shows the light diffracted by 2-element and 5-element gratings where

the grating spacings are the same; it can be seen that the maxima are in the sam e position, but the detailed structures of the intensities are different. A computer-generated image of an Airy disk. Computer generated light diffraction pattern from a circular aperture of diamete r 0.5 micrometre at a wavelength of 0.6 micrometre (red-light) at distances of 0 .1 cm 1 cm in steps of 0.1 cm. One can see the image moving from the Fresnel reg ion into the Fraunhofer region where the Airy pattern is seen. Circular aperture[edit] Main article: Airy disk The far-field diffraction of a plane wave incident on a circular aperture is oft en referred to as the Airy Disk. The variation in intensity with angle is given by , where a is the radius of the circular aperture, k is equal to 2p/? and J1 is a B essel function. The smaller the aperture, the larger the spot size at a given di stance, and the greater the divergence of the diffracted beams. General aperture[edit] The wave that emerges from a point source has amplitude at location r that is g iven by the solution of the frequency domain wave equation for a point source (T he Helmholtz Equation), where is the 3-dimensional delta function. The delta function has only radial d ependence, so the Laplace operator (aka scalar Laplacian) in the spherical coord inate system simplifies to (see del in cylindrical and spherical coordinates) By direct substitution, the solution to this equation can be readily shown to be the scalar Green's function, which in the spherical coordinate system (and usin g the physics time convention ) is: This solution assumes that the delta function source is located at the origin. I f the source is located at an arbitrary source point, denoted by the vector and the field point is located at the point , then we may represent the scalar Gree n's function (for arbitrary source location) as: Therefore, if an electric field, Einc(x,y) is incident on the aperture, the fiel d produced by this aperture distribution is given by the surface integral:

On the calculation of Fraunhofer region fields where the source point in the aperture is given by the vector In the far field, wherein the parallel rays approximation can be employed, the G reen's function, simplifies to as can be seen in the figure to the right (click to enlarge). The expression for the far-zone (Fraunhofer region) field becomes Now, since and the expression for the Fraunhofer region field from a planar aperture now become s,

Letting, and the Fraunhofer region field of the planar aperture assumes the form of a Fourier transform In the far-field / Fraunhofer region, this becomes the spatial Fourier transform of the aperture distribution. Huygens' principle when applied to an aperture si mply says that the far-field diffraction pattern is the spatial Fourier transfor m of the aperture shape, and this is a direct by-product of using the parallel-r ays approximation, which is identical to doing a plane wave decomposition of the aperture plane fields (see Fourier optics). Propagation of a laser beam[edit] The way in which the profile of a laser beam changes as it propagates is determi ned by diffraction. The output mirror of the laser is an aperture, and the subse quent beam shape is determined by that aperture. Hence, the smaller the output b eam, the quicker it diverges. Paradoxically, it is possible to reduce the divergence of a laser beam by first expanding it with one convex lens, and then collimating it with a second convex lens whose focal point is coincident with that of the first lens. The resulting beam has a larger aperture, and hence a lower divergence. Diffraction-limited imaging[edit] Main article: Diffraction-limited system The Airy disk around each of the stars from the 2.56 m telescope aperture can be seen in this lucky image of the binary star zeta Botis. The ability of an imaging system to resolve detail is ultimately limited by diff raction. This is because a plane wave incident on a circular lens or mirror is d iffracted as described above. The light is not focused to a point but forms an A iry disk having a central spot in the focal plane with radius to first null of where ? is the wavelength of the light and N is the f-number (focal length divid ed by diameter) of the imaging optics. In object space, the corresponding angula r resolution is where D is the diameter of the entrance pupil of the imaging lens (e.g., of a te lescope's main mirror). Two point sources will each produce an Airy pattern see the photo of a binary st ar. As the point sources move closer together, the patterns will start to overla p, and ultimately they will merge to form a single pattern, in which case the tw o point sources cannot be resolved in the image. The Rayleigh criterion specifie s that two point sources can be considered to be resolvable if the separation of the two images is at least the radius of the Airy disk, i.e. if the first minim um of one coincides with the maximum of the other. Thus, the larger the aperture of the lens, and the smaller the wavelength, the f iner the resolution of an imaging system. This is why telescopes have very large lenses or mirrors, and why optical microscopes are limited in the detail which they can see. Speckle patterns[edit] Main article: speckle pattern The speckle pattern which is seen when using a laser pointer is another diffract ion phenomenon. It is a result of the superpostion of many waves with different phases, which are produced when a laser beam illuminates a rough surface. They a dd together to give a resultant wave whose amplitude, and therefore intensity va ries randomly. Patterns[edit]

The upper half of this image shows a diffraction pattern of He-Ne laser beam on an elliptic aperture. The lower half is its 2D Fourier transform approximately r econstructing the shape of the aperture. Several qualitative observations can be made of diffraction in general: The angular spacing of the features in the diffraction pattern is inversely prop ortional to the dimensions of the object causing the diffraction. In other words : The smaller the diffracting object, the 'wider' the resulting diffraction patt ern, and vice versa. (More precisely, this is true of the sines of the angles.) The diffraction angles are invariant under scaling; that is, they depend only on the ratio of the wavelength to the size of the diffracting object. When the diffracting object has a periodic structure, for example in a diffracti on grating, the features generally become sharper. The third figure, for example , shows a comparison of a double-slit pattern with a pattern formed by five slit s, both sets of slits having the same spacing, between the center of one slit an d the next. Particle diffraction[edit] See also: neutron diffraction and electron diffraction Quantum theory tells us that every particle exhibits wave properties. In particu lar, massive particles can interfere and therefore diffract. Diffraction of elec trons and neutrons stood as one of the powerful arguments in favor of quantum me chanics. The wavelength associated with a particle is the de Broglie wavelength where h is Planck's constant and p is the momentum of the particle (mass velocit y for slow-moving particles). For most macroscopic objects, this wavelength is so short that it is not meaning ful to assign a wavelength to them. A sodium atom traveling at about 30,000 m/s would have a De Broglie wavelength of about 50 pico meters. Because the wavelength for even the smallest of macroscopic objects is extremely small, diffraction of matter waves is only visible for small particles, like el ectrons, neutrons, atoms and small molecules. The short wavelength of these matt er waves makes them ideally suited to study the atomic crystal structure of soli ds and large molecules like proteins. Relatively larger molecules like buckyballs were also shown to diffract.[14] Bragg diffraction[edit]

Following Bragg's law, each dot (or reflection), in this diffraction pattern for ms from the constructive interference of X-rays passing through a crystal. The d ata can be used to determine the crystal's atomic structure. For more details on this topic, see Bragg diffraction. Diffraction from a three dimensional periodic structure such as atoms in a cryst al is called Bragg diffraction. It is similar to what occurs when waves are scat tered from a diffraction grating. Bragg diffraction is a consequence of interfer ence between waves reflecting from different crystal planes. The condition of co nstructive interference is given by Bragg's law: where ? is the wavelength, d is the distance between crystal planes, ? is the angle of the diffracted wave. and m is an integer known as the order of the diffracted beam. Bragg diffraction may be carried out using either light of very short wavelength like X-rays or matter waves like neutrons (and electrons) whose wavelength is o n the order of (or much smaller than) the atomic spacing.[15] The pattern produc ed gives information of the separations of crystallographic planes d, allowing o ne to deduce the crystal structure. Diffraction contrast, in electron microscope s and x-topography devices in particular, is also a powerful tool for examining

individual defects and local strain fields in crystals. Coherence[edit] Main article: Coherence (physics) The description of diffraction relies on the interference of waves emanating fro m the same source taking different paths to the same point on a screen. In this description, the difference in phase between waves that took different paths is only dependent on the effective path length. This does not take into account the fact that waves that arrive at the screen at the same time were emitted by the source at different times. The initial phase with which the source emits waves c an change over time in an unpredictable way. This means that waves emitted by th e source at times that are too far apart can no longer form a constant interfere nce pattern since the relation between their phases is no longer time independen t. The length over which the phase in a beam of light is correlated, is called the coherence length. In order for interference to occur, the path length difference must be smaller than the coherence length. This is sometimes referred to as spe ctral coherence, as it is related to the presence of different frequency compone nts in the wave. In the case of light emitted by an atomic transition, the coher ence length is related to the lifetime of the excited state from which the atom made its transition. If waves are emitted from an extended source, this can lead to incoherence in th e transversal direction. When looking at a cross section of a beam of light, the length over which the phase is correlated is called the transverse coherence le ngth. In the case of Young's double slit experiment, this would mean that if the transverse coherence length is smaller than the spacing between the two slits, the resulting pattern on a screen would look like two single slit diffraction pa tterns. In the case of particles like electrons, neutrons and atoms, the coherence lengt h is related to the spatial extent of the wave function that describes the parti cle. See also[edit] Angle-sensitive pixel Atmospheric diffraction Bragg diffraction Brocken spectre Cloud iridescence Diffraction formalism Diffraction grating Diffraction limit Diffractometer Dynamical theory of diffraction Electron diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction Fresnel diffraction Fresnel imager Fresnel number Fresnel zone Neutron diffraction Prism Powder diffraction Refraction Schaefer Bergmann diffraction Thinned array curse X-ray scattering techniques References[edit] ^ Dietrich Zawischa. "Optical effects on spider webs". Retrieved 2007-09-21. ^ Francesco Maria Grimaldi, Physico mathesis de lumine, coloribus, et iride, ali

isque annexis libri duo (Bologna ("Bonomia"), Italy: Vittorio Bonati, 1665), pag e 2: Original : Nobis alius quartus modus illuxit, quem nunc proponimus, vocamusque; diffractionem, quia advertimus lumen aliquando diffringi, hoc est partes eius mu ltiplici dissectione separatas per idem tamen medium in diversa ulterius procede re, eo modo, quem mox declarabimus. Translation : It has illuminated for us another, fourth way, which we now make k nown and call "diffraction" [i.e., shattering], because we sometimes observe lig ht break up; that is, that parts of the compound [i.e., the beam of light], sepa rated by division, advance farther through the medium but in different [directio ns], as we will soon show. ^ Cajori, Florian "A History of Physics in its Elementary Branches, including th e evolution of physical laboratories." MacMillan Company, New York 1899 ^ R. Feynman, Lectures in Physics, Vol, 1, 1963, pg. 30-1, Addison Wesley Publis hing Company Reading, Mass ^ Andrew Norton (2000). Dynamic fields and waves of physics. CRC Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-7503-0719-2. ^ Francesco Maria Grimaldi, Physico-mathesis de lumine, coloribus, et iride, ali isque adnexis... [The physical mathematics of light, color, and the rainbow, and other things appended...] (Bologna ("Bonomia"), Italy: Vittorio Bonati, 1665), pp. 1 11: "Propositio I. Lumen propagatur seu diffunditur non solum directe, refra cte, ac reflexe, sed etiam alio quodam quarto modo, diffracte." (Proposition 1. Light propagates or spreads not only in a straight line, by refraction, and by r eflection, but also by a somewhat different fourth way: by diffraction.) ^ Jean Louis Aubert (1760). Memoires pour l'histoire des sciences et des beaux a rts. Paris: Impr. de S. A. S.; Chez E. Ganeau. p. 149. ^ Sir David Brewster (1831). A Treatise on Optics. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown & Green and John Taylor. p. 95. ^ Letter from James Gregory to John Collins, dated 13 May 1673. Reprinted in: Co rrespondence of Scientific Men of the Seventeenth Century...., ed. Stephen Jorda n Rigaud (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1841), vol. 2, pp. 251 255, es pecially p. 254. ^ Young, Thomas (1804-01-01). "The Bakerian Lecture: Experiments and calculation s relative to physical optics". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (Royal Society of London.) 94: 1 16. doi:10.1098/rstl.1804.0001. (Note: This lecture was presented before the Royal Society on 24 November 1803.) ^ Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1816) "Mmoire sur la diffraction de la lumire ," Annales de la Chemie et de Physique, 2nd series, vol. 1, pages 239 281. (Presented before l'Acadmie des sciences on 15 October 1815.) Available on-line at: Bibnum.educatio n.fr (French) ^ Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1826) "Mmoire sur la diffraction de la lumire," Mmoires de l'Acadmie des Sciences (Paris), vol. 5, pages 33 475. (Summitted to l'Acadmie des s ciences of Paris on 20 April 1818.) ^ Christiaan Huygens, Trait de la lumiere... (Leiden, Netherlands: Pieter van der Aa, 1690), Chapter 1. From p. 15: "J'ay donc monstr de quelle faon l'on peut conc evoir que la lumiere s'etend successivement par des ondes spheriques,..." (I hav e thus shown in what manner one can imagine that light propagates successively b y spherical waves,...)(Note: Huygens published his Trait in 1690; however, in the preface to his book, Huygens states that in 1678 he first communicated his book to the French Royal Academy of Sciences.) ^ Brezger, B.; Hackermller, L.; Uttenthaler, S.; Petschinka, J.; Arndt, M.; Zeili nger, A. (February 2002). "Matter Wave Interferometer for Large Molecules" (reprin t). Physical Review Letters 88 (10): 100404. arXiv:quant-ph/0202158. Bibcode:200 2PhRvL..88j0404B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.88.100404. PMID 11909334. Retrieved 20 07-04-30. ^ John M. Cowley (1975) Diffraction physics (North-Holland, Amsterdam) ISBN 0-44 4-10791-6 External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Diffraction

The Wikibook Nanotechnology has a page on the topic of: Nano-optics Diffraction, Ri Channel Video, December 2011 Diffraction and Crystallography for beginners Do Sensors Outresolve Lenses?; on lens and sensor resolution interaction. Diffraction and acoustics. Diffraction in photography. On Diffraction at MathPages. Diffraction pattern calculators at The Wolfram Demonstrations Project Wave Optics A chapter of an online textbook. 2-D wave Java applet Displays diffraction patterns of various slit configuration s. Diffraction Java applet Displays diffraction patterns of various 2-D apertures. Diffraction approximations illustrated MIT site that illustrates the various app roximations in diffraction and intuitively explains the Fraunhofer regime from t he perspective of linear system theory. Gap Obstacle Corner Java simulation of diffraction of water wave. Google Maps Satellite image of Panama Canal entry ocean wave diffraction. Google Maps and Bing Maps Aerial photo of waves diffracting through sea barriers at Sea Palling in Norfolk, UK. Diffraction Effects An Introduction to The Wigner Distribution in Geometric Optics DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package Diffraction and Imaging Animations demonstrating Diffraction by QED FDTD Animation of single slit diffraction on YouTube Categories: Concepts in physicsDiffraction Navigation menu Create accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView history Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Toolbox Print/export Languages ???? ??????? ????? ????????? Catal Cesky ChiShona Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti ???????? Espaol Esperanto ????? Franais Galego

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