Advanced Semiconductor Devices Lecture 2

Lecture outline
Review of energy band structure Simplified band structure and electron concentration Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductors in equilibrium Semiconductor current Einstein relationship Non-equilibrium semiconductors Continuity equation

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Electron in one-dimensional atomic lattice

Shrodinger wave equation Kronig-Penney model

d 2 2 0 2 dx

2m E U 0 2

E U0
3

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Graphical solution

The solution can be compared to the free electron solution Fold all energy solutions into the first Brillouin zone

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Electrons and holes

Effective mass is positive for electrons in band 3 conduction band Particle mass is negative at the top of band 2 valence band Model empty electron states at the top of the valence band as positive electric charges with positive mass - holes

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Energy bands in real semiconductors

Energy band structure in Si as a function of the wave-vector k

Note that the minimum of the conduction band is not directly above the maximum of the valence band. Si indirect gap semiconductor

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4 - band energy model

Simplified energy band structure for the direct gap semiconductor

One conduction band 3 valence bands with different effective masses of holes Effective mass defined for all carriers as

h2k m= E / k
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Very simple energy band structure

Simple 2 band energy structure

Assume that the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction bands are parabolic and isotropic using density of states effective masses

h2 2 E - EC ; k * 2mn h2 2 EV - E ; k * 2m p

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Electron and hole concentrations

Express electron and hole densities

n = gc ( E ) f ( E ) dE
EC

p = gv ( E ) 1 - f ( E ) dE -

EV

Where we defined the Fermi-Dirac function as

f (E) =

1 1 + e( E - EF )/ kT

Effective densities of states for the conduction and valence bands

*3/2 mn 2( E - EC ) gc ( E ) = p 2h2

gv ( E ) =

3/2 m* 2( EV - E ) p

p 2 h2

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Fermi energy and carrier density

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Maxwell Boltzmann approximation

Can obtain a simple approximation for the Fermi-Dirac integral

n = N C e(

EF - EC ) / kT EV - EF ) / kT

EC - EF 3kT EF - EV 3kT

p = NV e(

Where we define the effective densities of states in the conduction and valence bands

m kT NC 2 2 2 p h
* n

3/2

m* p kT NV 2 2p h 2

3/2

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Intrinsic semiconductors
Charge neutrality without impurities

n = p = ni
Write for intrinsic carrier concentration using Maxwell Boltzmann approximation

ni = N C e(

Ei - EC ) / kT

= NV e(

EV - Ei )/ kT

Obtain intrinsic carrier concentration

ni2 = NC NV e(

EV - EC ) / kT

= N C NV e - EG / kT

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Intrinsic semiconductors
Obtain intrinsic carrier concentration

ni = NC NV e- EG /2 kT
Derive the intrinsic Fermi level

EC + EV kT NV Ei = + ln 2 2 NC

NV m = NC m
* p * n

3/2

m* EC + EV 3 p Ei = + kT ln * m 2 4 n

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Extrinsic carrier concentration

General carrier concentration in terms of intrinsic parameters

n = ni e(

EF - Ei ) / kT Ei - EF ) / kT

p = ni e(

Obtain equilibrium charge balance

n p = ni2

+ p - n + ND - NA =0

Ionized impurity concentrations

+ ND =

ND 1 + g D exp ( EF - ED ) / kT NA 1 + g A exp ( E A - EF ) / kT
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Fermi energy in extrinsic materials

Given carrier concentrations, can determine the Fermi level

n = ni e(

EF - Ei ) / kT Ei - EF ) / kT

p = ni e(

n EF - Ei = kT ln ni
For n- or p-type materials

p = - kT ln ni

+ ND EF - Ei ; kT ln , ni NA Ei - EF ; kT ln , ni

+ ND ? ni

NA ? ni

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Alternative expressions
Carrier concentration and the Fermi level

n = N C e(

EF - EC ) / kT

p = NV e(

EV - EF ) / kT

n EF = EC + kT ln NC
For n- or p-type materials

p = EV - kT ln N V
+ n ND p NA

+ n ND EF - EC = kT ln ; kT ln , NC NC p NA EV - EF ; kT ln ; kT ln , NV NV

+ ND ? ni

NA ? ni

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Extrinsic carrier concentration

In general
+ p - n + ND - NA =0

ni2 p= n

Obtain quadratic equation for n

ni2 + - n + ND - NA =0 n
Which we solve for n and p
+ D A

+ n2 - n ( N D - NA ) - ni2 = 0

+ ND N -N - NA 2 n= + + n i 2 2

p=

N -N N -N 2 + + n i 2 2
A + D A + D

Typical values for Si

ni 1.5 1010 cm-3

+ n ND

N A , N D : 1014 cm -3 - 1019 cm -3

For n- or p-type materials

p NA

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Energy band bending

Potential energy is a function of position and can be linked to electrostatic potential

Enpot ( x ) = -qV ( x ) 1 V = - ( EC - Eref q

Express for the electric field

dV E = -V = dx 1 dEC 1 dEV E = = q dx q dx

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Electron drift current

Electric field causes drift of carriers resulting in

drift current
Write for electron current density

Here t0 is the transit time

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Electron drift current

Assuming constant electric filed

We get apparent violation of Ohm's law!!!

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Electron drift current

Introduce the concept of carrier lifetime determined by semiconductor statistics and which is much smaller than the transit time

Ohm's law is saved!!!

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Total drift current

Similarly for holes
dr Jp = qpm pE

t pq mp = * mp

Obtain total drift current

dr J dr = J ndr + J p = qnmnE + qp m pE

Note that carrier velocities are

V n = - m nE

Vp = m pE

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Semiconductor resistivity
Define semiconductor conductivity and resistivity from Ohm's law

J dr = s E =

1 E r

s=

1 = qnmn + qpm p r

For n- or p-type materials

1 r; qN D mn

n ? ni p ? ni

n ; ND p ; NA

r;

1 qN A m p

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Diffusion Current
Diffusion is due to redistribution of carriers caused by random thermal motion

Assume, that equal number of particles moves in both + x and -x directions in each cross-section

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Diffusion Current
Assume that all carriers move with the same average velocity

Assume that all carriers move with the same average velocity V The average distance between two electron collisions is l Average life-time between collisions is

t=

l V
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Total current
Determine current

diff p

dp = - qDP dx

DP

l Vp 2

Can express total current as a sum of drift and diffusion currents

diff J n = J dr + J = qnm nE + qDN n n n diff J p = J dr p + J p = qp m pE - qDP p

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Equilibrium Fermi level

Fermi level is equivalent to chemical potential by definition Chemical potential determines the flow of particles between parts of the system Therefore, Fermi level inside a material is constant as a function of position under thermodynamic equilibrium (total current is 0)

EF = const (x)
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Einstein relationship
E
EG EC EF = const (x) EV
In general, energy bands are not constant when variations of doping are present This leads to potential and electric field inside the material

E =-

dy 1 dEC 1 dEV = = dx q dx q dx

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Einstein relationship
E
EG EC EF = const (x) EV
Writing for electrons from Boltzmann approximation

n = NC e

EF - EC kT

Under thermodynamic equilibrium

EF = const (x)

dn d EF - EC =n dx dx kT

n dEC =kT dx

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Einstein relationship
E
EG EC EF = const (x) EV
Total current under thermodynamic equilibrium is 0

J n = 0 = qnm nE + qDn

dn dE n dEC = nm n C - qDn dx dx kT dx

Einstein relationship follows for electrons (and similarly for holes)

Dn =

kT mn q

Dp =

kT mp q
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Non-equilibrium: Quasi-Fermi levels

EC EG EFP EFN EV
In non-equilibrium, can not describe semiconductor properties with a single constant Fermi level Introduce quasi-Fermi levels EFN and EFP for electrons and holes

n = NC e

EFN - EC kT

p = NV e

EV - EFP kT

Excess carrier concentrations: n and p

n = n0 + Dn

p = p0 + Dp
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Non-equilibrium total current

EC EG EFP EFN EV
In general, for electrons in 3-dimensions
diff J n = J dr + J = qnm nE + qDnn = mn nEFN n n

Similarly, for holes

diff J p = J dr + J p p = qp m pE - qD p p = m p pE FP

Total current

J = J n + J p = mn nEFN + m p pEFP

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Generation - recombination of carriers

Main physical processes are

Direct band generation and recombination R-G center generation-recombination via impurities and traps Surface recombination

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Generation -recombination of carriers

Band-to-band R-G in indirect band semiconductors is complex and requires involvement of phonons for momentum conservation

Assume low-level injection

Dp = p0 , Dn = n0

Minority carrier recombination rate can be approximated as

Dn Dp R; , R; tn tp
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Continuity equation
Consider electron current in a semiconductor bar Assume electron generation and recombination
x

G R
n

J n ( x)

J n ( x + Dx )

dn J ( x) J n ( x + Dx) Dx = n + ( Gn - Rn ) Dx dt -q -q
Let x approach zero to derive the continuity equation for electrons

dn 1 dJ n = + ( Gn - Rn ) dt q dx
Similarly for holes

dp 1 dJ p =+ ( G p - Rp ) dt q dx
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Minority carrier diffusion equation

No electric field

E =0
n p 0 = const( x)

Low level injection in p-type semiconductor n p = n p 0 + Dn p Dn p = p p 0 The equilibrium minority carriers Approximate minority carrier current

dn dn J n = qnm nE + qDn ; qDn dx dx d 2 Dn p 1 dJ n ; Dn q dx dx 2 d Dn p dt 1 dJ n = + ( Gn - Rn ) q dx

Obtain minority carrier diffusion equation

d Dn p dt

= Dn

d 2 Dn p dx
2

+ ( Gn - Rn )

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