Differential Calculus

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WORKS OF
H. B. PHILLIPS, PH.D.
PUBLISHED BY
Inc.
JOHN WILEY & SONS,

Differential Equations.
Second
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,)
J-î^ ,oA^ ^^j^ cyK
>'?
k)
IFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
BY
H. B. PHILLIPS, Ph.D.
Associate Professor of Mathematics in the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology
NEW YORK JOHN WILEY & SONS,

London:
Inc.
CHAPMAN & HALL,
Lixitbd
Copyright, 1916^
BY
H. B. PHILLIPS
79996^
Stanbope ipress
H.
GILSON COMPANY
BOSTON,
U.S.A.
PREFACE
In
)lan
ral
f
this text
on
differential calculus I
have continued the
adopted for
my
Analytic Geometry, wherein a few cen-
methods are expounded and appUed to a large variety examples to the end that the student may learn principles nd gain power. In this way the differential calculus makes
nly a brief text suitable for a term's work and leaves for the
ntegral calculus,
which in
many
respects
is
far
more impor-
ant, a greater proportion of time
than
is
ordinarily devoted
it.
As material for review and to provide problems for which nswers are not given, a supplementary list, containing about
alf
as
many
exercises as occur in the text,
is
placed at the
nd
I
of the book.
wish to acknowledge
my indebtedness
to Professor H.
W.
'yler
and Professor E. B. Wilson for advice and criticism nd to Dr. Joseph Lipka for valuable assistance in preparing tie manuscript and revising the proof.
H. B. PHILLIPS.
Boston, Mass., August, 1916.
CONTENTS
ÂPTEB
I.
Introduction
Pages 1- 9
10- 18
II.
Derivative and Differential

Differentiation of Algebraic Functions
III.
19- 31
IV.
V.
Rates
32-38
39- 48
'
Maxima and Minima

Differentiation of Transcendental Functions.
VI.
VII.
/'III.
49- 62 63- 84
Geometrical Applications
Velocity and Acceleration in a Curved Path
.
85- 93 94-100
101-112
113-139
IX. Rolle's
Theorem and Indeterminate Forms
X. Series and Approximations

XI. Partl\l Differentiation
Supplementary Exercises
140-153
Answers
Index
154-160
161-162
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
CHAPTER
I
INTRODUCTION
1.
Definition of Function.
quantity y is called
function of a quantity x
of X.
if values of y are determined by values
Thus, U y = 1 x^, y determines a value of y.

function of
its
is
a function of x; for a value of

is
x^
Similarly, the area of a circle
radius; for, the radius being given, the area is
determined.
It
is
not necessary that only one value of the function

Several values
correspond to a value of the variable.

determined.
may be
Thus,
if
x and y
satisfy the equation
x^
x.
2xy-\-y^
x,
then y
is
a function of
To
each value of x correspond two
values of y found by solving the equation for y. quantity u is called a function of several variables
if
is
determined when values are assigned
to those variables.
Thus,
if
x-
y^,
then
2 is
y,
values being given to x and

Similarly, the
a value of
a function of x and y; for, 2 is determined.
volume of a cone is a function of its altitude and radius of base; for the radms and altitude being assigned, the volume is determined. 2. Kinds of Functions. An expression containing variables is called an explicit function of those variables.
Thus
Vx +
is
an
explicit function of
x and
y.
Similarly, if
y y
is
= Vx-^
1,
an
explicit function of x.
Chap.
I.
quantity
quantity determined by an equation not solved for that is called an implicit function. Thus, if
x^
2 xy
x.
-\-
y^
X,
is
\y is
an implicit function of
Also x
an implicit function
of y.
Explicit
and
implicit
do not denote properties of the funcexpressed.
tion but of the
way
it is
An
implicit function
is
rendered explicit by solving.

tion
is
For example, the above equaX
equivalent to
y
in
Vx,
which y appears as an
explicit function of x.
A rational function is one representable by an algebraic expression containing no fractional powers of variable quantities.
For example,
xV5 +
x'^
3 -\-2x
is
a rational function of
x.
An
irrational function is
one represented by an algebraic
expression which cannot be reduced to rational form.
Thus
x and y. A function is called algebraic if it can be represented by an algebraic expression or is the solution of an algebraic equation. All the functions previously mentioned are algebraic. Functions that are not algebraic are called transcendental. For example, sin x and log x are transcendental functions of x. 3. Independent and Dependent Variables. In most problems there occur a number of variable quantities connected by equations. Arbitrary values can be assigned to
y
is
VX +
an
irrational function of
some of these quantities and the others are then determined. Those taking arbitrary values are called independent variables;
those
determined are called
dependent
variables.
Which
variables are taken as independent
and which as de-
pendent is usually a matter of convenience. The number of independent variables is, however, determined by the equations.
Chap.
I.
INTRODUCTION
in plotting the
For example,
curve
y
values are assigned to x
3^
+ X,
of y are calculated.
and values
The
x and the dependent variable y. We might assign values to y and calculate values of x but that would be much more difficult. 4. Notation. A particular function of x is often represented by the notation / (x) which should be read, function For example, of X, or / of X, not / times x.
independent variable
is
fix)
V^TT
-\.
means that/
(ar)
is
a symbol for Vx^
i.
Similarly,
y=f(x)
means that y
function of
x.
is
some
definite (though perhaps
unknown) same
If it is necessarj' to
consider several functions in the
discussion, they are distinguished
by
subscripts or accents or
f-z
by the use of different letters. Thus, /i (x), /" (x) g (x) (read /-one of x, /-two of x, /-prime
,
(x), /' (x),
of x, /-second
of X, g of x) represent (presumably) different functions of x.
commas between
Functions of several variables are expressed by WTiting the variables. For example,
v=f{r,h)
expresses that
t;
is
a function of
V
and h and
f{a,
6, c)
expresses that y
is
a function of
a, 6, c
The /
in the
symbol
if
of a function should be considered as
representing an operation to be performed on the variable or

variables.
Thus,
f(x)
= V^^~+l,
f represents the operation of squaring the variable, adding 1, and extracting the square root of the result. If x is replaced
is
Chap.
I.
by any other quantity, the same operation on that quantity. For example,
/
(2)
to be performed
= V22+
= Vs.
\/i/2
f{y+l) = V(y +1)2+1 =

Similarly,
if
+ 2y + 2.
then
If
/ / /
f (2,
{x, y)
(1, 2)
(x, y, 0)
then
-3,
1)
= = = =
x^
a:2
+ xy - y\ + 1 2 - 22 = -1. + + ^^ 22 + (-3)2 + 1 = 14.

12
.
i/2
EXERCISES
3 3 3
,
Given x + y = a express y as an explicit function of x. Given logio (x) = sin y, express x as an explicit function of Also express y as an explicit function of x. 3. If / (x) = x2 - 3 X + 2, show that / (1) = / (2) = 0. 4. If F (x) = x* + 2 x2 + 3, show that F (-a) = F (a).
1.
2.
y.
5.
li
F
<!>
(x)
(x)
x+ -,
find
1,
{x
1).
Also find
(x)
1.
6.
7.
If
= Vx2 -
find
<>
(2 X).
Also find 2
</.
(x).
If^W=2T^3,find^(^).
If /i (x) If
Also find
^.
[/i (y)].
8.
9.
=
?/)
2%
/2 (X)
xS find
/i !/2 (y)].
(2, 1)
Also find /^
2)
(x,
- -,
=
x^
show that/
= 2/ (1,
1.
10.
11.
Given /
(x,
y)
+ xy,
find / (y, x).
On how many
circular cylinder
12.
independent variables docs the volume of a right depend?

x, y, z satisfy
Three numbers
two equations
22
X2
+
\-
?/2
5,
-\rz
==1.
How many
of these
numbers can be taken as independent variables?
6. Limit. If in any process a variable quantity approaches a constant one in such a way that the difference of
the two becomes and remains as small as you please, the constant
is
said to be the limit of the variable.

is
The
use of limits
well illustrated
by the incommensurable
Chap.
I.
INTRODUCTION
and the determination of the area
of
5
a
cases of geometry
circle or
6.
the volume of a cone or sphere.
Limit of a Function.
As
a variable approaches a
limit a function of that variable
may approach a limit.

2.
Thus,
as X approaches
1, a:^
approacnes
We
shall express that
a variable x approaches a limit a by
the notation
a.
The symbol = thus means "approaches
as a limit."
is
Let / {x) approach the limit A as x approaches a; this expressed by lim/(x) = A,
which should be read, " the limit is A." Example 1. Find the value of
lim
of
(x),
as x approaches
a,
sHi)+ - approaches 1 + t
As X approaches
or 2,
1,
the quantity x
Hence
1s(^+i) =
Ex.
2.
2.
Find the value of

lim
;e=0
sin 6
1
+ COS d
As
approaches zero, the function given approaches
Hence
hm
7.
,.
sin d :r cos 9=0 1
0.
Properties of Limits.
is
In finding the limits of funcof certain simple properties that
tions frequent use
made
follow almost immediately
from the
definition.
6
1.
The
limit of the
Chap.
I.
sum
of a finite
number
of functions is
equal to the
sum
of their limits.
Suppose, for example, X, Y, Z are three functions approaching the limits A, B, C respectively. Then X-\-Y-{-Z
is
approaching
-{-
lim
2.
(X
+ F + Z)
B C. Consequently, = ^ + 5 + C = lim Z + lim 7 + lim Z.

-\-
The
limit of the 'product of
finite
number
of functions
is equal to the product of their limits.

If,
for example,
X, Y, Z approach A, B, C
respectively,
then
XYZ
approaches
lim
ABC,
that
lim
is,
XYZ = ABC =
X lim Y lim Z.
is not zero, the limit of the
3.
// the limit of the denominator
ratio of two functions is equal to the ratio of their limits.
Let X,
zero.
approach the limits A,
B
is,
and suppose
is
not
X Then
y
approaches
,.
A
^ A
,
that
X
is
limX
^''^Y=B=V;^'
If
is
zero
and
not zero,
A
t, will ts
be
infinite.
Then
X A =7 cannot approach
^ ^sa
limit; for,
however large
will
X ^
may
become, the difference of t^ and infinity

8.
not become small.
The Form
^.
When
is
replaced by a particular
r-
value, a function
sometimes takes the form
Although
this
symbol does not represent a definite value, the function may have a definite limit. This is usually made evident by writing the function in a different form.
Example
1.
Find the value of

lim
,.
x'-l
r
Chap.
I.
INTRODUCTION
is
When X
replaced
by
1,
the function takes the form
1-10*
Since, however,
1-1
a^-1
the function approaches
1
^^=^ +
,
1'
+1
a:
or 2.
2.
Therefore
Hm^ ^ = 1
1=5=1
3:21
Ex.
2.
Find the value of

,.
lim
x=0
(VTTx X
1) -
When
the given function becomes
1-1 ^0
o"
Multiplying numerator and denominator by
Vl
1
-f
a:
+
*
1,
Vl + xX
^ ~
X X
(Vl+x +
1)
Vl+x + 1
^.
As X approaches
0,
the last expression approaches
Hence
9.
Infinitesimal,
is
-r-
variable
approaching zero as a
If
limit
called
/3
an
infiriiiesimal.
Let a and
be two infinitesimals.
limis finite
the
/3.
and not same order.

If
zero,
If
a and
/3
are said to be infinitesimals of

zero,
the limit
is
is
of higher order
/3
than
the ratio - approaches infinity,
is
of higher order
than
a.
Roughly speaking, the higher the
order, the smaller
the infinitesimal.
8
For example,
let
Chap.
I.
x approach
X/>2
/y^
zero.
/y^
The
quantities
Ck^ n
are infinitesimals arranged in ascending order.
Thus
x* is of
higher order than
x^; for
lim x=0X^
Similarly, a^
is
x^
lim x^
1=0
=
a^,
0.
of lower order than
since
X*
approaches infinity when x approaches zero.
As X approaches x
cos x
and cot x are
infinitesimals of the
same
order; for
cos a; 7 Iim .,cota;

,.
= lim sm x = i-fl^
,.
.
1,
which
is finite
and not
zero.
EXERCISES
Find the values of the following
limits:
...
1.
x=Q
_
,.
hm a;*- ^ X 5
2
a;
+3
cosd
cos 2 9
...
4.
Iim
Vl -
- Vl +
z
x'
x=o
6.
X*
sin 9 4-
6=2
3.
, sin 2
x^
edzoi&n9
hm ^-^
,.
,.
hm
xAi
- 3x + r-! X 1
6.
lim 9=0 sin
sin
29
!
7.
By
the use of a table of natural sines find the value of

,.
lim
sin
a;
x=o
8.
9.
Define as a limit the area within a closed curve. Define as a limit the volume within a closed surface.
10.
11.
On
Define V2. the segment
angles reaching from
PQ (Fig. 9a) construct a series of equilateral triP to Q. As the number of triangles is increased,
Chap.
I.
INTRODUCTION
approaching zero, the polygonal line its length approach that of PQl
their bases
PABC,
etc.,
approaches
PQ.
Does
Fig. 9a.
12.
Inscribe a series of cylinders in a cone

in Fig. 9b.
as
shown
As the number
of cyl-
inders increases indefinitely, their altitudes
approaching zero, does the sum of the volumes of the cylinders approach that of the cone? Does the sum of the lateral areas of
the cylinders approach the lateral area of the cone?
13.
limit.
Fig. 9b.
1
Show
that
when x approaches
1,
zero,
tan - does not approach a
14.
is
As X approaches
which of the infinitesimals

V
a;
and
Vl
of higher order?
16. As the radius of a sphere approaches zero, show that its volume an infinitesimal of higher order than the area of its surface and of the same order as the volume of the circumscribing cylinder.
is
CHAPTER
II
DERIVATIVE AND DIFFERENTIAL

10.
Increment.
is
When
a variable changes value, the
algebraic increase (new value
crement and
represented
minus old) is called its inby the symbol A written before

4, its
the variable.
Thus,
if
X changes from 2 to
increment
2.
is
Ax =
If
X changes from 2 to 1,
Ax =
-1-2=
-3.
is
When
value,
the increment
is
positive there
an increase
in
when negative a
2/
decrease.
x.
Let
be a function of
When
x receives an increment
Ax, an increment A?/ will be determined. The increments

of
X and y thus correspond.

illustrate this graphically
To
let
X and y be the rectangular coordinates of a point P. An
equation
y=f{x)
represents a curve.
When x
changes, the point
P changes
of
to some other position
Q on
the curve.
The increments
X and y are
Ax = PR,
11.
Ay = RQ.
(10)
Continuous Function. A function is called con^ if the increment of the function approaches zero as the increment of the variable approaches zero.
tinuous
10
Chap.
II.

is
11
In Fig. 10, y approaches zero,
a continuous function of x; for, as Ax approaches P and so Ay approaches zero.
In Figs. 11a and lib are shown two ways that a function can be discontinuous. In Fig. 11a the curve has a break at
/
Fig. 11a.
I
if
Fig. lib.
P.
As Q approaches
does not.
P',
Ax = PR approaches
in
zero,
but
a
is
Ay = RQ
infinite.
a:
In Fig. lib the ordinate at x

is
The increment Ay occurring
the change from
a to any neighboring value
12.
Slope of a Curve.
As Q moves
infinite.
along a continuous
curve toward P, the line PQ turns about P and usually
approaches a limiting position PT. This line PT is

the tangent to the curve at P.
called
The
slope of
PQ
Ay
Ax'
is
RQ PR
As Q approaches P, Ax approaches zero and the slope

of
Fig. 12a.
PQ
approaches that of PT.

Slope of the tangent
Therefore
tan
lim -r^
(12)
12
slope of the tangent at
Chap.
II.
The
at P.
is
called the slope of the curve
Exam-pie. Find the slope of the parabola

y
x'^
aX the point
(1, 1).
Let the coordinates of
P
Q
\yQ
X,
y.
-\-
Those
y
of
are x
Aa:,
+ Ly,
Since P and Q are both on the curve,
= 'r2 y =x'^
and
?/
a^2
+ Ay = + Aa;)2 = + 2 Ax + (Ax)2.
(a;
a;
Subtracting these equations,
we
get
(Ax)2.
^y = 2x^x-\Dividing by Ax,
A?/
Ax
As Ax approaches
2X
+ Ax.
2
X.
zero, this
approaches
Slope at
P=
This
is
the slope at the point with abscissa
x.
The
x.
slope at
(1, 1) is
then
2-1 =
2.
2/
13.
Derivative.
Let
be a function of
If
^y Ax
approaches a limit as
Ax approaches
to x.
zero, that limit is called
the derivative of y with respect notation D^y, that is,
It is represented
by the
(13a)
A-.
D^y
If
lim -^
Ax=0
Ax
a function
is
is
represented
by /(x),
its
derivative with
respect to x
often represented by/'

/' (x)
(x).
Thus
(13b)
A/(x)
lim
Az=0
Ax
= D^(x).
Chap.
II.
DERIVATIVE AXD DIFFERENTIAL
13
In Art. 12 we found that this Umit represents the slope of

the curve y = Six). The derivative of X whose value is the slope of
is,
in fact, a
function
the curve at the point with abscissa X.
The derivative, being the limit
Aw
of
^,
is
approximately equal
to a small change in y divided
by the
corresponding small
change in x. It is then large or small according as the small increment of y is large or small in comparison with that of x. If small increments of x and y have the same sign -r^ and
its limit
is
Aw Ax
Fig. 13.
Dxy are
positive.
If
is
they have opposite signs D^y

positive
when x and y increase and decrease together and negative when one increases as the
negative.
Therefore D^y
other decreases.
Example.
3?
Zx-\-2.
Let X receive an increment Ax, The new value of x is x Ax. The new value of j/ is y -f Ay. Since these satisfy the equation,
2/
Ay =
(x
+ Ax)3 - 3 (x + Ax) + 2.
= x3-3x-t-2,
(Ax)^
-J-
Subtracting the equation

y
we get
Ay =
3 x2
Ax + 3 X
(Ax)'
- 3 Ax.
Dividing by Ax,
Aw
^=3x2 + 3xAx4- (Ax)2 - 3.

zero this approaches the limit
As Ax approaches
D^y
3 x2
3.
II.
14
is
Chap.
The graph and DxV = 3

a;-axis
shown
in Fig. 13.
0.
is
At The curve
A
is
(where x = \) y = thus tangent to the
at A.
The
slope
also zero at
(where x
1).
This
is
the highest point on the arc
AC.
On
the right of
and on the left of B, the slope DxV is positive and x and y increase and decrease together. Between A and B the slope is negative and y decreases as x increases.
EXERCISES
1.
Given y = Vx, find the increment of y when x changes from 2 to X = 1.9. Show that the increments approximately satisfy
the equation
Ay ^ Ax 2
Vx
2. Given y = logio x, find the increments of y when x changes from 50 to 51 and from 100 to 101. Show that the second increment is approximately half the first. Find its slope by 3. The equation of a certain line is y = 2 x Z.
Au
calculating the limit of
4.
.-
slope at
(4, 8).
Construct the parabola y

is
x^
x.
Show
its
that
its
the point with abscissa x
2 (x
1).
Find
slope at
At
2
x*.
what point
6.
is
the slope equal to 2?

x*
Show
is
that
Construct the curve represented by the equation y = its slope at the point with abscissa x is 4 x (x" 1).
At what
points are the tangents parallel to the x-axis?

positive
Indicate where the slope
and where
negative.
value given.
7.
In each of the following exercises show that the derivative has the Also find the slope of the corresponding curve at x = 1. 3. 6. y = (x Dx2/ = 2 X 2), 1) (x
y
2/
8.
= =
X*,
Dzy
x2,
Dj^y
= =
4x'.
3x^
-2 x.
9.
t/
-.
^'y=-^^-
10.
11.
X is an acute angle, is Dx cos x positive or negative? For what angles is Dx sin x positive and for what angles negative?
If
Approximate Value of the Increment of a Function. Let y be a function of x and represent by e a quantity such
14.
that
^y
Chap.
II.

zero, -r^
15
ap-
As Ax approaches
proaches zero.
approaches D^y and so
The increment
The
is
of
is
Ay = Bxy Ax
part
-f cAx.
D,y Ax
called the -principal part of Ay.
It differs
(14)
from Ay by an
zero,
amount
so
As Ax approaches zero, e approaches eAx becomes an indefinitely small fraction of Ax.

cAx.
is
It
is
and an
than Ax. If then the principal used as an approximation for Ay, the error will be only a small fraction of Ax when Ax is sufficiently small.
infinitesimal of higher order
part
Example.
When x
changes from 2 to 2.1 find an approxi-
mate value
for the change in y
X X
In exercise
9,
page
14,
the derivative of
- was found to
be
1.
Hence the
principal part of
Ay
is
-Aax=
-J.2
-j(.l) 4
-0.0250.
The exact increment
is
^^ =
The
(21)5
- ^^ =
-0-232.
error less than
principal part represents

is
Ay with an
002
which
15.
2%
of Ax.
and
Let x be the independent variable y be a function of x. The principal part of Ay is called the differential of y and is denoted by dy; that is,
Differentials.
let
dy
= D^y = =
1,
Ax.
(15a)
This equation defines the differential of any ftmction y of x. In particular,

if
x,
Dzy
dx
and so
(15b)
is
Ax,
that
is,
the differential of the
independent variable
equal to
16
its
Chap.
II.
the product of its derivative variable.
increment and the differential of any function y is equal to and the increment of the independent
Combining 15a and 15b, we get

dy dy dx
the quotient
= Dxy dx,
(15c)
whence
that
to X.
is,
D^y,
(15d)
dy
is equnl to the derivative of
y with respect
Since D^y is the slope of the curve y =f(x), equations 15b and 15c express that dy and dx are the sides of the right tri-
angle
PRT
the
(Fig.
15) with
hypotenuse
along
PT
extending
tangent at P.
X
^/[H -Ax--->
P^^ dx
On this diagram, Ax and Ay

are the increments
J
P
is
y
Ay
Ax = PR,
occurring
in
Ay = RQ,
the
change
differen-
R
x!
from
dx
P to
Q.
The
dy
tials are
= PR,
point
is
= RT.
the
Fig. 15.
A
curve
describing
passes through
differential
Ax if the direction of motion did not change. In general the direction of motion does change and so the
actual increase Ay = RQ is different from dy. If the increments are small the change in direction will be small and so Ay and dy will be approximately equal. Equation 15c was obtained under the assumption that x
dy changes to x +
moving when it in the direction of the tangent PT. The then the amount y would increase when x
was the independent

dx
variable.
It is still valid
if
continuous functions of an independent variable
t.
x and y are For then
DtX
At,
dy
Dty At.
Chap.
II.
17
The
identity
Ay _ Ay At Ax
gives in the limit
Ax
'
At
Dty
= D^y
DtX.
At,
Hence
Dty At
that
is,
= =
D^y Dtx
dy
D^y
I
,
dx.
Example
1.
Given y
4=X
find dy.
In this case
^
Consequently,
,,
+ Ax+l x + Ax
Ay Ax
x+1
X
Ax
X
(x
+ Ax)
(x
+ Ax)
As Ax approaches
zero, this
approaches
^= dx
Therefore
,
-i.
3?'
dx
Ex.
2.
Given x
f*,
<3,
find
^
=
The
differentials of
x and y are found to be

2tdl,
dx =
Division then gives,
dy
'^f^dt.
dx~r"
An error of 1% is made in measuring the side of a Find approximately the error in the calculated area. Let X be the correct measure of the side and x + Ax the value found by measurement. Then dx = Ax = 0.01 x.
Ex.
3.
square.
18
error in the area
is
Chap.
II,
The
approximately
which
=d is 2% of
dA
(a;2)
=2xdx=
0.02
x^
= 0.02 A,
the area.
EXERCISES
1.
Let n be a positive integer and y
x".
Expand
Ay =
{x
+
=
Ax)"
x"
by
using the binomial theorem.
Show
that
-^ ax
nx"-.
the principal part of Ay? Using the results of Ex. 1, find an approximate value for the increment of x when x changes from 1.1 to 1.2. Express the error as a percentage of Ax.
is
What
2.
3.
If
is
the area of a circle of radius
r,
show that
dA -yar
is
equal to the
circumference.
4. If the radius of a circle is measured and its area calculated by using the result, show that an error of 1% in the measurement of the radius will lead to an error of about 2% in the area.
5.
If V is
the volume of a sphere with radius
r,
show that
-p
is
ar
equal
to the area of its surface. 6. Let V be the volume of a cylinder with radius r and altitude
h.
Show
and
if
that
if
r is constant -rr is equal to the area of the

-j- is
base of cylinder
A
li
is
constant
equal to the lateral area.
7.
(x)
and
for all variations in x,
dx
Ax, dy
Ay,
show
that the graph of y = / (x) is a straight line. 8. If y is the independent variable and x
= f (y), make
a diagram
showing dx,
9.
dy, Ax,
and Ay.
is vertical,
If
the y-axis
the x-axis horizontal, a body thrown horift.
zontally from the origin with a velocity of 50
per second will in

'
seconds reach the point
X Find the slope of

its
50t,
= -16
fi.
path at that point. 10. A line turning about a fixed point P intersects the x-axis at A and the y-axis at B. If Ki and K2 are the areas of the triangles OPA (and
OPB, show
that
dKi^PA^ dK, P&'
CHAPTER
III
DIFFERENTIATION OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

16.
is
The
process of finding derivatives
and
is
differentials
called
differentiation.
Instead
of
applying the direct

usually per-
method
of the last chapter, differentiation
formed by means of certain formulas derived by that method. In this work we use the letter d for the operation of taking the
differential
and the symbol
-r- for
the operation of taking
the derivative with respect to
x.
Thus
d {u
-j-{u
-\- v)
= =
differential of {u-\-v),
-j-
v)
derivative of (m
+ v) with respect to x.
we proceed
as in
is
To
obtain the derivative with respect to x
finding the differential except that d
everywhere replaced
^^dx'
^^ 17.
I.
Formulas.
Let
and
c,
u, v,
be continuous functions of a
single variable x,
n constants.*
dc
0.
n.
in.
IV.
{u
+ v) = du + dv.
{cu)
d d
(vv)
= c du. = udv -\du
V du.
u dv
VI.
* It
exist
(m")
nw'*-^ du.
v,
is assumed that the functions w, continuous functions,
have derivatives.
There
"
= / (x),
19
20
18.
Chap.
III.
When
Proof of I. The differential of a constant is zero. a variable x takes an increment Ax, a constant does
Consequently, Ac
not vary.
dc
~r- == 0.
0,
Ac = ^
0,
and
in the limit
Clearing of fractions,
dc
dx
'
0.
19.
Proof
of-
n.
The
y
differential of the
sum
of a finite
number
Let
of functions is equal to the
sum
V.
of their differentials.
u-\-
When
to y
X takes an increment Ax, u will change to m Ay, and yioy -]- Ay. Consequently
y
Aw,
+ Ay = u-i- Au-i-v + Av.

Ay = Au
Subtraction of the two equations gives
+ Av,
Av
whence
Ay _ Au Ax ~ Ax
As A^ approaches
respectively.
zero,
Ax
^. ^,
_du
dx
dy
^^ approach
dv
|, |,
Therefore
dy dx
dx'
du-\- dv.
and so
By
I
the same method
we can prove
'
d(wyiy
= du^dv zLdw
Au Ax
audi that
I
does not approach a limit as Ax approaches zero.
Such a function has
no derivative DxU and
therefore
no
differential
du
Dzudx.
Chap.
20.
III.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
21
Proof of in.
is
The
y
differential of
a constant times a
function
function.
equal to the constant times the differential of the
Let
Then
and so
= cu. y + Ay = c (m + Ay = c Am, Ay Am Ai = 'Aizero,

-r-^
Am)
m +z\ij ^^x Ax) ^'j^ fC^^^^)-fC^l

--
H*J^^
^'^
(.
AV^^
/Yilî^M^
^^
As Ax approaches
Therefore
and
c -r-
approach 3^ and
ofif.
/.W,
c -t-
f^jc+Ax)-
^^c dx dx*
whence
dy
tiated
^^
A^^c'
^^
c du.
Fractions with a constant denominator should be differen-
by
this formula.
Thus
^(c)=^(^)=^'^^21.
Proof of IV.
The
first
differential of the product of
two
functions is equal to the
times the differential of the second

first.
plus the second times the differential of the
Let
Then
y = Ay = =
uv.
(m
+ Am)
-{-
(y
uv
Am
(m
+ Aw) + (m + Am) Ap.
Subtraction ^ves
Ay =
whence
Am + Am
,
+ Am) Ar,
,
Ay
Since m
Ap
is a continuous function, Am approaches zero as approaches zero. Therefore, in the limit,
Ax
dy dx
du,
dv
dx
dx'
22
and so
Chap.
III.
dy
In the same
V du-\-
dv.
way we can show that d (uvw) = uv dw -\- uw dv
+ vw du.
a fraction
is
22.
Proof of V. The
differential of
equal to
the denominator times the differential of ike numerator
minus
the numerator times the differential of the denominator ^ all
divided hy the square of the denominator.
Let
u
Then
and
u Ly =
V
+ Am + Ay
.
u
V
Am m Ay
V {v
-\-
Ay)
Dividing by Ax,
-r^
Am = Ax
Am
y-T
-,
1
Ax Ax Av)
V {v
-\-
M-r-
Ay
7-T"*
Since y is a continuous function of approaches zero. Therefore
x,
Av approaches zero as
dv
Ax
du
dy dx
_
V
dx
v^
dx
whence
,
dy
23.
du udv "
i
Proof of VI.
The
less,
differential of
a variable raised
to
constant power is equal to the product of the exponent, the variable

raised to a power one
and
the differential of the variable.
We consider three cases depending on whether the exponent

is
number. page 6J
a positive whole number, a positive fraction, or a negative For the case of irrational exponent, see Ex. 25,
Chap.
(1)
III.
AL^tEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
2^
w".
Let n be a positive, integer and y
Then
nin 1)
and
Ay =
nw"-
Am + ^
^^,
^^
W-^
(Am)^
Dividing by Au,
Aw
-r^
= nu"-^ H n
,
,
^
(n
1)
M"-2 (Am)
/*
+
,
As
Am
approaches zero, this approaches
dy
du
Consequently,
nM"~^
dy
(2)
nti"~^ du,
V ~
Let n be a positive fraction

y
TO
and y
u''= u^.
Then
M".
Since p and g are both positive integers, we can differentiate both sides of this equation by the formula just proved^
Therefore
gy~^ dy
pw^"* du.
p
y,
Solving for dy and substituting m' for
we
get
dy
^-
P-i
du
f"^
-
du
nM"~^ du.
qu
(3)
Let n be a negative number

y ^
m.
M"
Then
M"
M""*
Since
7?i
is
positive,
we can
by V,
find
d (u") by the formulas proved
above.
Therefore,
'
dy
= M"'d(l)
1 d(M'") = .,
mu'"-^du
^
=v-fnM~"*~âM
_, = nu'^^ du^
,
24
n
d
is
Chap.
III.
Therefore, whether
negative,
an integer or
fraction, positive or
(w")
nw"~^ du.
is
numerator of a fraction used instead of V. Thus

If the
constant, this formula can be
d{~\=
Example
1.
{cu~^)
cu~^ du.
Aa^.
Using formulas III and VI,
dy
Ad{x?)
a;2
dx
12
a:2
dx.
Ex.2, y
= Vx-\--^+3.
Vx
y
This can be written
x^
-}-
x~^
+ 3.
d
^
Consequently, by II and VI,
dy dx
^d (x^)
dx
1
d (x'h
^
(3)
dx
1
dx
-idx
dx
1
-sdx
2
1
dx^
2V^
Ex.
3.
2V^
h^,
y=(x + a)
=
(x^-b^).
Using IV, with u
+ a, v = x^
= =
Ex.^.y =
(x
3 x2
+ a) (2x-0) + (x2-62) + 2 ax 62.
(1+0)
^-^'
'
Chap.
III.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
25
Using V, with w
+ 1, y = x- 1, (x - 1) d (x2 + 1) - (x* 4- 1) d (x* dy = (X^ _ 1)2 (x^- l)2xdx- (x' + l)2xcte

=
a^
(x2
1)
1)2
4xdx
Ex.
5.
t/
Using VI, with w
= Vx2- 1. = x^
1,
= i(x-l)-i(2x) =
Ex.
Vx2-1
We
tion.
6. x^ xy y^ = 1. can consider y a function of x determined by the equa-
+
d
Then
(x2)
+ d (xy) - d (y') = d (1) = 0,

-^
that
is,
2 X dx Consequently,
-\- X dy {2x-\-y)dx
y dx
2 y dy
= 0,
0.
ix-2y)dy =
2y X
dy dx
Ex.7.
x
^ 2x + y
t-{-j,
= t--. =
In this case
dx
Consequently,
= dt-rp,
dy
dt-{--^*
dy dx
^ ^ f-hl 1
t^
Ex.
8.
Find an approximate value of y
=
(
when
26
0,
Cbap.
III.
When X =
y
,
1.
Also
dy
= 3
{I
2dx
- x)i
(1
+ x)^
When
If
this
becomes
dy
= I
dx.
in y
we assume that dy is approximately equal to Ay, the change when x changes from to 0.2 is approximately
dy
= -f
then
y
(0.2)
= =
-0.13.
The
required value
is
l-
0.13
.87.
EXERCISES
In the following exercises show that the differentials and derivatives
have the values given:
l/t^y = 3x*
4x^
6x^
+ 5,
di
12
{x^
+ x^ - x) dx.
^
4.
5.
?/
~ =
=
x3
x2
1
'
5
(x
+
(2
1
2 a) (x
a)2,
dy dx dy
^^
,
3 x^
2X
a) dx.
Z (x^
1/
1) (3
+ 2),
18 x^
2X
2.
-2xdx
rf
2X
+3
2x
(X
-22 (to
VÎTi-g
g'
'
^'
d dx
(X
- 2x _ - 1)2 -
d
1)'*
s''
^^'
ds
^'
= v^rrrî-
ax \x
14 ^ '
x^
Va^
x*
dxVx^+1
d't^ =
i^
+ l)Vx*-l
,
^^^7=-
16.
dx
= 2xi/^ ^xY ^ + 2x-^j/^. " "dx

.
16.
C2+3x)S = - :^ (2+3x<')Sdx. d^^^^
20
17.
d Vx^
r/^
xdxi-'ydu
W^FP^'
Chap.
III.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
27
18.
= (i+l)(2-3i)(2x-3)',
= (24 + 13x -36i) (2- 3z) (2x ^ ax
3).
19-
_ y(a
a:*
_ ^dy
(a
'
mcuf^~^
n.
+ fti")"
+ VTT70'^^
(x
+ 6x)+*
^^

(x
3z*
^+1
a*,
x4 Vx* + + vrr^)"-'
dx
-^r^n
+
ax
'
dj/
=2(i
v^l
+xO"(ic-
22.
X*
y*
24.
2x2-3xy +
y
4t/
3x,
dy dx
_ 4x - 3y ~ 3x -8y
0.
25.
+X =
?^
1,
'
ydx-xdy =
dx
"
26.
27.
1 y=-,
+
,
do
,
i/="
+ x*"*/" =
t
x**",
mydx =
nx dy.
28. 29.
x=^^, y=-^^^^ =
x=<-Vi2-l,
y = <+V<2-l,
2t
dy
0.
3a<
Z''
^
/
^ ~
X
^
3a<^
1 4- i''
dy dx
xdy + ydx=0. ^ 2t -t* ~ 1 - 2t^'
31.
Given y
find
an approximate value for y when
X =
4.2.
32.
Find an approximate value of

x^ \/l
when X =
33.
d(/
x + +x+
.3.
Given y
a^,
find
dy and
At/
when x changes from
3 to 3.1.
Is
a satisfactory approximation for Ay?
Express the difference as a
percentage of Ay. 34. Find the slope of the curve

at the point
J/
(x
31)^
1.
35.
inclined at
Find the points on the parabola y^ an angle of 45 to the x-axis.
4 ax where the tangent
is
28
.
Chap.
III.
36.
as X increases
37.
Given y = (a + a?) Va x, for what values of x does y increase and for what values does y decrease as x increases? Find the points P (x, y) on the curve
,1
where the tangent is perpendicular to the 38. Find the angle at which the circle
x2
line joining
to the origin.
2/2
= 2x-32/
z-a^
at
(x, 0)
intersects the x-axis at the origin.

39.
2,-axis
A line through
at
If
(0, y).
x'*
the point (1,2) cuts the
and the
Find
g0,
"^
why
is
--
^^
( X
-Ô
40.
+2=
^
the equation
not satisfied?
41.
The distances x, x' nected bv the equation
of a point
and
its
image from a lens are con-
x^x'
/'
/ being constant. If L is the length of a small object extending along the axis perpendicular to the lens and L' is the length of its image, show
that
L
from the
lens.
\x]
its
approximately, x and x' being the distances of the object and
image
24.
Higher Derivatives.
x.
The
first
derivative
-i^ is
function of
is
is,
Its derivative with respect to x,
wntten
x.
-r-^
called the second derivative of
y with respect to
That
dx^
Similarly,
dx \dx)
ty = ('^\
d3?
dx
W/
Chap.
III.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
29
The
/' (x),
derivatives of / (x) with respect to x are often written

(x),
/"
(x), etc.
Thus,
if
= / (x).
|=n.,g=r(x).
Example
1.
g=r'(x).etc.
x^.
Differentiation with respect to
x gives
S = #(6) =
All higher derivatives are zero.
0.
Ex.
2.
x2
+ xy + y^
1.
Differentiating with respect to x,
whence
dy
rfx
2x
X
+y +2y
The second
derivative
is
^J ^
dx^
_
its
+ y \ ^^Tx' ^y dx\x + 2y) (x + 2 y)^

(
2x
dy Replacing -^ by
cPy
value in terms of x and y and reducing,

(x2
dx2
(x
+ xy + y2) + 2y)3
i
(x
6 2y)'
The
last expression is x^
obtained by using the equation of the
curve
+ xy + y2
we
gy
differentiating
this
second
derivative
could find the third derivative, etc.
30
25.
Change
of
Chap. IH.
Variable.
We
have represented the
second derivative by
tient obtained
This can be regarded as the quodifferential
by dividing a second
d^y
= d
is
(dy)
by
(dxy.
The value
of d^y will
however depend on the

differentiated.
vari-
able with respect to which y
Thus, suppose y
d'y
If,
x"^,
t^.
Then -j^= ^ and

dx^
so
2 (dxY
2 (3
f2
dty
18
f^
{dt)\
t,
however, we differentiate with respect to
since y
i^,
g=30fând
d'y
30
t^
(dty,
which
For
is
not equal to the value obtained when we differen-
tiated y with respect to x.

this reason
we
shall
not use differentials of the second
or higher orders except in the numerators of derivatives.
Two
cases.
If
derivatives like
--t^
and
must
not be combined like

in the
fractions because cPy does not
have the same value

t
two
we have
derivatives with respect to
derivatives with respect to x, they can be found

identical relation
and wish to find by using the
du
d dx
_ du
dt
dt_
dt
,nK\
dx
dx
dt
For example,
<Py
d_ /dy\
d_
/dy\ di^^de_^
dx^
dx\dtj
dt\dt) dx
dt
Chap. IV.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
e.
31
approxima
velocity a
,
. ,
Given x
_.
^1 t
y ^
1 . c , dry t-\--:, find t dx^'

,
case
/
This
would A^ a rule
>.
.
dy dx
,,
^
,,
,
t^
t^-l
f
-\-l
dt
+ j.
dt
dt
^ luently,
dl'y
_ d (t^-\\
dx
\t^
At
(f
At
{p
1 1)'
.
,
4<
1
dx2
1/
1)2
dx
{^
+ If
EXERCISES
Find
1.
^
=
and
-r4,
in each of the followong exercises:
y
J/
6.
x^
+ y^ =
=
2
2/!
a^
2. 3.
y
j/!
4.
9.
= V^"ir^. = {x - ly (x = 4 X.
6.
x2
2)*.
7.
xy
x'
8.
= 1. +y. y' = a'.

2
If
a and 6 are constant and y

dx*
ax''
bx,
show that
ax
10.
If a, b, c,
d are constant and y

d*y dx^
ax^
-\-
bx^
+ ex + d, show that
11.
Show Show
that
d^ I
.d^
di\dt
12.
_ \_ ^l~
fPx
dfl'
that
dxVdx^
13.
14.
'^'^
dx^^^^'dx
?/
^y)
dx'
''dx*
Given
t^
t',
= f
<',
find
^ and ^
dj^
By
differentiating the equation
dx
with respect to
^
dy
x, find
j^
in terms of derivatives of
x with respect to
y.
Chap.
Vited
III.
the
CHAPTi^R IV
the quo-
RATES
26.
Rate
of
Change.
If
Az
If
the change in a qua'/

it
proportional to the time in which
occurs, z
is sai*-' /the
variin-
at a constant rate.
is
the change occurri

is
9/
terval of time A^, the rate of change of z
If
the rate of change of z

if
is
not constant,
it will
be nearly
constant
the interval At
is
very short.
Then -^
Az
is
ap-
proximately the rate of change, the approximation becoming greater as the increments become less. The exact rate of
change at the time
is
consequently defined as
At=o
= limff At |, at
is its derivative
(26)
that
is,
the rate of
change of any quantity

is
with
respect to the time.

If
if
the quantity
increasing, its rate of change

is
is
positive;
decreasing, the rate

27.
negative.
Velocity Along a Straight Line.
Let a particle
Let
s
move
along a straight line (Fig. 27).

8
,^
^^
As
= OP
be con-
p
Fig. 27.
sidered positive
on one side of 0, negative on the other. If the particle moves with constant velocity the distance As in
the time At,
its
velocity
is
As
At'
If
is
^
it will
the velocity
is
not constant,
be nearly so when At
very short.
Therefore
As
-rr is
approximately the velocity, the
32
Chap. IV.
RATES
less.
33
The
approximation becoming greater as A< becomes velocity at the time t is therefore defined as
This equation shows that ds
is
the distance the particle
would move
in
a time
dt
if
the velocity remained constant.
As a
time
rule the velocity will not
different
dt.
from the distance the

s is increasing,
be constant and so ds particle does move

is
will
be
in the
When
the velocity
is
positive;
when
s is
decreasing, the velocity
negative.
Example.
body
starting
from
rest falls
approximately
of 10 seconds.
s=mf
feet in
Find its velocity at the end any time t is The velocity at

t
seconds.
=
y
= 32 ^ dt
it is
ft./sec.*
At the end
28.
of 10 seconds
320
ft./sec.
Acceleration Along a Straight Line.
The accelerais
tion of a particle
moving along a
its velocity.
straight line
defined as
the rate of change of
That
is
in the
This equation shows that dv is the amount v would increase time dt if the acceleration remained constant.
The
acceleration
is
positive v/hen the velocity
is
increasing,
negative
when it is decreasing. Example. At the end of t seconds the vertical height ball thrown upward with a velocity of 100 ft./sec. is
/i
of
100
<
16 ^.
Find
rising,
*
its
velocity
when
falling,
and acceleration. Also find when it is and when it reaches the highest point.
means
feet per second.
The notation
ft./sec.
Similarly, ft./sec.*,
used for acceleration, means feet per second per second.
34
The
velocity
and acceleration are
v
Chap. IV.
= =
j^
(100
32
t)
ft./sec,
^= -32ft./sec.2. at
is
The
ball will
be rising while v be
<
positive, that
^
is,
until
-^ =
29.
3i.
It will
falling after
3^.
It will
be at the
highest point
when
3|.
Angular Velocity and Acceleration. Consider a body rotating about a fixed axis. Let 6 be the angle turned through at time t. The angular veloc-p ity is defined as the rate of change of
6,
that
is,
angular velocity
Fig. 29.
=w=
is
-r-
at
The angular
,
acceleration
the rate
of
change of angular velocity, that

angular acceleration
Exam-pie
1.
is,
IX-
- = cPd -. = = do}
at
dt^
wheel is turning 100 revolutions per minute about its axis. Find its angular velocity. The angle turned through in one minute will be
CO
100
TT
200 IT radians/min.
Ex.
2.
v^^heel,
starting
(or
constant
moment
from rest under the action of a tv/ist) about its axis, will turn in t
e
seconds through an angle
kt^,
h being constant. at time t.
Find
its
angular velocity and acceleration
By
definition
w = 37 = 2
dt
/e/
rad./sec,
a =
-TT
= 2k rad./sec.'.
'
ai
Chap. IV.
30.
RATES
35
Related Rates.
This
In many cases the rates of change

is
of certain variables are
be calculated.
known and the rates of others are to done by expressing the quantities
in
whose
rates are
wanted
terms of those whose rates are

ft,
known and taking the derivatives with respect to t. Example 1. The radius of a cylinder is increasing 2
and
its
/sec.
altitude decreasing 3 ft./sec.
Find the rate of change
of its volume.
Let
be the radius and h the altitude.

V
Then
irr^h.
t
The
derivative with respect to
is
dv
_ d^
u^'"'
By
hypothesis
dr
'^~^'
dh
_ dt~
'^'
Hence
=4 $ at
This
h.
is
Trr/i
7rr2.
the rate of increase
when the
ft.,
radius
is
and altitude
If r
10
ft.
and
at
/i
-77=
60 T cu.
ft./sec.
Ex. 2. A ship B sailing south at 16 miles per hour is northwest of a ship A sailing east at 10 miles per hour. At what rate are the ships approaching? Let X and y be the distances of the ships A and B from the point where their paths cross. The distance between the
ships
is
then
s
= Vx2 +
dx
y\
This distance
is
changing at the rate
dy
ds
dt
J^di'^^'dU Vx2 + w2
36
hypothesis,
Chap. IV.
By
*= 1=10 at at
Therefore
-16,
^= ^^ + +
=
Vx^
?/2
cos45
Vx^
2/2
^. v2
ds
dt
10
16
V2
-3V2 mi./hr.
s is decreasing,
The
negative sign shows that
that
is,
the
ships are approaching.
EXERCISES
1.
From
the roof of a house 50

of 100
ft.
ft.
above the
street a ball is
upward with a speed

t
per second.
Its height
thrown above the ground
seconds later will be

h
= 50+
loot
U
=
fi.
Find
2.
its
velocity
and acceleration when

is
2.
How
long df^3s
it
con-
tinue to rise?
What
the highest point reached?
A
its
body moves
in
a straight
s
line according to the
law
/<
^3
16
^2.
Find
During what interval is the velocity moving backward? 3. If V is the velocity and a the acceleration of a particle moving along the a:-axis, show that
velocity
acceleration.
and
decreasing?
When
is it
adx =
4. If
V dv.
a particle moves along a

v^
line
with the velocity
gs,
where g
5.
is
constant and
is
the distance from a fixed point in the
line,
show
with
that the acceleration
constant.
When a
particle
center at the origin,
its
moves with constant speed around a shadow on the a;-axi3 moves with
1,2
circle
velocity v
satisfying the equation

4- n^x^
= nVS
shadow
is
n and
being constant.
its
Show
that the acceleration of the
proportional to
distance from the origin.
What is its 6. A wheel is turning 500 revolutions per minute. angular velocity? If the wheel is 4 ft. in diameter, with what speed does
it
drive a belt?
Chap. IV.
7.
RATES
37
friction
rotating wheel is brought to rest by a brake. Assuming the between brake and wheel to be constant, the angle turned through in a time t will be
=
a, b, c
+ bt cP, +
Find the angular velocity and acceleration. wheel come to rest? 8. A wheel revolves according to the law w = 30 / ^, where b the speed in radians per minute and t the time since the wheel startedA second wheel turns according to the law 6 = iC*, where / is the time in seconds and the angle in degrees through which it has turned. Which wheel is turning faster at the end of one minute and how much? If r is the velocity and a 9. A wheel of radius r rolls along a line. the acceleration ot its center, a> the angular velocity and a the angular acceleration about its axis, show that
being constants.
When
will the
roj,
Ta.
is
10.
The depth
1
of water in a cylindrical tank, 6 feet in diameter,
increasing
foot per minute.
Find the rate at which the water
is
flow-
ing
in.
ripples.
pond sends out a series of concentric the radius of the outer ripple increases steadily at the rate of 6 ft. /sec., how rapidly is the area of disturbed water increasing at
11.
stone dropped into a

If
the end of 2 seconds?

12.
At a
certain instant the altitude of a cone

ft.
is
ft.
of its base 3
its
If
the altitude
1 ft. /sec.,
is
increasing 2
fast is the
ft. /sec.
and the radiiis and the radius of
base decreasing
how
volume increasing or de-
creasing?
13. The top of a ladder 20 feet long sUdes down a vertical wall. Find the ratio of the speeds of the top and bottom when the ladder makes an angle of 30 degrees with the ground.
The cross section of a trough 10 ft. long is an equilateral triangle. water flows in at the rate of 10 cu. ft. /sec., find the rate at which the depth is increasing when the water is 18 inches deep.
14.
If
15.
A man 6 feet tall walks at the rate of 5 feet per second away from
feet
a lamp 10
find the rate at
from the groimd. When he is 20 feet from the lamp post, which the end of his shadow is moving and the rate at
which
16.
shadow is growing. boat moving 8 miles per hour is laying a cable. Assumin g that the water is 1000 ft. deep, the cable is attached to the bottom and stretches in a straight line to the stem of the boat, at what rate is the
his
when 2000 ft. have been paid out? Sand when poured from a height on a level siurface forms a cone with constant angle /3 at the vertex, depending on the material. If the
cable leaving the boat
17.
38
sand
18.
is
poured at the rate of
c cu. ft. /sec, at
Chap. [V.
is
what
rate
the radius in-
creasing
/On oneTwo
/
when
it
equals a?
straight railway tracks intersect at an angle of 60 degrees. a train is 8 miles from the junction and moving toward it at the rate of 40 miles per hour. On the other a train is 12 miles from the junction and moving from it at the rate of 10 miles per hour. Find the rate at which the trains are approaching or separating. 'K-C/t^tA-^ 19. An elevated car nmning at a constant elevation of 50 ft. above the street passes over a surface car, the tracks crossing at right angles. If the speed of the elevated car is 16 miles per hour and that of the sur-
face car 8 miles, at what rate are the cars separating 10 seconds after they meet? ^7 f ? ; i_^ 20. The rays of the sun make an angle of 30 degrees with the horizontal. A ball drops from a height of 64 feet. How fast is its shadow moving just before the ball hits the ground?
'
CHAPTER V
MAXIMA AND MINIMA

if
have a maximum at x = a, any other value in the immediate neighborhood of a. It has a minimum if when X = a the function is less than for any other value of x
31.
function of
a;
is
said to
is
when x = a the function
greater than for
sufficiently
If
near
a.
by y and plot the curve y = / (^)> ^ maximum occurs at the top, a minimum at the bottom of a wave.
represent the function
If
is
we
the derivative
zero.
is
continuous, as in Fig. 31a, the tangent
horizontal at the highest

is
and lowest points
the slope
Hence
in determining
of a wave and maxima and minima
of a function
(x)
we
first
look for values of x such that
d /(x)=/'(x)=0. dx
If
is
a root of
this equation,
(a)
may
be a maximum, a
minimum,
or neither.
Fig. 31a.
If the slope is positive
on the
right, as at
is
on the left of the point and negative A, the curve falls on both sides and the
ordinate
a maximum.
That
39
is,
/ (x) has a maximum
value
40
atx
live
DIFFERENTIAL CALCTijUS
Chap. V.
a,
iff
(x) is positive for values >f

little
xa little less and nego/-
for values a
greater than a.
left
and positive on the right, and the ordinate is a as at B, the curve rises minimum at x = a, if f (x) is minimum. That is, / (x) has a positive negative for values of x a little less and for values a little
If
the slope
is
negative on the
on both
sides
greater than a.
If
the slope has the same sign on both sides, as at C, the

rises
curve
on one
side
and
falls
on the other and the ordinate
is neither a maximum neither a maximum nor
nor a minimum.
That
is,
(re)
has
a minimum at x same sign on both sides of a. Example 1. The sum of two numbers is
value of their product.
x.
is
=
5.
if
(x)
has the
Find the maxiis
mum
Let one of the numbers be
The other
then 5
x.
The value
product
of x
to be found such that the
y
is
(5
x)
5 X
x^
is
maximum.
The
derivative
= 5-20:. ^ ax
This
,
is
zero
when x =
|.
If
is less
than
If x is greater f the derivative is positive. than f the derivative is negative. Near
X
re
= =
^ the graph then has the shape f the function has

its
shown
in Fig. 31b.
At
greatest value
f (5
f)
= \^
of tin.
h.
Ex.
its
2.
Find the shape of the pint cup which requires for
construction the least
amount
Let the radius of base be r and the depth tin used is A=rr^ 2 rrh.
The
area of
Let
be the number of cubic inches in a pint.

V
Then
= n^h.
Chap.
MAXIMA AND MINIMA

h
A
41
Consequently,
=
irr
2
.
and
Since
2f
r
r and
v are constants,
dA
dr
= =
27rr
-7^=K^>
there
is
This
it
is
zero
if irr^
v.
If
maximum
or
minimum
must then occur when

r
v/-;
for, if r
has any other value, -j-
dA
will
have the same sign on
both sides of that value and A will be neither a maximum nor a minimum. Since the amount of tin used cannot be zero there must be a least amount. This must then be the value
of
A when
=
h.
irr^.
Also
rr^h.
We
therefore conclude
that r
The cup
its
requiring the
least tin
thus has a depth equal to

base.
the radius of
The strength of a rectangular beam is proportional to the product of its width by the
Ex.
3.
square
of
its
depth.
Find the
in
Fig. 31c.
strongest
beam
that can be cut
from a circular log 24 inches

diameter.
In Fig. 31c
of of
shown a section the log and beam. Let x be the breadth and y the depth the beam. Then
is
X2
J/2
(24)2.
The
strength of the
beam
kxy^
is
S=
kx
(242
3.2)^
42
The dS
dx
derivative of
*S is
Chap. V.
k being constant.
k (242
x2).
If this is zero,
= 8 V3.
a:
Since x
is
the breadth of the
beam,
it
cannot be negative.
Hence
8 a/3
is
the only solution.
Since the log cannot be infinitely strong,
there
must be a strongest beam.
Since no other value can
give either a
maximum
or a
the width of the strongest

is
minimum, a; = 8 Vs must be beam. The corresponding depth
y = 8 Vq. Ex. 4. Find the dimensions of the largest right circular cylinder inscribed in a given right circular cone.
Let
be the radius and h the altitude of the cone. Let X be the radius and y the altitude of an inscribed cylinder (Fig. 31d). From
the similar triangles
DEC and ABC,

EC
y
'
DEÂB
EC
that
is.
y
r
^h^
X
r
(r
x).
The volume
Fig. 31d.
of the cylinder
irx^y
is
(rx^
X?).
Equating
its
derivative to zero,
we
a;2
get
0.
2 rx
Hence x =
not give the
or x
The value x =
Since there
I
r. is
obviously does
its
is
maximum,
?/
a largest cylinder,
its
radius must then be x
By
substitution
altitude
then found to be
32.
= \h.
Finding
Method
of
Maxima and Minima.
The
method used
steps:
in solving these
problems involves the following
Chap. V.
(1)
it
MAXIMA AND MINIMA

is
43
Let
Decide what
y.
to be
a maximum or minimum.
be
(2)
Express y in terms of a single variable. Let it be x. be convenient to express y temporarily in terms of If the problem can be solved by several variable quantities.
It
may
our present methods, there will be relations enough to eliminate all but one of these.
(3)
Calculate -^ and find for what values of x
dv
it is
zero.
(4) It is usually easy to decide from the problem itself whether the corresponding values of y are maxima or minima. du If not, determine the signs of -j^ when x is a little less and
ax
little
greater than the values in question
and apply the
criteria given in Art.
3L
EXERCISES
Find the maximum and minimum values

1.
of the following functions:
2 x
6
5X
+ 7.
3.
X*
-2x^
X*
6.
\/2.
12i -i.
A.
=='
V a*
maxima
or minima:
Show
6.
\/
that the following functions have no

7.
x.
6x5
15 X*
10x3.
6.
9.
x'
4 X. that x A
8.
X Va
+ x*.
that the
Show
has a
maximum and a minimum and

and the
reciprocal of
maximum
10.
is less
than the minimum.
The sum
of the square
a number
is
a miniis
mum.
11.
Find the number.
Show
that the largest rectangle with a given perimeter
square.
?/
12.
Show that
circle is
,
13.
the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in a given a square. Find the altitude of the largest cylinder that can be inscribed in
of radius a.
a sphere
,
^
"
14.
rectangular box with square base and open at the top

of a given
made out
amount
of material.
thickness of material or waste in

of the largest
is to be no allowance is made for construction, what are the dimensions
If
box that can/be made?
44
;
Chap. V.
both ends is to have a given that the amount of tin used will be a minimum when the height equals the diameter.
,16.
cylindrical tin can closed at
capacity.
Show
16.
What are the most economical proportions for an open

if
cylindrical
water tank
of the
17.
the cost of the sides per square foot
is
two-thirds the cost
bottom per square foot? The top, bottom, and lateral surface of a closed tin can are to be cut from rectangles of tin, the scraps being a total loss. Find the most economical proportions for a can of given capacity. 18. Find the volume of the largest right cone that can be generated by revolving a right triangle of hypotenuse 2 ft. about one of its sides. 19. Four successive measurements of a distance gave Ci, 02, as, cu as results. By the theory of least squares the most probable value of the distance is that which makes the sum of the squares of the four errors a minimum. What is that value? 20. If the sum of the length and girth of a parcel post package must
not exceed 72 inches, find the dimensions of the largest cylindrical jug that can be sent by parcel post.
21.
circular filter paper of radius 6 inches
is
to be folded into a
filter if it
conical
filter.
Find the radius of the base of the

intensity of light
is
has the
maximum
22.
capacity.
inversely proportional to
Assuming that the
the square of the distance from the source, find the point on the line
two sources, one of wliich is twice as intense as the other, at which the illumination is a minimum. 23. The sides of a trough of triangular section are planks 12 inches wide. Find the width at the top if the trough has the maximum
joining
capacity.
24.
A fence
6 feet high runs parallel to
and 5
feet
from a
wall.
Find
the shortest ladder that will reach from the ground over the fence to
the wall.
A log has the form of a frustum of a cone 29 ft. long, the diameters ends being 2 ft. and 1 ft. \ beam of square section is to be cut from the log. Find its length if the volume of the beam is a maximum. 26. A window has the form of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircle. If the perimeter is 30 ft;, find the dimensions so that the greatest amount of fight may be admitted. 27. A piece of wire 6 ft. long is to be cut into 6 pieces, two of one length and four of another. The two former are bent into circles which are held in parallel planes and fastened together by the four remaining pieces. The whole forms e, model of a right cylinder. Calculate the lengths into which the wire must be divided to produce the cylinder of
26.
of its
greatest volutue.
Chap. V.
MAXIMA AND MINIMA
45
28. Among all circular sectors with a given perimeter, find the one which has the greatest area. IS B sails west at 12 29. A ship B is 75 miles due east of a ship A. miles per hour and A south at 9 miles, find when the ships will be closest
together.
30. A man on one side of a river J mile wide wishes to reach a point on the opposite side 5 miles further along the bank. If he can walk 4 miles an hour and swim 2 miles an hour, find the route he should take
to
make
81.
the trip in the least time.

line
Find the length of the shortest
which
will divide
an equitri-
lateral triangle into parts of equal area.

32.
A
is
triangle is inscribed in
an oval curve.
If
the area of the
angle
33.
maximum, show
graphically that the tangents at the vertices
of the triangle are parallel to the opposite sides.
light passes
and C are points on the same side of a plane mirror. A ray of from A to C by way of a point B on the mirror. Show that the length of the path ABC will be a minimum when the lines AB;
CB make
34.
equal angles with the perpendicular to the mirror.
The path of t'l and in water ij. Ught from a point A in the air to a point C below the surface of the water is bent at B where it enters the water. If di and fit are the angles made by AB and BC with the perpendicular to the surface, show that the time required for light to pass from A to C \st11 be least if is so
Let the velocity of Ught in air be
a
raj' of
placed that
singi
sin di
35.
Vi
Vi
hour of propelling a steamer is proportional to the cube of her speed through the water. Find the speed at which a boat should be run against a current of 5 miles per hour in order to make a
cost per
The
given trip at least cost.

36.
If
the cost per hour for fuel required to run a steamer
is
propor-
tional to the cube of her speed
and
ical
if
and is S20 per hour for a speed of 10. knots, the other expenses amount to $ ICO per hour, find the most econonastill
speed in
water.
33.
other Types
is
of
Maxima and Minima.

determine
The method
and continu-
given in Art. 31
if
sufficient to
its
maxima and minima
the function and
derivative are one-valued
ous.
In Figs. 33a and 33b are shown some tj'pes of

conditions.
is
maxima
and minima that do not satisfy these Ât B and C, Fig. 33a, the tangent
vertical
and the de-
46
The
derivative
is
Chap. V.
that on the right.
discontinuous.
At
and
This happens in problems where values beyond a certain range are impossible. According to
the curve ends.
Fig. 33a.
our definition, y has
maxima &t A, B, D and minima at C and E. If more than one value of the function corresponds to a
single value of the variable, points like
A and
occur.
B, Fig. 33b,
of y coincide.
may
At such points two values
These figures show

that in determining max-
ima and minima special attention must be given

to places where the deFiG. 33b.
rivative
is
discontinuous,
the function ceases to exist, or two values of the function

coincide.
Example 1. Find the maximum and minimum ordinates on the curve y* = a^.
In this case, y
x^ and
dx
3^
No
finite
value of x makes' the derivative zero, but x
Chap. V.
MAXIMA AND MINIMA

is
47
is
makes it infinite. Since y mipitrmm (Fig. 33c).
never negative, the value
Ex.
2.
A man on
make
qne side of a river ^ mile wide wishes to
reach a point on the opposite side 2 miles down the river. If he can row 6 miles an hour and walk 4, find the route he
should take to
the trip in the least time.
Fig. 33d.
Let
tion.
(Fig. 33d) be the starting point and B the destinaSuppose he rows to C, x miles down the river. The
time of rowing will be ^ VxM-~l and the time of walking i (2 x). The total time is then
t
V^Ti + i (2 - x).
zero,
Equating the derivative to

6\/z*
we
4
get
+i
=
0.
which reduces to 5
x*
This has no real solution.
48
trouble
is
Chap. V.
The
if
that J (2
x) is the time of walking only

is
above B. If C is below B, the time The complete value for t is then

is
\{x
2).
the sign being
if
<
2 and
if
>
2.
The graph
of
the equation connecting x and
is
shown
in Fig. 33e.
At
X = 2 the derivative is discontinuous. Since he rows faster than he walks, the minimum obviously occurs when he rows all the way, that is, x = 2.
EXERCISES
Find the
1.-
maximum and minimum
values of y on the following curves:

3.
x' 4- y'
=
(a;
o'.
\J
y*
a:*
1.
2.
6.
^ =
x*
1).
Find the rectangle of least Find the point on the parabola j/^ = 4x nearest the point (-1,0). 7. A wire of length I is cut into two pieces, one of which is bent to form a circle, the other a square. Find the lengths of the pieces when the sum of the areas of the square and circle is greatest. 8. Find a point P on the line segment AB such that PA^ + PB^ is
6.
X = l^ + i\ y = (^ - i*. area having a given perimeter.

4.
a maximum. 9. If the work per hour of moving a car along a horizontal track is proportional to the square of the velocity, what is the least work required to move the car one mile? 10. If 120 cells of electromotive force E volts and internal resistance 2 ohms are arranged in parallel rows with x cells in series in each row, the current which the resulting battery will send through an external
resistance of \
ohm
is
^
^
60xE
x*
+ 20*
maximum
How many
current?
cells
should be placed in each row to give the
CHAPTER
VI
DIFFERENTIATION OF TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

34.
tions.
Let u be the circular measure of an angle.

w <2 cos u d tan u d cot M d sec u d CSC M
d
sin
.
Formulas
for Differentiating Trigonometric
Func-
Vn.
Vin.
IX.
X.
XI.
Xn.
= cos ti du. 4^1]d^ = cosv CK^ = smwdu. dci^ -^r*^-/ = sec"* u du. j +'^ d^c '^ = CSC** It rfu. <*^= sec u tan u di/! ^4^^ ^^^ >= ^" ^ = CSC u cot M da. cU^l^^ - -cos^Ci'^^
,
"^
The negative
functions.
35.
sign occurs in the differentials of
all
co-
The Sine
of
a Small Angle.
Inspection of a table
of natural sines will
show that
is
the sine of a small angle ure of the angle.

sin
l**
very
nearly equal to the circular meas-
Thus
0.017452,
=
=
r
180
0.017453.
We
should then expect that

sin -= hm
,.
1.
(35)
Fig. 35.
To show
is
this graphically, let 9
= AOP
(Fig. 35).
Draw
PM p)erpendicular to OA.
defined
The
arc
rad.
circular
measure
of the angle
by the equation
6
arc
AP
OP
49
c
60
Also sin 6
,,
.
^
Chap. VI.
MP
jyp
.
Hence
sing^
d
MP
arc
chord
arc
AP
QP QP
As
6 approaches zero, the ratio of the arc to the chord ap*

1 (Art. 53).
proaches
36.
Therefore the limit of
is 1.
Proof of VII, the Differential of the Sine.

J/
Let
fcj--5n3^
'
sin w. sin (w
Then
and so
J/
+ Ay =
sin (w
+ Aw)
sin w.
3(^^ 3
Ay =
It
is
Aw)
shown
in trigonometry that
sin
If then
A w
sin
5 =
2 cos (^
+ ^) sin ^ {A -
B),
A =
+ Aw, B = u,
Ay = 2 cos (w + Aw) sin \ Aw, ^ ^**'^ -^^1^^%^^)^^ ii^^j^
4-
^
whence ^''" ^
^=
2 cos
^ +4 Aw)
j"2u
=1^0^ tw
+% Aw) ^^1^
*^(
As Aw approaches zero
sin I Aw _ ~^5Au~~
sing
B
approaches
fore
and cos (w
+ i Aw)
aw
dy 3^
approaches cos w.
There-
cos w.
Ck)nsequently,
*^L
dy
cos
" ^^ w dw.
-^
37.
Proof of
Vm,
the Differential of the Cosine.
By
,
trigonometry
cos
w = sinf^
wj-
Chap. VI.
22.
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS
53
Find the points on the curve y = x + sin 2 x where the tangent S. the line y = 2 x If 23. A weight supported by a spring hangs at rest at the origin. the weight is lifted a distance A and let fall, its height at any subsequent time ( will be y = A cos (2 mt),
is parallerfto
n being
origin.
constant.
Find
its
velocity
and acceleration as
it
passes the
WTiere
is
the velocity greatest?
Where
is
the acceleration
greatest?
24.
revolving light 5 miles from a straight shore makes one
com-
Find the velocity along the shore of the beam of light when it makes an angle of 60 degrees with the shore line._ 3/ 26. In Ex. 24 with what velocity would the light be rotating if the spot of light is moving along the shore 15 miles per hour when the beam makes with the shore line an angle of 60 degrees? 26. Given that two sides and the included angle of a triangle have at a certain instant the values 6 ft., 10 ft., and 30 degrees resf)ectiv6ly, and Gcoa
plete revolution per minute.
that these quantities are changing at the rates of-S
ft.,
degrees per second,

27.
how
fasf is the area of the/triangle
2 it., and 10 ch^ging?
OA
is
a crank and
line
moving along a
which the
28.
line
AB a connecting nxi attached to a piston B with angular through 0. If OA re*x>l\W about

is
velocity w, prove that thp velocity of fi
wOC/where C
is
the point in
BA
cuts/he
line
through
perpendicular to OB.
ft. wide, mitved horixontally along the
An
is
alley 8 ft
rims
dicubir to a street 27
/What
29.
the longest êam that
street into the alley?
A needle rest^'ith one end
needle will sink to a p>osition in

If
hich tpe center
the length of themêdle eq

30.
a smAOth hemispherical bowl. The is as low as possible. meter of the bowl, what will be
the position of equmbrium?
A rope with a ring at o

and held taut
horizontal line
is looped over two pegs in the same weight fastened to the free end. If
the rope slips freely, tUe wei the angle formed at th^ bott*
descend as far as
of the loop.
f>ossible.
Find
31. Find the angle at the bottom of the loop in Ex. 30 if the rope is looped over a circular pulley instead of the two pegs. 32. A gutter is to b^ made by bending into shape a strip of copper so that the cross section slâll be an arc of a circle. If the width of the strip
is a,
find the radius of the cross section
when
the carrying capacity
is
maximum.
33.
A spoke
pendicular to one in the rear wheel.

an
what
is at a certain instant perthe bicycle rolls straight ahead, position will the outer ends of the two ^x)kes be closest together?
in the front
wheel of a bicycle
If
64
39.
sin~*
Inverse
is
Chap. VI.
Trigonometric
Functions.
The
is x.
symbol
used to represent the angle whose sine
Thus
y
tan~^ x, cot~*
sin~^ X,
sin
are equivalent equations.

x, sec~^ x,
Similar definitions apply to cos~^ x

csc~^ x.
and
by mulan indefinite number of angles are represented by the same symbol sin~^ x. The algebraic sign of the derivative depends on the angle differentiated. In the formulas given below it is assumed that sin-i u and csc~^ u are angles in the first or fourth quadrant, cos~^ u and sec"^ u angles in the first or second quadrant.
tiples of
Since supplementary angles and those differing
7r
have the same
sine,
If angles in other
sign
must be
all
used.
quadrants are differentiated, the opposite The formulas for tan~^ u and cot~^ u
are valid in
quadrants.
for Differentiating Inverse Trigonometric
40.
Formulas
Functions.
Xm.
XIV.
dsin-û =
d cos-û = d tan-* u =
d
cot-*
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
41.
u = -
dsec-û =
dcsc-'u =
fl'
d[a>^^^.-_l-^
Proof of the Formulas.

y
Let
=
= =
sin~* u.
u.
Then
sin y
Differentiation gives
cos y dy
du,

Chap. VI.
'
55
whence
dy
du cosy
y
But
cosy
If
2/
=fc
Vl -
sin*
zfc
Vl -
u.
is
an angle
in the first or fourth quadrant, cos
is
positive.
Hence
cos y
= Vl
=
du
,
u*
and so
,
dy
The other formulas are proved
in
a similar way.
EXERCISES
\J
L
2.
= Bin-'(3x-l),
dy
Zdx
v6x =
rfx
9i
y=coe-(l-?).
dy
V2ax-x*
_ -2
x
dy
dx
5.
+ l'
1
8ec-
1
V4 1 +
3
1,
(4
ft
1)
1
Vi
-.
dy
<^
V2 + 2x-4x
3?
7.
y
X
=
= = = = = =
tan-i'
+a
^
dx~
d9
+a*'
^
8.
csc~i (sec 6),
s/.9.
y y
y y y
rsec"
^^
<**
Vtf -x
1
(o
- x)
1
^
Va
- 2 1*
10.
Vl -I*
4
dy dx
Vl -z
Va-x.
4
5
11.
<
V^^^ + ^'Bin--, ^ =
I i -I tan-i r- 3 5 cosx
sin
12.
dx
+ 3cosx
2
13.
S<
2x-l'
^=
56
\/l4. y "
16.
Chap.VL
- a8in-5+ V^rr^,
o
'
- V^^. ^ ^ a dx X
-{
2 (3 X
1)*
+ 4 cot-i ^^^-^,
16.
17.
1ft
rfy^ i dx (3x + l)* + 4(3x4-l)** dy 1 -x" 1 3x _, I/-gtan 2 dx 4x* + 17x2+4' + 2x' 2x X + 1 _,x + 1 2 dy = _, s =L' = cos :^co8 ^5 j^ dx 2 V3 (3_a;)V3-2x-x
'
3-x
"
19
I.
^~
y
_ ^x' 2a^x
,
g*
_jX 1_ 2a^'' o'

^ 2
x^,
1
dy dx
^Z <te
-â
v^TTT^j*
tan-i
,x
+ Vi2 + 4x-4
'Î/. -
xVx2+4x-4
^
,
20.
y
y
= X sin-i x + Vl =
x2 sec-i
8
^ = Vl -x'
dx2
21.
I Z
2 Vx^^Tl^
= 2xsec-i|^ uX
i2
22.
x2
Let
he the arc from the x-axis to the point
(x, y)
on the
circle
+ y2 =
a*.
Show
that
*
V
23.
= -?,
|.|,
*. = ^.
+ .^.
+ y" =
o*,
Let
and the
vertical line
be the area bounded by the circle x* through (x, y). Show that
the y-axis
A =
24.
xy
+ a^ tan~* -
dA = 2ydx.
il
a string wound on a pulley moves with velocity v Find the angular velocity with which the pulley turns. 25. A tablet 8 ft. high is placed on a wall with its base 20 ft. above the level of an observer's eye. How far from the wall should the observer stand that the angle of vision subtended by the tablet be a maximum?
of
The end
along a line perpendicular to the axis of the pulley.
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions. If a is a positive constant and u a variable, a" is called an exponential
42.
function.
If
is
a fraction,
it is
understood that o"
is
the
positive root.
If
a",
then
u
y
is
called the logarithm of

a", r
i/
to base
a.
That
is,
?'
'
logaV
"
*.
.^^^SCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS
equations
57
are
by
definition equivalent
Elimination of u
gives the important identity

aio.v
= y.
(42b)
This expresses symbolically that the logarithm is the power to which the base must be raised to equal the number. Let a be greater than 1. 43. The Curves y = a".
The graph
of
a'
If
has the general appearance of Fig. 43. increment h, the increment in y

is
X receives a small
At/
0*+*
a' =
a'
(a''
1).
This increases as x increases. If then X increases by successive amounts h, the increments in y
form steps
of increasing height.
The curve
is
thus concave
lies
upward
and the arc

ing
below its chord. The slope of the chord AP join-
(0, 1)
and
a'
P (x, y) \
is
As Pi moves toward A the slope As P2 moves toward of APx increases.

decreases.
Fig. 43.
the slope of
Furthermore the slopes of AP2 and
APj APi approach
equality; for
and a~* approaches
when k approaches
zero.
Now
if
two
numbers, one always increasing, the other always decreasing, approach equality, they approach a common limit. Call
this limit
m.
Then
lim^^ = m.
(43)
bb
This
44.
is
DIFFERENTUL CALCUI.Ao jpp.

the slope of the curve
2/
m^^^^Wii^-^where
is
it
a* at the point
crosses the ^/-axis.
Definition of
e such that
e.
We
lim
shall
now show
-
that there
number
^-^
(44)
In
fact, let
where
m
e*
is
the slope found in Art. 43.
Then
,.
hm
x=o
a:
,.
o*"
lim
1^0
1 a*" = hm
,.
x_
1 =
xô
= m m
1.
m
The curves y = a' all pass through the point A (0, 1). Equation (44) expresses that when a = e the slope of the curve at A is 1. If a > e the slope is greater than 1. If a < e, the slope is less than 1
a>e,
/
^/a<e
i
I
:::SS5^
We
shall find later that e
A I/-'-'
X-
Fia. 44.
2.7183
e
approximately.
logarithms.
Logarithms to base
are called natural

log-
In this book we arithms by the abbreviation In. logarithm of u.
shall represent natural
Thus
In
u means the natural
Chap. VI.
45.
tions.
59
Differentials of Exponential
and Logarithmic Func-*--L
XIX.
XX.
= da" =
de~
c- dw.
e=
4 -L-(L?
a" In
a du.
U.
XXL
d\nu = ^-^}i^'Jk
cJe^.e""
46.
Proof of XIX, the Differential of e".
Let
Then
whence
^
Ay =
e+^
e" (e^"
di<2^ ^
1)
yy^^
land
ZHT
Au
As Au approaches
zero,
Au
by
(44),
C
1
e^"
Au
approaches
1.
Consequently, 3^
e",
dy
e" dw.
47.
Proof of XX, the Differential of a".

a
The identity
e'"
gives
a"
=
=
e"*"".
Consequently,
da"
48.
e"
"
d (w In
a)
e"
"
In
a dw
a" Ina du.
arithm.
Proof of Let
XXI and XXII,

y
the Differential of a Log-
Then
Differentiating,
e"
= =
Inw.
u.
^ dy =
du.
60
Therefore
du du
Chap. VI.
The
derivative of loga
1.
is
found in a similar way.
Example
d
^
Ex.
2.
Iri
(sec^ x).
sec^
sec^
X X
2 sec x (sec x tan x dx) sec^ X
2 tan X dx.
2*^'^"'^
2tan-iiin2da;
dy
2^"""' In
2d
(tan-^ x)
T+l^
X*
EXERCISES
I.
2/
=
=
ea;,
dx
\/
2.
a*^'^^*^
=
dx
a**'' ^
"^
In
sec*
a;.
z-l
3.
2/
e=^+S
dy dx
dx
2
(x
1)2
dy_(
Ve*
^
\j
5.
1/
=
=
x"
+ n*,
+ e-^/ = wx*~^ + dx
dy dx
Y
In n.
n''
e.
a'sf,
= a='x-Mo + ^ dx
a;lno).
7.
y
2/
=
=
In (3 x2
+ 5X +
6x4-5
3x2
1),
+ 5x + l
X.
8.
In sec* x,
= 2 tan ^ dx
Va;2
9.
y y
=
= = =
In (x
a?),
dy dx
-^ dx
Vx*
L_ o*
^10.
In (sec
ax
+ tan ax),
ax a sec ax.
II. y
',
In (o*
+ &*),
X
_aMno+_b^4n6
^dy dx
dx
a
cos'
sin
1
+ 6*
12.
In sin
1
5 cos* x,
_ ~
x X
dy_
IS.
2/
= 9l^*'2~2wH^' 2
sin*
Chap. VI.
,.
14.
1_
a:-4'
,
61
y
1/
X' _1, - în^, _^
dy dx
:7-
^ =
x(i,
4)>*
16.
16.
17.
y y
< X V o - X* + Va -I* = iB ( VI+3 + vT+2) + V(x + 3) (I + 2), ^ = = In (VT+^ + V^, ^ = 2 Vx + ax

ii^
- In o
>
y |^
18.
y
y y
= = =
X tan-i --% In (x+a), a Z

ef" (sin
= tan"' ^ ax a
-^ ax
V
\l
19.
ax
cos ax),
ae" sin
ax.
20.
i tan*
5 tan*
In cos x,
-p
tan' x.
22.
e*
+ e-',
e<
- e"',
= - ^
23.
y=llnx,
y
g=^(21nx-3).
24.
26.
x^,
g=(x + n)e'.
=
x" and
taking logarithms of both sides of the equation y differentiating, show that the formula
By
--x" dx
is
nx"-*
true even
26.
when n
is
irrational.
Find the slope of the catenary

y
= |Ve^+e'-)
at X =
27.
0.
Find the points on the curve y

to the i-axis.
If
e** sin
x where the tangent
18 parallel
28.
Ae"*
+ Be""*,
where
where
and
B axe constant,
show that
29.
If
2e"'*,
z is
Miy function
*
of x,
show that
di*^*'<ix^^^
SO.
dx
For what values y
of
x does
5 hi (x
2)
+ 3hi (x + 2) + 4
Bcrease as x increases?
62
31.
From
equation (44) show that
e
Chap. VI.
lim
(1
+ x)
32.
If
acceleration
33.
the space described by a point is s = ae' is equal to the space passed over.
resistance encountered
it
&e""',
show that the
Assuming the
by a body sinking
to be proportional to the velocity, the distance
in water descends in a time t is
and k being constants.
Show
a
that the velocity v

g
t
and
acceleration a
satisfy the equation
kv.
is
Also show that for large values of

stant.
34.
the velocity
approximately conof the
velocity,
Assuming the resistance of air proportional to the square a body starting from rest will fall a distance
s=^ln /e +
in a time tion
t.
e-*^'^
Show
that the velocity and acceleration satisfy the equa-
kî^
Also show that the velocity approaches a constant value.
CHAPTER
VII
GEOMETRICAL APPLICATIONS
49.
Tangent Line and Normal.

(xi, yi).
Let
is
of a given curve at Pi
It
mi be the slope shown in analytic
geometry that a
through
nil
is
(xi, yi)
line
with slope
represented
by the
xi).
equation
yi
= miix the
This equation
resents
(,^1,
then reptangent
at
yi)
where the slope of

is
the curve
mi.
The
its
line
PiN
perpenFig. 49.
is
dicular to the tangent at
point of contact
called the
normal to the curve at Pi.
Since the slope of the

is
tangent
is
mi, the slope of a perpendicular line
and so
TWl
y-yi= - (^-xi)
7/1
is
the equation of the normal at
(xi, yi).
Example
1.
Find the equations of the tangent and normal
to the eUipse x^
+ 2 ^^ =
any point
The
slope at
9 at the point (1,2). of the curve is
At
(1, 2)
the slope
is
dy dx then
2y
mi
,The equation of the tangent
= I.
is
2/-2 = -i(x-l).
63
64
of the
Chap. VII.
and the equation
normal
is
y-2 =
Ex.
2.
A(x-l).
x^
Find the equation of the tangent to

(xi, y\). (xi, yi) is
y^
a?
at the point
The
is
slope at
Xi
'
The equation
Xi
of the tangent
yi
then
y-yi = -(.^2/1
î)
which reduces to
XiX
yiy
^ =
xi^
-r.Z
yi'
Since
{xi, yi) is
on the curve,
Xi^
y-^
a^.
The equation
of the tangent can therefore be reduced to the form
XiX
50.
yiy
a\
Angle between
Two
Curves.
By
the angle be-
tween two curves at a

point of intersection
we
mean
point.
the angle between
their tangents at that
Let mi and
slopes of
nii
be the
two curves at
in analytic
a point of intersection.
It is
shown
Fig. 50a.
geometry that the angle /3 from a line with slope mi to one with slope
m2
satisfies
the equation
taujS
= m2 mi 1 +mim2
(50)
This equation thus gives the angle /3 from a curve with slope mi to one with slope nh, the angle being considered positive^
when measured
in the counter-clockwise direction.
Chap. VII.
Find the angles determined by the
line
65
y
Example.
=x
and the parabola y

and
(1,-
x^.
Solving the equations simultaneously,
we
r
find that the line
parabola
1)
intersect
at
i
and
(0, 0).
is 1.
of the line
The slope The slope at
any point
of the parabola is
ax
At
(1,
1)
the slope of the

is
parabola parabola
then 2 and the

Fig. oOb.
angle from the line to the

is
then given by
tan
/3i
= 2-1
1+2
3'
whence
/3i
= tan-4 =
is
18 26'.
is
At
(0, 0)
the slope of the parabola
and so the angle
from the
line to
the parabola
given by the equation
tan Pi
^ = 1+0 = 1.
ft
'
whence
-45.
is
The negative
sign signifies that the angle
measured
in
the
clockwise direction from the line to the parabola.
EXERCISES
Find the tangent and normal to each of the following curves at the
point indicated:
1.
2.
3. 4.
6.
The circle 3^ + f = 5 at (-1, 2). The hj-perbola xt/ = 4 at (1, 4). The parabola y* = ax at i = a. The exponential curve y = oif at x
0.
The The
sine curve
X*
i/
3 sin x at x
6.
eUipse -j
+ IT ^
1,
at
(x,, y,).
66
7.
Chap. VIL
8. 9.
The hyperbola x^ -\- xy The semicubical parabola

X
y^ y^
= =
x,
at
(
(2, 0).
x^,
at
8, 4).
cos
<^)
Find the equation of the normal to the cycloid
=
4>\.
{4>
sin
<^),
(1
at the point
^ =
Show
that
it
passes through the point where the
rolling circle touches the x-axis.
Find the angles at which the following pairs

10.
2/2
of curves intersect
sin x,
logio x,
4
?/2 2/2
x,
x^
= =
2/.
13.
y/ 11.
12.
x^
9, x^
+
y'^
6x
=
4
9.
14. 15.
x2 -+
2 X
7,
2/2
X.
y y y
= = = =
\ (e^
cos x. = In x. = e"^),
y
2/
e*.
1^
16.
Show
that for
all
values of the constants a and h the curves
x^
y^
a*,
xy
l^
intersect at right angles.

17.
Show
that the curves
6'",
e"^ sin (&x
+ c)
=
a? in-
^
^
are tangent at each point of intersection.

18.
Show
that the part of the tangent to the hyperbola xy

is
tercepted between the coordinate axes
bisected at the point of tan-
gency.
Let the normal to the parabola y^ = ax at P cut the x-axis at A'^. PN on the x-axis has a constant length. Show 20. The focus F of the parabola y^ = ax is the point (l a,0). that the tangent at any point P of the parabola makes equal angles
19.
Show
that the projection of
with
/' 21.
FP
and the
foci of
line
through
parallel to the axis.
The
the ellipse
^ + P=1'
are the points F'
(
>^
.
tangent at any point F'P.

22.
- Va^ - b^, P of the
O)
ellipse
Show that the^ and F (Va* - 6^^ q) makes equal angles with FP and
Let
be any point on the catenary y
^\f'
+e
the
projection of
at P.
23.
P on
the x-axis, and
A'^
the projection of
M on the tangent
-,
Show that MA'' is constant in length, Show that the portion of the tangent to
a.
/a
the tractrix
,--
y/a^
- xA
intercepted between the

iength.
2/-axis
and the point
of
tangency
is
constant in
Chap. VII.
24.
that the angle between the tangent at
origin
hi
is
67
P
and the
Show
any point
line joining
P to the
the same at
all
points of the curve
Vx-
y2 ^
k tan-i - X
26. A point at a constant distance along the normal from a given curve generates a curve which is called parallel to the first. Find the parametric equations of the parallel curve generated by the point at distance h along the normal drawn inside of the ellipse
a cos
4>,
b sin
<t>.
ft
61.
Direction of Curvature.
A curve
is
said to be con-
cave
upward at a point
if
the part of the curve near

lies
above the tangent at P. It is concave downward at Q if the part near Q lies below
the tangent at Q.
A
At 'points where
itive,
dhj
-p^ is pos-
Fig. 51.
the curve is concave
upward; where
d^n
-7-^ is
negative, the
curve is concave downward.
For
d^y dx^
If
d (dy\ dx \dx/
then
(Py
-T-| is
positive,
by
dv
Art. 13,
-r
the slope, increases as x
increases
rises
and decreases as x decreases. The curve therefore above the tangent on both sides of the point. If,
is
however, -j^
dx^
negative, the slope decreases as x increases

decreases,
and increases as x
tangent.
52.
and so the curve falls below the

(Fig. 52a),
Point of Inflection.
A point like A
on
one side of which the curve is concave upward, on the other concave downward, is called a point of inflection. It is
assumed that there

flection.
is
point like
B is not
a definite tangent at the point of incalled a point of inflection.
68
The second
Chap. VII.
inflection
derivative is positive on one side of a point of and negative on the other. Ordinary functions change sign only by passing through zero or infinity. Hence
to find points of inflection
we
find
where r^
is
zero or infinite.
-t
Fig. 52a.
If the second derivative
changes sign at such a point,

the second derivative has the
it is
point of inflection.
sign
If
a same
on both
sides, it is
not a point of inflection.
Fig. 52b.
Fig. 52c.
Example
tion of
Examine the curve 3y = x* curvature and points of inflection.

1.
Qx^ for direc-
The second
derivative
(Py
is
(x2
1).
da^
Chap. Vn.
69
This
is
zero at x
1.
It
is
positive
cave upward on the
left of
= 1
and the curve conand on the right of
X = -\-l. It is negative and the curve concave downward between x = 1 and x =-\- I. The second derivative changes sign at A (1, f) and B (+1, ), which are
therefore points of inflection (Fig. o2b),
Ex. 2. Ejcamine the curve y = In this case the second derivative
x* for points of inflection.

is
This
of X.
is
is
zero when x is zero but is positive for all other values The second derivative does not change sign and there
consequently no point of inflection (Fig. o2c).
Ex.
3.
If
>
0,
show that
sin
>x
5-:
o!
Let
= sm X -
+ ^j
^3
We
are to
show that y
>
,
0.
a^2
-y-
dy dx
cos X
+ 2!
,
cPy
'
?ri
dx2
T^ = sm x + x.
is
When X
is
positive, sin
is less
than x and so -7^

Since -^
is
positive.
Therefore -^ increases with x.
ax
ax
zero
when x
is
du
zero, j^ is
X.
then positive
when x
> 0, and so y increases with

is
Since y
>
0,
= when x = 0, y which was to be proved.

is
!
therefore positive
when
* If
frwn
to n.
any p>ositive integer n represents the product Thus

3!
<rf
the integers
= l-2-3 =
6.
70
EXERCISES
Chap. VII.
Examine the
of inflection:
1.
2/
2/
following curves for direction of curvature
and points
2.
3. 4.
y
2/3
= = = =
a;3
3z
+ 3.
a;2
6.
?/
2 x3
x^
6X
- 4 x + - 1.
-
6 x2
+ 1. + 12 X.
6. 7.
= = =
xe*.
e"^.
x^y
4x
<,
+3y =
2/
0.
t.
8.
sin
^ sin 3
Prove the following inequalities:

9.
X In X
(x
6==
^'
+I >
0,
if
<
X
X
0.
< L <
10.
11.
<
1) e^
1
+ 1 > 0, + + ^ e,
X
if
> <
if
a.
12.
13.
hisecx>|,
if
_|<a;<|.
According to Van der Waal's equation, the pressure p and volume y of a gas at constant temperature T are connected by the equation
RT
^
a, b,
a
v^'
m{v -h)
If
is taken as ordinate and v as abequation has a point of inflection. The value of T for which the tangent at the point of inflection is hori' zontal is called the critical temperature. Show that the critical temperature is
m, and
12
being constants.
scissa,
the curve represented
by
this
_ ~
63.
8 am 27 lib'
PQ of a a hmit) approached by the length of a broken line with vertices on PQ as the number of its sides increases indefinitelj^ their lengths approaching zero.
Length
of a Curve.
The length of an arc

(if
curve
is
defined as the hmit
there
is
We
shall
now show
that
if
the slope of a curve

it
ous the ratio of a chord to the arc the chord approaches zero.
In the arc
is continusubtends approaches 1 as
PQ
(Fig. 53) inscribe
a broken line
PABQ.
Projecting on PQ,
we
get
PQ =
proj.
PA
-f proj.
AB -{ proj.
BQ.
The
projection of a chord, such as
its
71
AB,
is
equal to the prod-
uct of
length
by the cosine of the angle

to
On the arc AB is a tangent RS parallel

argest angle that
any tangent on the arc
makes with PQ. Let a be the PQ makes with the

it
AB.
Fig. 53.
chord PQ.
The
angle between
RS and PQ
is
not greater
than a.
Consequently, the angle between

Therefore
proj.
AB and PQ is not
greater than a.
AB = AB cos a.
PA = PA cos a, BQ = BQ cos a.
Similarly,
proj.
proj.
Adding these equations, we get
PQ = (PA
ine with
+AB + BQ) cos a.

can be extended to a broken
It is evident that this result
any number
of sides.
As the number
of sides in-
sreases indefinitely, the expression in parenthesis

ihe
approaches
length of the arc PQ.
Therefore
arc
PQ =
;liat is,
PQ
cos a,
chord
arc
If
PQ ^pc- = PQ
is
cos a.
continuous, the angle a ap-
proaches zero as
L
approaches P.
,.
Hence cos a approaches

,
and
lim
chord
arc
Q-P
PQ 5;^ = ^ 1. PQ
72
Since the chord
is
Chap. VII.
always
less
than the
arc, the limit
cannot
be greater than
1.
Therefore, finally,
,.
chord
lim
Q^P arc
PQ ^^7^ = PQ
1.
(53)
Let s be the distance measured 54. Differential of Arc. along a curve from a fixed point A to a variable point P. Then s is a function of the coordinates of P. Let be the angle from the positive direction of the x-axis to the tangent
</>
PT drawn
r
in the direction of increasing
s.
/ /^^ w^
1 S
.^^^''
A
Fig. 54a.
Fig. 54b.
~o
If
X, y,
P moves to
and
s are
a neighboring position Q, the increments in
Ax = PR,
From
the figure
it is
Ay = RQ,
seen that
As
arc
PQ.
cos
.
(RPQ)
/r.T>/^N
Ax
PQ
Ay
^ PQ'
Ay As
and
Ax As
As Q approaches P,
RPQ
As
approaches
_ PQ ~
approaches
1.
PQ chord PQ
arc
The above equations then

cos<^
give in the limit

(54a)
= dx ^.
8m</,
dy
Chap. VII.
73
sides of
These equations express that dx and dy are the

(Fig. 54b).
right triangle with hj-potenuse ds extending along the tangent

All the equations connecting dx, dy, ds,
and
<f>
can
be read
off this triangle.
One
of particular importance is
ds^
dx^-\-
dy\
(54b)
55.
its
/3
Curvature.
If
an arc
its
chord, the
amount
it is
is everywhere concave toward bent can be measured by the angle
between the tangent-s at

/3
ends.
<{>'
The
ratio
arc
is
PP'
_ A<l> As ~ As
<t>
the average bending per unit length along PP'.
The
limit as P' approaches P,

,.
A<f>
d<t>
Aô
As
ds
It is greater
it is
is called the curvature at P.
where the curve

straight.
bends more sharph%
less
where
more nearly
Fig. 55a.
Fig. 55b.
In case of a circle (Fig. 55b)


d-\-
aB.
Consequently,
d<t>
dB
ds
add
a*
74
that
is,
the curvature of
its
Chap. VII.
circle is constant
and equal
to the
reciprocal of
radius.
66.
Radius of Curvature.
is
We have
is
ust seen that the
radius of a circle
curvature, that
the reciprocal of
its
curvature.
The
radius of curvature of any curve

its
is,
defined as the reciprocal of
radius of curvature
It
is
= jr
ds
'
(56a)
the radius of the circle which has the same curvature as

express p in terms of x and y
the given curve at the given point.
To
we note
that
* = tan-.|.
Consequently,
1
,
/dy\
^dx dx^
Also
ds
= Vdx^ + dyK
d4>,
Substituting these values for ds and
we
get
(56b)
dPy
dx"
If the radical in
the numerator
,
is
taken positive, p
will
have
the same
the curve
is
d^v sign as -r^ that
is,
the radius will be positive
when
is concave upward. If merely the numerical value wanted, the sign can be omitted. By a similar proof we could show that
h(l)T
dy'
(56c)
Chap. VII.
75
y2
Example 1. Find the radius of curvature of the parabola = 4 x at the point (4, 4). At the point (4, 4) the derivatives have the values
dy^2^1
dx
Therefore
^^_4
dx^
y^
2'
1^
IQ
^
dx"
is
_j_
16
- -
10
V5.
The
negative sign shows that the curve

of the radius
is
concave downward.
The length
Ex.
2.
10
Vo.
sented by the polar equation r
Find the radius of curvature oi the curve repre= a cos 6. The expressions for x and y in terms of 6 are
X
y
Consequently,
= =
r cos 5 r sin ^
a cos 6 cos 6 a cos dsmd.
a cos^
^,
dy Tdx
a (cos* B
^ 2a
dx
[1
sin* 6)
a cos 6
= -cot ^-^ 2 d, a = asm smd 2d

.
a cos 2
^=
dx*
m
V^^/
= _2
CSC* 2
Odd
asm2d dd
=
a
a
a
2
+ cot* 20]^
2
(csc*2 0)i
esc'
,^,
2
2 esc' 2
is thus constant. The curve is in fact a circle. Center and Circle of Curvature. At each point of a curve is a circle on the concave side tangent at the point with radius equal to the radius of curvature. This circle is
The
radius
67.
called the circle of curvature.
Its center is called the center
of curvature.
Since the circle
and curve are tangent at P, they have the
76
same
dv
slope -^ at P.
Chap. VII.
Since they have the same radius of
curvature, the second derivatives will also be equal at P.
Fig. 57.
The
circle of
curvature
is
thus the
circle
through
P such that
the curve
dv d/^v and 74 have the same values for the dx dx^
circle as for
at P.
EXERCISES
of arc measured from a fixed point on a certain curve Find the slope of the curve at x = 2. 2. Can X = cos s,y = sin s, represent a curve on which s is the length of arc measured from a fixed point ? Can x = sec s, y = tan s, represent such a curve? Find the radius of curvature on each of the following curves at the
1. is s
The length
x^
+ X.
point indicated:
3.
4.
+ p=l. x^ + xy + y^
^2
at (0,6).
5.
(1, 1).
= =
e^,
at
^
at
3,
at
6.
(1
+ cos 0),
any point
0.
Find an expression for the radius of curvature at

the following curves:
7.
of each of
y X
=l\^ + e
=
In sec y.
).
9.
X
r
=
=
iy*
ihxy.
8.
10.
a sec*
f 9.
is
11.
Show
that the radius of curvature at a point of inflection
infinite.
Chap. VII.
12.
77
point on the circumference of a circle rolling along the x-axis
generates the cycloid
(ip
sm<f>),
J/
= o
<f>
(1
COS
4>)t
a being the radius of the roUing circle and the angle through which it has turned. Show that the radius of the circle of curvature is bisected by the point where the rolling circle touches the x-axis. The end of 13. A string held taut is unwound from a fixed circle. the string generates a curve with parametric equations X
a cos
+ ad sin
9,
= asind
aO cos
9,
a being the radius of the circle and 9 the angle subtended at the center by the arc unwound. Show that the center of curvatiu"e corresponding to any point of this path is the point where the string is tangent to the
circle.
14.
Show that
the radius of curvature at any point
(x,
y) of the
hypo-
cycloid X*
2/'
a' is three times the perpendicular
from the origin
to the tangent at
(x, y).
1
cos x
It
is
58.
Limit of
shown
in
trigonometry
that
1
cos X
sin' r
Consequently,
1 1
cos X
2sin2|
=
X
X
.
2.x =
2
/. x\ sin-
sin -
X
\
2 /
X
X 2
X
As X approaches
zero,
approaches
1.
Therefore
iimi^:i^^ = 0.1 =
1=0
69.
0.
angle
Derivatives of Arc in Polar Coordinates. The from the outward drawn radius to. the tangent drawn
direction of Increasing s
is
Fthe
usually represented
by the
tter ^.
78
Let
let
r,
6
Chap. VIL
r
be the polar coordinates of P, and

(Fig. 59a).
+ Ar, d +
PR
those of
Draw QR
sin
perpendicular to
and
As
arc
PQ.
Then
(y+Ar)
(r
RQ _ sin (/2PQ) = PQ PR _ cos (RPQ) =
A9
_^
>,
sin
PQ
^^ ^^ As Ad 'As'PQ'
+ Ar) cos A0 - r
PQ
Af
PQ~
p^
Ar As
=
=
cos {^9)
cos {^^)
r (1
As
cos A9) PQ r (1 cos A0) A0

Ad
As
PQ
As
PQ
Fig. 59a.
Fig. 59b.
As Ad approaches
\im (RPQ)
1-
zero,
,
,.
/no^x
=rl/,
sinA0 lim-^^=l, hm
1-
1-cosA^
= 0,
lim
As
PQ
1.
The above equations then

sin
}p
give in the limit,

cos\f/
rdd
dr
ds
(59a)
sides of a
^.
ds
right triangle with hypotenuse ds
These equations show that dr and rdd are the and base angle
From
and
\p
this triangle all the equations connecting dr, dd, ds,
can be obtained.
.
The most important

,
of these are
rdB tan^ =
dr
ds^
dr^
r2
dd\
(59]j)
Chap. VII.
The logarithmic
spiral r
79
Example.
as^.
In this case, dr
ae^ dd
and so
The angle ^ is The equation
therefore constant
and equal
1
to 45 degrees.
dr = ^^ = di ^
,
shows that -r
tionally.
dr
is
also constant
and so
and
s increase
propor-
EXERCISES
Find the angle ^ at the point indicated on each of the following curves:
1.
The The The
spiral r
= =
ad, a.t 6
^ o
2.
circle r
and
at 6
=-
4
6,
3.
straight line r
a sec
at 9
^ o
4.
6.
The
eUipse r (2
cos d)
k,
at
= ^
at each
6.
= f x. The lemniscate r* 2 a* cos 2 0, at Show that the curves r = ae^, r = ae~^ are perpendicular
Find the angles at which the curves Find the points on the cardioid r
is
of their points of intersection.

7.
a cos
0,
a sin 2
fl
intersect.
8.
(1
cos 9) where the tan-
gent
parallel to the initial line.
9. Let P (r, 9) be a point on the hyperbola r^ sin 2 S = c. Show that the triangle formed by the radius OP, the tangent at P, and the
X-axis
10.
is
isosceles.
Find the slope of the curve r
e** at
the point where 9
=%
4
60.
directed line
Angle between Two Directed Lines in Space. is one along which a positive direction
This direction
is
is
assigned.
usually indicated
by an arrow.
80
angle between two directed lines
is
Chap. VII.
one along the sides There are vertex. two such angles less than 360 degrees, their sum being 360 degrees (Fig. 60). They have the same cosine. If the lines do not intersect, the angle between them is defined as that between intersecting lines respectively parallel
of which the arrows point
An
away from the
to the given lines.
Fig. 60.
Fig. 61.
61.
Direction Cosines.
try* that the angles a,

the line
COS a
is shown in analytic geomebetween the coordinate axes and /3, 7 satisfy the equations from to P2) (directed P1P2 Pi
It
= p p rir2
cos
/3
^p p^
-Liiî
cos
Zi = zi -5-BiÛ2
'
(61a)
These cosines are called the
direction cosines of the line.
They
satisfy the identity

cos^
+ cos^ +
/3
cos^
1.
(61b)
j8i,
If the direction cosines of
two
lines are cos ai, cos
cos 71
and cos 0:2, /32, by the equation

cos cos 6
cos 72, the angle 6 between the lines
is
given
cos ai cos az
if
+ cos ^2 cos ^2 + cos 71 cos 72. + cos

cos 02
(61c)
is
In particular,
degrees and
the lines are perpendicular, the angle d
90
cos ai cos a2
H. B.
jSi
+ cos 71 cos 72.
(6 Id)
* Cf.
Phillips, Analytic Geometry, Art. 64, et seq.
Chap. VII.
62.
81
The Direction of the Tangent Line to a Curve. defined limiting curve is as the P of a tangent line at a point
approached by the secant PQ as Q approaches P along the curve. Let s be the arc of the curve measured from some fixed point and cos a, cos /3, cos 7 the direction cosines of the tangent
position
PT
drawn
If
in the direction of increasing

y,
s.
X,
z are the coordinates of
P,
^^"
^^^'
Ax, y
+ At/, z + Az, those of

Arc
Q, the direction cosines of
PQare
PQ'
Ay PQ'
Az
PQ'
direction cosines of
As Q approaches P, these approach the the tangent at P. Hence

cos
lim
Ax
757: PQ
,.
lim -r
Ax As
As
s.
Q=P
757.
PQ
Hence
On
the curve,
,.
x, y, z
are functions of
,.
Ax dx ^^Â^=d^'
Therefore
As
,.
arc
^^^PQ
^^^c-hord
^-
cos
Similarly,
3as
(62a)
cos^
= ^,
cosT
= |.
(62a)
These equations show that if a distance ds is measured along the tangent, dx, dy, dz are its projections on the coordinate axes (Fig. 62b). Since the square on the diagonal of a
*
The
proof that the limit of arc/chord
is
waa given
in Art. 53
for the case of plane curves with continuous slope.
A
is
similar proof
can be given for any curve, plane or space, that

direction.
continuous in
82
is
Chap. VII.
rectangular parallelopiped
of its three edges,
c?.s2
equal to the
sum of
the squares
(62b)
dx^
+ di/ + dz\
Fig. 62b.
Example.
parabola
Find the direction cosines of the tangent to the

X
at,
y
2.
bt,
\ cP
at the point where
At
2 the differentials are
dx
ds
=
zt
dt,
dy
dt,
dz
\ctdt
-{-
c dt,
Vdx^
+ dy^ + dz^
Va^ + b^
c^ dt.
There are two algebraic signs depending on the direction s is measured along the curve. If we take the positive sign, the
direction cosines are
dx
ds
a _ ~ Va^ 62 _j_ c2 +
c
dy
'
ds
b _ ~ Va^ + fe^-fc^'
dz
ds
63.
~ Va2 62 c2 + +
Equations of the Tangent Line.
It
is
shown
in
analytic geometry that the equations of a straight line
_
Chap. VII.
(xi, yi, Zi)
83
through a point Pi
tional to A, B,
with direction cosines propor-
are
x-xi _ y -yi _ z-zi

The
,^v
direction cosines of the tangent line are proportional

If
to dx, dy, dz.
then
we
replace A, B,
C hy numbers
pro-
portional to the values of dx, dy, dz at Pi, (63) will represent
the tangent line at Pi. Example 1. Find the equations of the tangent to the curve
x
at the point where
=
t
t,
y
I.
f,
i^
The point of tangency is t 1, Xi = At this point the differentials are dx dy dz = dt :2tdt iSe dt =
: :
1,
yi
=
:
1,
Zi
1.
3.
The equations
of the tangent line are then
_y
2
21
~~3
Sx
-\-
Ex.
2.
Find the angle between the curve
2y
2 z
to
3,
x^
+ y^ =
2^
and the
line
joining the origin
(1, 2, 2).
The curve and
line intersect at (1, 2, 2).

x.
Along the curve
y and z can be considered functions of satisfj^ the equations
The
differentials
Zdx
+ 2dy -2dz = 0,
Sxdx-\-2y dy =
0,
4:zdz.
At the point
of intersection these equations
become
3dx-\-2dy-2dz =
dx
Consequently,
ds
Solving for dx and dy in terms of
Sdx -{- ^dy = Sdz. dz, we get
2dz,
dy
dy^
= 2 dz.
= Vdx^
cos
a
/3
-\-
+ dz^ = ddz
-2 = -53
,
and
cos
dx
-5-
ds
2
;r,
dy
ds
V-
COS 7
'
dz
-r
ds
5.
84
(1, 2, 2)
2
Chap. VII.
The line joining the origin and

equal to
has direction cosines
12
3
3>
3'
The
angle 6 between the line and curve satisfies the equation

cos e
2-4 +2 ^^^^ =
0.
The
line
and curve
EXERCISES
Find the equations of the tangent
points indicated:
1.
a;
lines to the following curves at the
=
= =
sec
e*,
t,
tan
z
e*
t,
z
fi,
at,
at
-:
2. 3.
X
X
y
sin
=
/,
e~*,
at
t,
<
1.
e^
cos
kt,
at
<
5*
4.
On
the circle
6,
X = a cos
a cos (0
0^),
a cos
+5
""
J
show that ds
5.
is
proportional to dd.
helix
Find the angle at which the

X
a cos
6,
a sin
6,
z
a^
kd
it lies.
cuts the generators of the cylinder x^

6.
+ y^ =
t
on which
Find the angle at which the conical

X
helix
t,
cos
t,
sin
cuts the generators of the cone x^

7.
x'^
y^
z^
on which
it lies.
Find the angle between the two y^ + z^ = 14 by the planes x y +
circles'
cut from the sphere
and x
+yz =
2.
CHAPTER Vin
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION IN A CURVED
PATH
64.
Speed
its
of a Particle.
is
When a particle moves along
a curve,
path.
speed
the rate of change of distance along the
Let a particle P move along the cmê AB, Fig. 64. Let s be the arc from a fixed point A to P. The speed of the particle is
then
Fig. 64.
Fig. 65a.
66.
Velocity of a Particle.
The
velocity of a particle
at the point
P in its path is defined as the vector* PT tangent

drawn
in the direction of
to the path at P,
motion with length
equal to the speed at P.

*
is
To
specify the velocity
we must
then give the speed and direction of motion.
A vector is
usually indicated
a quantity having length and direction. The direction by an arrow. Two vectors are called equal when
" they extend

i
along the same line or along parallel lines

direction.
and have the
same length and
85
86
particle can
Chap. VIII.
The
be considered as moving instantaneously
in the direction of the tangent.
The
if
velocity indicates in
it
magnitude and direction the distance

unit of time
would move
in
the speed and direc-
tion of motion did not change.
A wheel 4 ft. in diExample. ameter rotates at the rate of 500 Find the revolutions per minute. speed and velocity of a point on its
Let
center of the wheel
OA be a fixed line through the
and
the distance along the wheel from
OA
to a moving point P.
s
Then
= 2dh.
The speed
of
P is
TT
= 2^=2 (500) 2 ^ at at
Its velocity
at
is
20007r ft./mm.
2000
tt
ft./min. in the direction of the tangent
P.
66.
The speeds
Components
its
of all points
on the rim are the same.
Their velocities
differ in direction.
of Velocity in a Plane.
it is
To specify a
velocity in a plane
that
If
is,
PT is
customary to give its components, on the coordinate axes. the velocity at P (Fig. 66), the x-component is
projections
,
ds ^ = Prcos<^=^cos0 ^ = PQ
ds dx
^^ = ^,
ds dy
dx
and the ^/-component
is
^^
^,r,
ds
dy
The components are thus

Since
the rates of change of the coordinates.
PT^ = PQ2
+ QT\
Chap. VIII.
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

'S
87
the speed
expressed in terms of the components
by the
equation
(dsV
\dt)
(dxV
\dtl
"^
(dyV
\dtj
Fig. 66.
Fig. 67.
67. Components in Space. If a particle is moving along a space curve, the projections of its velocity on the
three coordinate axes are called components.
Thus,
if
PT
(Fig. 67) represents the velocity of
point, its
components are
PQ = PT cos a
ds dx
dt ds
dx
*
dt
dt ds
dt
RT = PT cosy = ^^^ = ^dt ds dt

Smce PT^ = PQ^
lents are connected
+ QR^ -\- RT^, the speed and compoby the equation
(f=(tr+(fj+(fj
88
68.
Notation.
Chap. VIII.
In this book we shall indicate a vector
with given components by placing the components in brackThus to indicate that a velocity has an a;-component ets. equal to 3 and a ^/-component equal to 2, we shall simply say that the velocity is [3, 2]. Similarly, a vector in space with x-component a, ^/-component h, and 2-component c will be represented by the symbol [a, h, c]. Example 1. Neglecting the resistance of the air a bullet fired with a velocity of 1000 ft. per second at an angle of 30 degrees with the horizontal plane will move a horizontal
distance
500t
Vd
and a
vertical distance
y
in
t
= 500tvelocity
16.1
1^
seconds.
Find
its
and speed at the end
of 10
seconds.
The components
of velocity are
^ = 500 V3,
at
= 500 - 32.2 t
at
is
At
the end of 10 seconds the velocity
then
V=
and the speed
j^
is
[500 V3, 178]
= V(500V3)' + (178)2 =
884
ft./sec."
Ex.
2.
A
X
point on the thread of a screw which
is
turned
into a fixed nut describes a helix with equations
r cos 6,
rsind,
kd,
S being the angle through which the screw has turned, r the
radius, and k the pitch of the screw. speed of the point.
Find the velocity and
Chap. VIII.

of velocity are
89
The components
dx
.
^dd
dy
dd
dz
dd
Since
-77
is
the angular velocity
with which the screw

px)int is
d,
is
rotating, the velocity of the
moving
6,
V=
and
its
[ rw
sin
rw cos
ha]
speed
is
ds
dt
=
is
VrV gjn2 e^r^f^ cos" d + kW = Vr^ +

constant.
k^,
which
/:5i
Fig. 69a.
Fig. 69b.
the sum of two meant the velocity Vi + V2 whose components are obtained by adding corresponding components of Vi and Fo. Similarly, the difference V2 Vi is the velocity whose components are obtained by subtracting the components of Vi from the corresponding ones of V2.
69.
Composition of Velocities.
By
velocities Vi
and V2
is
Thus,
Fi
if
Vi
[ai, bi],
Vi
[aa, 62],
+ +
F2=
[01
+ 02,61 +
62],
Vz-Vt=
[02-01,62-6,].
Fi and F2 extend from the same point (Fig. 69a), F2 is one diagonal of the parallelogram with Fi and Fi F2 as adjacent sides and F2 Fi is the other. In this case F2 Fi extends from the end of Fi to the end of Fj.
If
90
the product
Chap. VIII.
By
tion
It
is
vector
if
wF of a vector by a number is meant a m times as long as V and extending in the same direcm is positive but the opposite direction m is negative. evident from Fig. 69b that the components of mF are
if
m times those of F. F 1 The quotient can be considered as a product F. m m

components are obtained by dividing those of
70.
Its
Acceleration.
The
is
F by m.
movits
acceleration of a particle
ing along a curved path
the rate of change of
velocity
'
A = Hm AF i^t
.
dV
dt
At=0
In this equation
AF is a vector
and -TT At
ing
is
obtained by divid-
the
components of
AF
byA^
Let the particle
the point
is
move from
P where the velocity
F to an adjacent point P' where the velocity is F + A F. dx The components of velocity will change from |t
Fig. 70a.
dt
dx
.dx
di
dy. .dy
dt'^
dt
dt^
Consequently,
^
_ ~
Vdx
Idt
'
dy]
Tt\
dx dx F + AF =['dt'^^dt dy,Kdy' dt dt'^

^^
f.
Subtraction and division by At give
dx
.
dy
dt
,,
dx
dyl
AF
dt
At
At
As At approaches
zero, the last equation
approaches
._dV_VdH d^l
Chap. VIII.
91
In the same
space
is
way
the acceleration of a particle moving in
found to be
(70b)
acceleration of a
Equations 70a and 70b express that the components of the moving particle are the second derivatives of
respect to
Us coordinates with
the time.
Example.
moves
particle
with a constant speed V around a circle of radius r. Find its velocity and acceleration at each
point of the path.
Let
= AOP.
The
co-
ordinates of
are
x== r cos
Qy
The
velocity of
P is
-[- r sm
.
-t:
r cos Q
dt
Smce
^ ds r^, y:
dd
r
-fi
The
velocity can therefore be
dt
dt
written
V=[vsmd,
Since v
is
.
wcos^].
is
constant, the acceleration
dV
Vd
^s
,,1
= |_-.cos0^. -.sm^^J.
Replacing
;77
by
this reduces to
v^
~\
[t'r
COS0,
sua
r
is
= -[ COS0, sin^l.
r
v^
Now
[ COS0,
sin0]
a vector of unit length directed
92
along
Chap. VIIL
PO
toward the center.
directed toward the center of the circle
Hence the acceleration of P is and has a magnitude
equal to
EXERCISES
1.
A point P moves with constant speed v along the straight line y=a.
Find the speed with which the line joining P to the origin rotates. 2. A rod of length a sUdes with its ends in the x- and y-axes. If the end in the x-axis moves with constant speed v, find the velocity and speed of the middle point of the rod. 3. A wheel of radius a rotates about its center with angular speed while the center moves along the x-axis with velocity v. Find the velocity and speed of a point on the perimeter of the wheel. 4. Two particles Pi (xi, yi) and Pt (xz, 2/2) move in such a way that
xi
X2
= =
(
+2 +2
<,
r/i
<2,
y^=
-3 - 4 i.
<2,
Find the two

5.
velocities
Two particles
Xi
Pi
and show that they are always parallel. xi, yi, Zi) and P2 (x2, 2/2, Z2) move in such a way
that
Xi
= o cos 6, = a sin d,
yi
yz
=a =a
cos
(6
sin {9
+i +i
ir), Zi
ir)
,
Zi
=a =a
cos (^
jt),
it)
.
ain {9 -{ i
and show that they are always at right angles. He wishes to cross 6. A man can row 3 miles per hour and walk 4. a river and arrive at a point 6 miles further up the river. If the river is If miles wide and the current flows 2 miles per hour, find the course he
Find the two
velocities
shall take to reach his destination in the least time.

7.
Neglecting the resistance of the air a projectile fired with velocity
[a, b, c]
moves
in
seconds to a position
at,
bt,
ct
gfi.
Find
8.
its
speed, velocity,
particle
and acceleration. moves along the parabola
3?
is
ay in such a
way
that
dt
J-
is
constant.
Show
wheel
that
its
acceleration
constant.
its
9.
When a
ference describes
rolls along a straight line, a point on a cycloid with parametric equations
circum-
o (^
sin 0),
y
</>
(I
cos
<t>),
a being the
rotated.
radius of the wheel and

velocity,
the angle through which

of the
it
hab
Find the speed,
and acceleration
moving point.
Chap. Vni.
93
10. Find the acceleration of a particle moving with constant speed v along the cardioid r = a {1 cob 6). 11. If a string is held taut while it is unwoxind from a fixed circle, its
end describes the curve

X
a cos d
+ a d an 0, y = a tan d a 9 coe d,
Show
about
e being the angle
subtended at the center by the arc unwound.
that the end moves at each instant with the

if
same velocity
it
would have
dd
-t-
the straight part of the string rotated with angular velocity

it
the point where

12.
meets the fixed
circle.
mechanism consists of a rod rotating in a plane with constant angular velocity w about one end and a ring sUding along the
piece of
rod with constant speed

time.
(2)
v.
(1)
If
when
the ring
is
at the center
of the
of rotation, find its position, velocity,
and acceleration as functions
Find the velocity and acceleration immediately after t = ti, if at that instant the rod ceases to rotate but the ring continues sliding with unchanged speed along the rod. (3) Find the velocity and acceleration immediately after / = /i if at that instant the ring ceases sliding but the rod continues rotating. (4) How are the three velocities related?
13.
fixed,
How are the three accelerations related? Two rods AB, BC are hinged at B and
lie
in a plane.
is
AB
rotates with angular speed
angular speed 2
u about B.
and
(1)
If
about A, and BC rotates with when t = 0, C lies on AB produced,

(2)
find the path, velocity,
acceleration of C.
<
Find the
velocities
and
accelerations immediately after

(3)
/i
if
at that instant one of the
rotations ceases.
How
are the actual velocity
and
acceleration
related to these partial velocities

14.
and
accelerations?
hoop
of radius a rolls with angular velocity on along
a horizonIf
tal line, while

t
an
insect crawls along the rim with speed
cuat.
the insect
is
at the bottom of the hoop, find its path, velocity,
when and
The motion of the insect results from three simultaneous advance of the center of the hoop with speed cu^, the rotation of the hoop about its center with angular speed a>i, and the crawl of the insect advancing its radius with angular speed wi. Find the three velocities and accelerations which result if at the time t = ti two of these actions cease, the third continuing unchanged. How are the actual velocity and acceleration related to these partial velocities and acceleraacceleration.
actions, the
tions?
CHAPTER IX
ROLLE'S
Rolle's
THEOREM AND INDETERMINATE FORMS

Theorem.
71.
least
//
=
/' (x) is continuous, there is at
one real root of
(x)
between each pair of real roots
off{x) =0.
To show this consider

the curve
y=fix)Let / (x) be zero at X = a and x = b. Between a and b there must be one or more
^^^- ^^^-
points
at
maximum
is
distance from the x-axis.

horizontal
\t such a point the tangent
and so
| = /'(x)
is
0.
That this theorem may not hold if /' (x) shown in Figs. 71b and 71c. In both
is
discontinuous
cases the curve
Fig. 71b.
Fig. 71c.
crosses the x-axis at a
and
b but there
is
no intermediate
point where the slope
is
zero.
Chap. IX.
ROLLE'S
THEOREM
=
95
Example.
Show that the equation

a:'
+ 3x -
cannot have more than one real root. Let
Then
/' (x)
a;2
+3=
any
(x^
1).
Since /' (x) does not vanish for
real value of x,
;
(x)
=0
cannot have more than one real root for if there were two between them. there would be a root of /' (x) = The expressions 72. Indeterminate Forms.
^,
-, 0.x,
X -
00,
1-,
0^
00
are called indeterminate forms.
No
definite values
can be
assigned to them.
If
when X
form, there
may however
a a function / (x) assumes an indeterminate be a definite limit

lim/(x).
x=a
In such cases this limit

function at x
is
usually taken as the value of the
a.
For example, when x
the function
2x _0 X "0*
It is e\'ident,
however, that
Urn x=0
= X
aa
lim (2)
2.
This example shows that an indeterminate form can often be made definite b}' an algebraic change of form.
73.
The Forms
-r
and
00
We shall now show that,

'
if
for a particular value of the variable
a fraction \
f (x)
\
F(x)
assumes
the form - or
numerator and denominator can be replaced
96
by
Chap. IX.
their derivatives without changing the value of the limit approached by the fraction as x approaches a. 1. Let /' {x) and F' (x) be continuous between a and 6 Iff () = 0, F (a) = 0, and F (6) is not zero, there is a number Xi between a and b such that
fib)_f(x^)
Fib)
F'(xi)
(73a)
To show
this let
Fib)
^^ = R.
fib)
Then
-RFib)=0,
ix)
Consider the function
/
This
function
- RF
ix).
(a)
there
when x = b. Since / (a) = 0, = 0, it also vanishes when x = a. By RoUe's Theorem is then a value Xi between a and b such that
vanishes
/' ixO
RF' ixO =
0.
Consequently,
Fib)
which was to be proved.
2.
""
F'ix^)'
Let/'
ix)
and F'
ix)
be continuous near
a.
///
(a)
and
(a)
0, then
f(x)
,.
fix)
becomes
:,= i^ (a:)
x= F' ix)
(73b)
For,
if
we
replace b
by
x, (73a)
fix)
^fix,)
F'ix,y
Since Xi approaches a as x ap-
Fix)
Xi
being between a and

a,
x.
proaches
iS F
3.
(x)
i;E F' ixO
F'
(x)
In the neighborhood of x
a, let /' ix)
and F'
ix)
be
Chap. IX.
ROLLE'S
all
THEOREM
=
a.
97
If f (x) and
continuous at
points except x
a,
(x)
approach infinity as x approaches
" F
To show
Since f (x)
this let c
(X)
"2
F'
(I)
f (c)
1,
and F
be near a and on the same side as {x) F (c) are zero when x =
x.
c,
by Theorem
f{xr)^ f{x)-f(c) ^ /(x)'

F'(xi)
(x)
F(c)
F(x)
fix) F(c)
'
where
Xi is
between x and
c.
F F
(x)
increase indefinitely.
(c)/F (x) approach zero.
As x approaches a, / (x) and The quantities / (c)/f (x) and The right side of this equation
therefore approaches
Since Xi
is
between
and
a,
a the
left side of
the equation can be
by taking c sufficiently near to made to approach

F' (x)
.2
Since the
two
sides are
always equal, we therefore conclude
that
"2 F
Example
1.
(x)
'iS
'
(x)
Find the value approached by
sin
as
approaches zero. Since the numerator and denominator are zero when x we can apply Theorem 2 and so get
,.
0,
sin
lim x=0
,.
lim 1=0
cosx =
-
1.
Ex.
2.
Find the value of lim -.

x=,
(tt
r^ x)*
'
98
X
Chap. IX.
When
zero.
= T
,.
the numerator and denominator are both
Hence
l cosx ( sinx) = hm -^^. hm +^= x) -2 x=^ xf x=T
,.
-,
Tj-
(tt
{tt
Since this
is indeterminate time and so obtain
we apply
the method a second
,.
sin
[tt
X
X)
y
x=ic
cosx
^
x=x ^
The
value required
3.
is
therefore
\.
+ Q fl
Ex.
Find the value approached by
O*
tan X
as x ap-
proaches x
id
When
X approaches - the numerator and denominator of

oo.
TT
this fraction approach
Therefore,
by Theorem
,.
3,
lim tan 3
a;=2
.
a:
T -7
tanx
=
TT
,.
lim
sec^ 3
^
a;
lim
3 cos^ x
sec^x
cos^Sx
0-
^-^r-
When
is
replaced
by ^ the
last expression takes the
form
j:
Therefore
,.
hm
3 cos^
cos^ 3
aj a;
TTir-
= hm =
lim
,.
6 cos x sin x
6 cos 3 x sin 3 x
cos^
3 (cos2 3 X
sin^ X - sin2 3 x)
oo.
74.
The Forms
oo
and
oo
By
transforming
r:
the t^ a fraction e expression to
it will
take the form
or
For example,
a;
In
a;
Chap. DC.
ROLLE'S
form
THEOREM
0.
99
can, however, be
has
the
oo
when x =
It
written
I
xmx =
,
In a;
-r
which has the form
00
00
The
expression
sec
tan x
Ît can, however,
has the form

written
sec X
oo
when x =
be
tan x
=
a:
sin
a;
sin
x
,
cos X
cos x
cos X
which becomes ^ when

75.
=
,
The Forms
0**,
1*
oo.
The logarithm of the given

From
the limit of the log1
function has the form
x.
arithm the limit of the function can be determined.
Example.
zero.
Find the limit of
(1
+ x)'
1
as x approaches
Let
i/
(l+x)'.
Then
/I \ny =-ln(l
1 1
+ x)
I
=^+
In (1
1
x)
'-
TNTien
is
zero this last expression becomes ^
Therefore
^^!n(l+) _
x-0
a:
,.
+X
y
The Umit
of In y being 1, the limit of
is e.]
100
EXERCISES
Chap. IX.
1.
Show by RoUe's Theorem

X*
that the equation

1
4x
cannot have more than two real roots.
Determme the
2.
values of the following limits:

17.
3.
4.
Lim
x=o x=0
3^-1 Lira 'ITxio - l' x" - 1 Lim 'ir X 1 a;=l 1 cos X

sin
Lim
If
sec S
sec X
X X
18.
Liml^^.
x=^|sec(x
X
19.
^j
Lim
a;
cot x.
6.
Lim Lim
1=0
X
a;
a
:
20.
Lim
tan x cos 3 x.
sm
a;
_
7.
Lim
x^ cos
x=0 cos X
X -.
1
21. 22.
Lim
X = CI0
(x
+ a)lnfl+-V X/
\
Lim
a;=3
(x
3) cot (ttx).
8.
Lim^5j^. X 3
x=3
23.
rt
9.
T Lim
In cos
a;
Limn ffx + ^)~f(x)' n/ n=oo L V _

f
x=0
10.
X
24.
Lim
x=0
xê**.
Lim
=^2 (x
2)2
11.
Lim
+ cos X
^ X
26.
sin
a;
Lim
a:=0 \a;
^
:
).
1/
cos X (2 sin x
^"gio (s^"
1)
26.
Lim (cotx
x=0
Inx).
12.
13.
~ sin a) tan a) Li^6sinx-6x + x3^

Lim
x=a
logio (tan
27.
Lim tanx
^~9
.tL
smx
r-r
sm*a;J
28.
Lira X*.
a;=0
a;2
x=0
<^
14.
Lim
^
^^^^
1
<A
+
.r
2 tan cos 4
</>
29.
Lim(sinx)***.
-=^1
1
16.
Limi^.
xdro cot
30.
Lim
x=0
(1
+ ax)*.
1
16.
Lim^.
81.
T<im (x"* Zao
a*") in .
CHAPTER X
SERIES
76.
AND APPROXIMATIONS
Mean
tinuousfram x
such thai
Value Theorem. // / (x) and /' (x) are can= a to x = b, there is a value X\ between a and b
fib)-f(a)
b
=
=
/' (xi).
(76T
To show
and /
(6)
this consider the curve
are the ordinates at x
y = f(x). a and x = b,
Since
f (a)
f(b)-f(a) ^
b
^j ^^^^^
^^
distance from
On
the arc
AB
let
Pi be a point at
maximum
Fig. 76.
the chord.
The tangent
(xi) will
and so its slope/'
at Pi will be parallel to the chord equal that of the chord. Therefore
which was to be proved. Replacing 6 by x and solving for/ (x), equation (76) becomes
Six) =/(a)4-(x-a)/'(xi).
101
102
Xi
x.
Chap. X.
being between a and

77.
This
shall
is
a special case of a more

prove.
general theorem which
we
Taylor's Theorem.
If f
now
is
(x)
used are continuous from a to x, there

such that
and all its derivatives a value Xi between a and x
(x)
=f{a)
{x- a)r
(a)
+ ^^^
To prove
{x)
/'"
+^^^r ()+ +^^^

(a)
/" (^>).
this let
=f{x)-f{a)-{x-a)f'{a)
_
It
<t>
{x
- aY
2! ^
{x
^""^
- ay-' (n- 1)!
^"^*
is
easily seen that
(a)
0,
<l>'
(a)
0,
<t>"
. .
(a)
.
0,
r-'
(a)
0,
0"
(x)
/ (x).
When x =
a the function
<l>(x)
{x
a)*
therefore assumes the form ^.
By
Art. 73 there
is
then
value
2i
between a and x such that

<f>
(x)
<t>'
(zi)
(x
aY
{zi
a)"'^
z,
This new expression becomes ^ when

sequently a value
Zi
a.
There
is
con-
between
Zi
and a (and so between x and a)

" (z,)
such that
<f>'(zi)
{zi
^
n
(n
a)"-i
1) (22
a)"""
continuation of this argument gives finally

{x)
0"
(Zn)
(x
/" (Zn)
a)"
n!
n!
'
Chap. X.
2 being
SERIES
AND APPROXIMATIONS
a.
103
between x and
If Xi
we then have
Equating this to the original value of
<t>
(x)
and solving
for
(x),
we
get
f{x)=f{a)
+ (x-a)r(ay
+ (^V'(a)+...+^V"(xO.
which was to be proved. Example. Prove
hix=(x-l)
where
Xi is
2~ + ~~3
1
4^7"*
between
1
and
x.
its
When X =
the values of In x and
derivatives are
/(x)=bi(x).
/' (X)
/(1)=0.
=
l^
r (1) =
1,
r(x) = -i,
r'(x) = |.
r(i) = -1,
r'(i) =
2,
r"(x) = -^,
Taking a hix
r"(xo =
gives
-(!),
1,
Taylor's
Theorem
=
is
+ l(x-l)-i(x-l)2 + ?(x-l)3-^^^^\
the result required.
which
78.
Approximate Values of Functions. in Taylor's formula

(x
The
last
term
a)"
104
is
If this is small,
Chap. X.
called the remainder.

is
an approximate
value of the function
S(x)=fia)
ix-a)ria)
+ -^j
To compute/
of/
/(^) /'
(^)>
(x
- ay
/
(a)
(x
- g)"-^
-(^j-JTiyr
/"
()'
the error in the approximation being equal to the remainder.

(x)
by this formula, we must know the values
(a), /' (a), etc.

^^c.,
We must then assign a value to a such

are known.
that
Furthermore, a should be as
at
close as possible to the value
which f
(x) is
a)^,
wanted.
(x
For,
etc.,
aY, need be computed to give a required approximation. Example 1. Find tan 46 to four decimals.
a,
the smaller x
the fewer terms (x
The value
are
closest to 46 for
which tan x and
its
derivatives
known
/(a;)
is 45".
Therefore
we
let
t'
tana;,
"^W^^'
^'(S)^^'
x,
f (x)=secx,
f"
(x)
= =
2 sec2 X tan 2 sec* X

-\- A.
f" (|) =
x tan^ x.
4,
f"
(x)
sec^
Using these values in Taylor's formula, we get
tan. =
+ 2(.-|) + i(x-.)%/^(.-|;
=
l
and
tan46
approximately.
+ 2(j|5) + 2(j|5)'=
is
1.0355
Since Xi
between 45 and 46, /'"
(xi)
does not
differ
much from
f"
(45)
+8
16.
Chap. X.
SERIES
AND APPROXIMATIONS
is
105
The
error in the
above approximation
thus very nearly
6"
0-0^25. (l^) < 3750? ^ 40:000 =

the value of
of x for
e to
It is
therefore correct to 4 decimals.

2.
Ex.
Fmd
four decimals.
e*
The only value known is a; = 0.

fix) /(O)
which
and
its
derivatives are
We
= =
1,
therefore let a be zero.
= =
e-,
(x)
e*,
r{x)=^,
/"
(0)
1,
/' (0)
1,
f- (x) / (xx)
= =
e*,
e^.
By
Taylor's Theorem,
^=
Letting x
6
+ x + 2i + 3i+
1,
(;rriy!
+ ^+ n!
1-
this
becomes

1+1+^ + 3! 57+
2!
if
+ 7(n
TV-i
1)!
In particular,
2,
e*'.
Since Xi
^
e,
is between and 1. e is then between 2| and 2 + and therefore between 2^ and 4. To get a better approximation let n = 9. Then
+ l + ^ + Jr+--- +3^2-7183
^ ^
approximately, the error being
9!
9]
9]
.00002.
The value
2.7183
is
therefore correct to four decimals.
EXERCISES
Determine the values
decimals:
1.
of
the following functions correct to four
sin 5".
5.
sec (10).
hi
(t?5).
2. 3. 4. 9.
cos 32.
cot 43.
6.
7.
8.
VI.
tan"! i^).
tan 58.
Given
In 3
1.0986, hi 5
1.6094, find hi 17.
106
79.
Taylor's and Maclaurin's Series.
Chap. X.
As
w increases
indefinitely, the
remainder in Taylor's formula
Rn =
often approaches zero.
^^^/" (Xx)
n
In that case

S{x)=\\m\f{a)
This
Six)
is
+ {x-a)r{a)+
~ a)r
+ ^T'^lXj'"' ()|
()
usually written
(X
(a)
=/ (a) +
+^^^V"
3!
the dots at the end signifying the limit of the
sum
as the
infinite
number
of
terms
is
indefinitely increased.
Such an
is
sum
is
called
an
infinite series.
This one
called Taylor's
Series.
In particular,
if
0,
Taylor's Series becomes
/(a;)=/(0)+a;f(0)+|r(0)+|^r'(0)+ ....
This is called Maclaurin's Series. Example. Show that cos x is represented by the
series
cosx=l-2| + 4j-^+
, ,
x^
X*
x*
The
a
series given contains
powers of
x.
This happens when
0,
that
is,
when
(x)
Taylor's Series reduces to Maclaurin's.

cos X,
/
/'
(x)= -sinx, r(x) = -cosx,

/'" (x)
f"
(x)
= =
sin X,
cos X,
/ (0) = 1, /(0)=0, /"(0)=-l, f" (0) = 0, J"" (0) = 1.
These values give

cos X
- 2j + 41 -
-, /"
(a;i).
n
Chap. X.
SERIES
AND APPROXIMATIONS
107
The nth derivative of cos x is cos x or isin x, depending on whether n is even or odd. Since sin x and cos x are never greater than !,/ (xi) is not greater than 1. Furthermore X _X X X
l'2'3* can be made as small as you please by taking n sufl&ciently Hence the remainder approaches zero and so large.
n!
'
^~
,
'
'
cosx
= l-2!
X2
+ 4!~6!"^
X*
x^
'
'
'
EXERCISES
1.
smx = x-3J + ^-yj +
^
a
2x
4x
4x6
^^
,8x^,
"""^
6.
(a
+ x)" =
+ no-x + " %7
if
|xl*<
|o|.
8.
lnx =
ln(x
ln3+^-^^^' + ^^^
.iflx-3I<l.
,if|x-l|<l.
9.
+ 5)-ln6+^^-^|^'+^|^'
the
80.
Convergence and Divergence of Series.
An
in-
finite series is said to converge if
sum
of the first
n terms
approaches a Umit as n increases indefinitely. If this does not approach a limit, the series is said to diverge.
sum
The series for sin x and The geometrical series

a
*
-\-
cos x converge for all values of x.
ar
-{-
ar^
-\-
ar^
-\-
ar*
-\-
The symbol
its
|x| is
out
algebraic sign.
used to represent the numerical value of x withThus, 3 = 3 = 3.

| 1 |
|
108
converges
the
first
when r is numerically n terms is
a
-]r
Chap.
less
than
1.
For the sum of
Sn
ar
-\-
ar^
...-{1, r"
ar""-^
a \
1
^"
If r is numerically approaches
less
than
approaches zero and Sn
as
n increases The series
indefinitely.
1-1 + 1-1 + 1-1+..

is
divergent, for the
not approach a
limit.
1
sum oscillates between and The geometrical series
and does
+ 2 + 4 + 8+16+
diverges because the sum increases indefinitely and so does not approach a limit. 81. Tests for Convergence. The convergence of a series can often be determined from the problem in which it
^^
occurs.
Thus the
series
1
^ 4- ^ _ 2!"^
4!
_j_
'
*
'
6"!"^
converges because the

increases indefinitely.
sum
of
n terms approaches cos

of a series
(if
aj
as
The terms near the beginning

finite)
they are
all
have no influence on the convergence or divergence of the series. This is determined by terms indefinitely far out
in the series.
82.
General Test.
Wl
Fcrr the series
W2
W3
Wn
and sufficient that the sum of terms beyond Un approach zero as n increases indefinitely. For, if the series converges, the sum of n terms must approach a limit and so the sum of terms beyond the nth must approach zero.
to converge it is necessary
Chap. X.
83.
SERIES
AND APPROXIMATIONS
109
beyond
Comparison Test.
series is convergent if
certain point its terms are in numerical value respectively less
than those of a convergent series whose terms are all positive. For, if a series converges, the sum of terms beyond the nth
will
approach zero as n increases indefinitely.

has lesser corresponding terms, their
series will converge.
If
then another
series
smn
will
approach
zero
and the
84.
Ratio Test.
If
^
the ratio
-^
Un
of consecutive terms
^
approaches a limit r as
^1
increases indefinitely, the series

1^2
+ ^3+
.
+W +
Un+l
IS convergent if r is
numerically less than 1 and divergent if r is
numerically greater than 1

Since the limit
is r,
by taking n
sufficiently large the ratio
of consecutive terms can be

If r
<
1, let ri
be a fixed
made as nearly r as we please. number between r and 1. We can

is less
take n so large that the ratio of consecutive terms

ri.
than
Then
Wn+l
<
riMn, Mn+2
<
^Mn+i
<
rÛ,,, etC,
Beyond w the terms

Un
of the given series are therefore less than
those of the geometrical progression
+ riUn + rihin +
rx
is
which converges since

If,
numerically less than
1.
Con-
sequently the given series converges.
however,
r is greater
ultimately increase.
than 1, the terms of the series must The terms do not then approach zero
limit.
and
their
sum cannot approach a

X
Example.
Find for what values of x the
series
. .
+ 2 x2 ^ 3 3^ ^ 4
terms
1) x"+i
is
3^ _^
converges.
The
ratio of consecutive
Wn+i
(n
Un
nx"
-(}-
110
limit of this ratio
r
is
Chap. X.
The
lim [I
n=oo \
if
-] + n/
X.
The
series will
converge
Series.
85.
Power
oo
is
numerically
series of
less than powers of {x
1.
a)
of
the form
P (x) =
+ ai
(x
a)
+ 02 (x a)2 + a3 (x a)' +
where a, ao, ai, a^, etc., are constants, is called a power series. If a power series converges when x = b, it will converge for all values of x nearer to a than b is, that is, such that
\x
a\
<
\b
a\.
b,
In
fact,
if
the series converges
when x =
each term of
-I
Oo
will
+ ai (6
less
a)
02 (6
o)2
+ as (6
M,
a)3
is,
be
than a
maximum
|a {b
value
o)"|
that
< M.
Consequently,
The terms
oo
of the series
oi (x
o)
02
(a;
0)2
-{-
as (x
a)^
are then respectively less than those of the geometrical series
in
which the ratio
is
\x
a\
\b-a\
If
then
|x
o|<|6
a|,
the progression and consequently
the given series will converge.

// o power series diverges when x
valus of X further
b, it will
is,
diverge for all
from a than
jr
is,
that
such that
o|
>
|b
to|,
Chap. X.
SERIES
AND APPROXIMATIONS
111
given
is
could not converge beyond b, since by the proof just would then converge at b. This theorem shows in certain cases why a Taylor's Series not convergent. Take, for example, the series
For
it
it
ln(l
a;)
=^-2!~^3]~4]'*"
X^
3^
X^
'
'
As X approaches
a convergent
diverge
1,
series
In (1 x) approaches infinity. Since cannot have an infinite value, we should
expect the series to diverge when x
= 1.
It
1
must then
from a = 0. The series in fact converges between x = 1 and x = 1 and diverges for values of x numerically greater than 1.
when x
is
at a distance greater than
86.
Operations with Power Series.

multiplied
It
is
shown
in
more advanced
subtracted,
treatises that convergent series
can be added,
In
and divided
like
polynomials.
case of division, however, the resulting series will not usually
converge beyond a point where the denominator
is
zero.
Example.
We
easier,
Express tan x as a series in powers of x. could use Maclaurin's series with / (x) = tan x.
It is
however, to expand sin x and cos x and divide the one by the other to get tan x. Thus
x^
smx = ^~6"'~120~'** ,x3,2x, tanx= z -T =^+-5-+^rT-+

cos X
i_^_i_^_
315
EXERCISES
1.
Show
that
l(l-^) = l^(l+^)-l^(l-^)=2(x+| + | + y+
and
2.
that the series converges
By expanding
.
cos 2 x,
when \x\ show that

.
<
1.
cos 2 X sin3^=^
,
- X* _, ar = 22;-23^
+
,
-. !
2gj
Prove that the
series converges for all values of x.
112
3.
Show
that
Chap. X.
and that the series converges for all values 4. Given / (x) = sm"i x, show that
of x.
Expand
this
differentiating the result.

,
by the binomial theorem and determine /" Hence show that

1
1
(z), etc.,
by
1 x 5a;7 3a:5 8m-x=x + -^ + -.--^+^.^.gy+...
and that the series converges when |x| < L 6. By a method similar to that used in Ex.
tan-i x
4,
show that
= x--5-+g
when
|x|
y+-'
and that the 6. Prove
series converges
<L
24
sec X
=
cos X
= l+-^+-^x*+-.
2
For what values of x do you think the series converges?
CHAPTER XI
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
87.
Functions of
Two
or
More
Variables.
A quantity
y,
is
called
a function of two independent variables x and
u =fix,y),
if
is
determined when arbitrarj^ values (or values arbitrary

y.
within certain limits) are assigned to x and
For example,
U =
is
VI
X2
y2
If w is to be real, x and y must be so not greater than 1. Within that limit, however, x and y can be chosen independently and a value of u will then be determined.
a function of x and y^ chosen that x^
y.
is
In a similar way we define a function of three or more independent variables. An illustration of a function of variables that are not independent is furnished by the area of a triangle. It is a function of the sides a, b, c and angles A B, C of the triangle, but is not a function of these six quantities considered as independent variables; for, if values not belonging to the same triangle are given to them, no triangle and consequently no area will be determined. The increment of a function of several variables is its increase when all the variables change. Thus, if
,
u=f{x,
u
and so
y),
-\-
+ Au = f{x
Aw = / (x
Ax,y
Ax, y
if its
-h
Ay)
+ Ay) - / (x, y).

increment approaches
A
zero
function
is
called continuous
when
all
the increments of the variables approach zero.

113
114
88.
Partial Derivatives.
Chap. XI.
Let
y)
u =f(x,
be a function of two independent variables x and y. If we keep y constant, w is a function of x. The derivative of this function with respect to x is called the 'partial derivative of u with respect to x and is denoted by
fx
Similarly,
stant,
if
'
^'^^^y^'
we
differentiate with respect to y with x con-
we
get the partial derivative with respect to y denoted
by
For example,
then
if
or
fy{x,y).
u = du
Likewise, ^
.
x^
-\-
xy
y"^,
a^=2x +
is
du
y,
Yy^^-^ythem
if
a function of any number of independent
variables, the partial derivative with respect to one of

is
obtained by differentiating with the others constant.

89.
Higher Derivatives.
The
first
partial derivatives
are functions of the

functions partially,
variables.
By
differentiating
these
we
get higher partial derivatives.
For example, the derivatives of

are
with respect to x and y

dydx
dx \dx/
Similarly,
dx^'
dy \dx)
d /du\
d /du\
dx \dy)
It
_ ~
dû
dxdy'
dy \dy)
_ ~
dû dy^
can be shown that

dhi
dhi
dxdy
dydx*
Chap. XI.
if
is,
115
both derivatives are continuous, that
partial derivatives
are independent of the order in which the differentiations are
'performed*
Example,
xhf
+ xy^.
^''^
dxdy
90.
A
dx
(x2
'
=2x + 2y, + 2xy) "' ""

'
^ = ^(x2 + 2a^)=2x.
dy^
dy
Dependent Variables.
It often happens that some

For example,
let
of the variables are functions of others.
w =
and
x^
?/'
+ z*
When y is constant, z will let 2 be a function of x and y. be a function of x and the partial derivative of u with respect to X will be
--=2x4-2 z dx
dx
Similarly, the pari;ial derivative with respect to y with
x con-
stant
is
= 2y + 2z dy dy
'^
If,
however,
we
consider z constant, the partial derivatives
are
du
= ^ 2 dx
du
X.
'
= ^ 2 ^ dy
V.
The value of a partial
derivative thus
depends on what quantities
are kept constant during the differentiation.
The
quantities kept constant are sometimes indicated
by
subscripts.
Thus, in
the above example
dxly,^
*
'
\dx/y
dx
V^x/a
dx
For a proof see Wilson, Advanced Calculus,^ 50.
116
It will usually
Chap. XI.
be clear from the context what independent

of.
variables
is
considered a function
all
Then
will repre-
sent the derivative with
those variables except x constant.
Example.
If
is
a side and
the opposite angle of a right

c,
triangle with hypotenuse
find
(]
\dcjA
From
c
Fig. 90.
the triangle
it is
seen that
c sin
^.
Differentiating with
constant,
we
get
dc
= sm A,
da
.
which
91.
is
the value required.
Geometrical Representation. Let z = f (x, y) be the equation of a surface. The points with constant ycoordinate form the curve AB (Fig. 91a) in which the plane y = constant intersects the surface. In this plane z is the vertical and x the horizontal coordinate. Consequently,
dz
dx
is
AB at P.
x
is
Similarly, the locus of points with given
the curve
CD
and
dy
is
the slope of this curve at P.
Example.
Find the lowest point on the paraboloid

2
x2
At the lowest point, have horizontal tangents.
4y + 6. the curves AB and CD

i/2
2a:
(Fig. 91b) will
Hence
0,
|^=2x-2 dx
1 = 2.-4 =
0.
Chap. XI.
117
Consequently, x = I, y = 2. These values substituted in the equation of the surface give z = I. The point required
is
then
(1, 2, 1).
That
this
is
really the lowest point is
shown
by the graph.
Fig. 91a.
Fig. 91b.
EXERCISES
In each of the following exercises show that the partial derivatives satisfy the equation given:
1.
u
e
2.
+ y^ + y' = (x + a)(, + 6).

=
x'
du dx
du dy
z.
'
g|=
dz
3.
= =
(x'
dz
j/)",
^^~ dx
dy
4.
In (x H-
xy
?/),
x--dx
= + yay
.
2.
du
z
6.
du
du
y'
u = tan"'
u
(^)'
1
dx
^ dy^
.
7.
=
Vx*
Sû
cShx
dhi.
+ y^ + 2*'
<^*
^y*
^2*
In each of the following exercises verify that dx dy dy dx
118
8.
9.
u = M =
-.
In (x^
i;
Chap.
XL
10.
u ^
^ _
sin (x
+ y).
2/2)^
11,
^yg^
12.
Given
= V^~+î'+^,
9^
verify that
dh)
dx dy dz
dz dy dx
2 is
Prove the following relations assuming that

15.
a function of x and y:
. =
..
U.u
+ .).^, | + |.(l+. + ,)(l+| + |)e^. /aw aw\ / dz dz\ = u\x~-y-y xyz, z^x--y-)
(.
^
.16.
17.
'
dxdy
:
\dxdy^ dx
dyj
U a^z = Z d^w Z U 3z\ dx\ dx dxj dx^ dx^

a
/
dtt
If
r cos 8,
r sin
d,
show that
[dxjy
fdx^
jo
18.
Let a and b be the sides of a right triangle with hypotenuse e and opposite angles A and B, Let p be the perpendicular from the vertex of the right angle to the hypotenuse. Show that
[dajb
19.
If
c^'
[daj ijA
')
-C
K
c,
is
which are
the area of a triangle, a side and two adjacent angles of A, B, show that
ldK\
20.
If
^h2
ldK\
â^
a, b, c,
is
the area of a triangle with sides
show that
A. -loot If) \dajb,c 2

21.
Find the lOwest point on the surface

z
= =
2x^
y'^
Sx
-2y + 9.
2 y^
22.
Find the highest point on the surface

z
2 y
x^
2 xy
1.
92. Increment. Let u = f (x, y) be a function of two independent variables x and y. When x changes to a; Aa; and y to y -\- Ay, the increment of u is
û=f{x +
^x,y
Ay)
- f (x,
y).
(92a)
Chap. XI.
119
By
/
(x
the
mean
value theorem, Art. 76,
Xi lying between x
+ Ay) + Az/, (xi, y + Ay), + Ax. Similarly / (x, y + Ay) = / (x, y) + lyfy (x, yi), being between y and y + Ay. Using these values in (92a), yi + Ax, y + ^y)
=fix,y
and x
we
get
Aw = Ax/x (xi, y As Ax and Ay approach

proaches
y.
+ Ay) +
zero, Xi
(x, y)
Ay/
(x, yi).
(92b)
yi
approaches x and
are continuous,
ci
ap-
If /x (x, y)
(iCi,
and /
/.
+ Ay) = /, (x, y) +
(a;,
+
a-.
a..
ei,
/v
ci
yi)
= /
(a;,
y)
^+
2
^,
zero.
and 2 approaching zero as Ax and These values substituted in (92b) give
Ay approach
Aw =
The quantity
^ Ax + ^ Ay +
V- Ax
dx
ei
Ax
Ay.
(92c)
+ dy
Ay
It differs from Au by an As Ax and Ay approach zero, ci and e approach zero and so this difference becomes an indefinitely small fraction of the larger of the increments Ax and Ay. We express this by sajdng the principal part differs from Aw by an infinitesimal of higher order than Ax and Ay (Art. 9). When Ax and Ay are sufficiently small this principal part then
is
called the principal part of Aw.

ei
amount
Ax +
ez
Ay.
gives a satisfactory approximation for Aw.
Analogous results can be obtained for any number of independent variables. For example, if there are three independent variables x, y, z, the principal part of Aw is
dw
In each case,
if
du du Ax+ Ay + Az. dx dy dz
.
,
the partial derivatives are continuous, the
120
from
Chap. XI.
principal part differs

indefinitely small in
Am by an amount which becomes
comparison with the largest of the increments of the independent variables as those increments all approach zero. Example. Find the change in the volume of a cylinder when its length increases from 6 ft. to 6 ft. 1 in. and its diameter decreases from 2 ft. to 23 in.
Since the volume
is y
irr^, the exact
change
is
Av
TT
(1
- ^y
(6
+ tV)
x. p. 6
is
-0.413
TTCU.
ft.
The
principal part of this increment
I A. + I AA = 2 . rt (- 1) + . 93. Total Differential. m

If
r^
(j|)
= -0.417 . cu', ft.

of
is
a function of two inde-
pendent variables x and y, the principal part of Aw, that is,
total differential
is
the
particular values
This definition applies to any function of x and u = x and u = y give dx = Ax, dy = Ay,
is,
y.
The
(93b)
that
the differentials of the independent variables are equal
lo their increments.
Combining
(93a)
and
<^w
(93b),
we
get
(93c)
is
fix
+ ^ dy.
We shall show later

if
(Art. 97) that this equation x and y are not the independent variables.
valid even
The
quantities
,
dxU
= du rdx
dx,
dyU
du = -rdy ^
,
dy
are called partial

tha t the
differentials.
Equation (93c) expresses

is equal to the
total differential of
a function
sum
of the
partial differentials obtained by letting the variables change one
at a time.
Chap. XI.
121 any number
Similar results can be obtained for functions of

of variables.
For instance,
x, y, z,
if
is
a function of three inde-
pendent variables
du
= ^- Ax
dx
+ dy
x,
Ay
-\-
- Az.
dz
z give
The The
particular values
u = y,u =
dx
Ax,
dy
Ay,
dz
Az,
pre\aous equation can then be written
du=pdx-\-pdy+^dz dx dy dz
and
(93d)
in this form it can be proved valid even when x, y, z are not the independent variables. Example 1. Find the total differential of the function
w =
x^ + xy^.
By
equation (93c)
du , du = -r~dx
dx
du J + --dy dy = (2x2/ + y') dx+(x'-{-2xy) dy.

.
Ex. 2. Find the error in the volume of a rectangular box due to small errors in its three edges. Let the edges be 5, y, z. The volume is then
V
xyz.
x, y, z, is
The
If
error in
v,
due to small errors Ax, Ay, Az in
Av.
the increments are sufficiently small, this will be approxidv
mately
yz dx
-\-
xz dy
+ xy dz.
-\-
Dividing
by
v,
we
get
dv
V
yz dx
-{-
xz dy
xy dz
xyz
= dx
xyz
,
dy
dz
Now expresses the
dx
error
(2x
as a fraction or percentage of x.
122
Chap. XI.
The equation
error in the
just obtained expresses that the percentage

is
volume
equal to the
sum
of the percentage
errors in the edges.
If,
for example, the error in each edge
is not more than one per cent, the more than three per cent.
error in the
volume
is
not
94.
Calculation of Differentials.
In proving the formuu,

v,
las of differentiation it
was assumed that
etc.,
were
functions of a single variable.
It is easy to
show that the
same formulas are valid when those quantities are functions of two or more variables and du, dv, etc., are their total
differentials.
Take, for example, the differential of uv.

result
is
By
-\-
(93c) the
(uv)
-r- (uv)
du
du
-\--r- (uv)
dv
dv
du
dv,
which is the formula IV of Art. 17. Example, u = ye^ -\- ze". Differentiating term by term, we get
du
= y^ dx
-\-
^ dy
-}-
ze"
dy
+ e" dz.
;
We
obtain the same result by using (93d)
for that formula
gives
du =
95.
^-1/
Silt
-;-
dx
dx
-^ -T-
dy
dy
Sxt + -rdz = dz
yei'
dx
-\-
(e'
+ ze^) dy + e dz.
Differentials.
Partial
Derivatives as Ratios
of
The equation
dxU
-r-
dx
dx
shows that the partial derivative

ferentials dxU
is
the ratio of two
dif-
and dx. Now dxU is the value of du when the same quantities are kept constant that are constant in the
calculation of
^r-.
dx
Therefore, the partial derivative
^r- is the
dx
Chap. XI.
reduces
123
value
the
.
to
which
-r-
dx
when du and dx are determined with

that are constant
same quantities constant du
in the calculation
Example.
Given u
x^
-\-
y^
-{- z^,
xyz, find
v
(^)
Dififerentiating the
two equations with

2 y dy,
and
-\-
z constant,
we
get
du
=
du
2 X dx
-\-
=
2
f \
yz dx
xz dy.
Eliminating dy,
dx = 2xdx-2^ X
^'
~
X
^'
) dx.
/ is
Under the given conditions the

du
dx
Since
i;
ratio of
du to dx
then
(x^
y^y
and
z were kept constant, this ratio represents
that
is,
lbu\
(x^
y)
W/r,z
EXERCISES
a right triangle increases from 5 to 5.2 while the other decreases from 12 to 11.75. Find the increment of the hypotenuse and
1.
One
side of
its
principal part.
2.
closed box, 12 in. long, S in. wide,
and
6 in. deep,
is
made
of
material \ inch thick. used.

3.
Find approximately the volume of material

are h
and
Two sides and the included angle of a triangle A = 45. By using the formula a* = 6^ + c^ 2 6c cos A,
when
is
20, c
30,
find approximately the change in a
b increases 1 unit, c decreases
5 unit,
4.
and
increases 1 degree.
of
The period
a simple pendulum
r = 2xv'-.
Find the error in
T due to small errors
in
and
g.
124
6.
If
J7
Chap. XI.
is
computed by the formula,

s
h gi\
find the error in g

6.
due to small
is
errors in s
and
t.
The
area of a triangle
determined by the formula

^
ah
smC.
Find the error in K due to small errors in a, b, C. Find the total differentials of the following functions:
7.
xyV.
xyainix
9.
y
8.
+^ + -. z X
X
+ y).
10.
tan-i -
tan-i -
The pressure, volume, and temperature of a perfect gas are connected by the equation -pv = kt, k being constant. Find dp in terms of
11.
dv and
12.
dt.
If X,
y are rectangular and
r,
d polar coordinates of the
same
point,
show that
xdy - ydx =
13.
li
r^djd,
dx^
+
(
dy"^
=
' I
dr^
r^ dfi.
= u
V,
=
-\-
u^
-\- v^,
find
\dV jy
yz, find
I
14.
li
u = xy
+ yz
zx, x^
z'^
-r-
16.
16.
is
li yz
= ux
v^,
vx
= uy
z^,
find
h, c
\dzju,x
A variable
triangle with sides a,
and opposite angles A, B,
inscribed in a fixed circle.
Show
cos
that
cos
cos
96.
Derivative of a Function of Several Variables.
Let u
^
:c
= f (x, y) and let x and and When t changes to

t.
Ax and y
+ Ay.
y be functions of two variables < Af, x and y will change to The resulting increment in u will be
Aw =
Consequently,
Ax +
Ai/
d Ax
C2
Ay.
Am _ du Lx du ^y Ax Ay A<~dxA7"^dyAf"^''A'^''A<
As A< approaches
zero,
Ax and Ay
will
approach zero and so
Chap. XI.
will
125
both
sides,
ci
and
62
approach
dt
zero.
Taking the
dt
t
limit of
dx
dy
dt
If
a:
or y
is
a function of
only, the partial derivative
dx
at
or
^
dt
is
replaced
by a
of
total derivative
<,
-r:
or -^
at
If
both x
at
and y are functions

tive
is
a function of
with total deriva-
du
Likewise,
_du
dx
du
dt~didt'^dydt'
if t( is
/OAK> ^^^^
z,
a function
of three variables x, y,
that
depend on
t,
du
m ~
As
before,
is
if
_ du dx
is
du dy du dz dx It '^ dy It '^ dz
a function of
t
W
its
(Qf^\
^ ^
a variable
only,
partial de-
rivative
replaced by a total one.

of variables.
Similar results hold for
any number The term
du dx dx ~di
is
the result of differentiating u with respect to
t,
leaving
all
the variables in
(96c)
ties,
u except x constant. Equations (96a) and express that if u is a function of several variable quantidifferentiating with respect to
t
can he obtained by
dll
as
if
only one of those quantities were variable at a time

the results.
and adding
Example
1.
Given y
x', find
-p-
The function
ables, the lower
x* can be considered a function of
two
vari-
x and the upper x. If the upper x is held constant and the lower allowed to vary, the derivative (as in
case of X")
is
x*-i
*,
126
If the lower
x
is
Chap. XI.
held constant while the upper varies, the

is
derivative (as in case of a")
af In
a;.
The
actual derivative of y
is
then the
sum
-^
Ex.
2.
0:="
-h af In x.
Given u
= f (x,y,
z),
y and
being functions of x,
n J find 3--
du
By
ax equation (96c) the result
is
du _ du
dx
dx
du dy dy dx
du dz
dz dx
In this equation there are two derivatives of u with respect If y and z are replaced by their values in terms of x, u to X. The derivative of that function "will be a function of x only.
is -T.
liy and z are replaced by constants, u

x.
will
be a second
function of
Its derivative
is
du tax
Ex. 3. Given u = f {x,y, z), z being a function of x and Find the partial derivative of u with respect to x.
It is
y.
differentiation.
understood that y is to be constant in this partial Equation (96c) then gives
du
dx
_ du
dx
du dz dz dx
In this equation appear two partial derivatives of u with respect to x. If z is replaced by its value in terms of x and y, u will be expressed as a function of x and y only. Its partial
If z is is the one on the left side of the equation. kept constant, u is again a function of x and y. Its partial derivative appears on the right side of the equation. We must not of course use the same symbol for both of these derivatives. A way to avoid the confusion is to use the
derivative
Chap. XI.
127
It
letter / instead of
u on the right side of the equation.

du
then
becomes
_ df^.dl
dx
dz
'
dx
It
is
dz dx
understood that/
-r=^ is
(x, y, z) is
definite function of x, y, z
all
and that
dx
the derivative obtained with
the variables
but x constant.
97.
Change
of Variable.
If m
,
is
a function of x and y
we have
said that the equation
du =
is
du
-r-
dx
dx
->r
du J - ay
dy
and y are the independent variables or not. and t be the independent variables and x and y functions of them. Then, by definition,
true whether x
To show
this let s
du
Since u
is
-r-
ds
ds
+ -^ dt
dt.
a function of x and y which are functions of s and

(96a),
t,
by equation
du
ds
du d3C dx ds
du dy
'
du
dt
dy ds
du dx dx dt
du dy
dy
dt
Consequently,
J
/du dx
du dy\
dx ,A
fdu dx
J
dudy\
du jA
,^
du/dXj
rx{a^'''
+ M'^) + ry[fa'^+mV = rx''^ + Ty'''<'

in
du/dy
du
du
which was to be proved. A similar proof can be given

variables.
case of three or
more
98. Implicit Functions. If two or more variables are connected by an equation, a differential relation can be obtained by equating the total differentials of the two sides of
the equation.
128
1.
Chap. XI.
Example
(x, y)
0.
In this case
d'fix,y)
Consequently,
=^dx+^dy = d*0 =
0.\
dy
dx
Ex.
dx
2.
(x, y, z)
0.
df df df ^dx+^dy+^dz^â, dx dy dz
If z is considered a function of x and y, its partial derivative with respect to x is found by keeping y constant. Titen
dy
and
d dx
_ _ ~
=
ax
dj_'
dz
Similarly,
if a; is
constant, dx
and
dz
dy_
dy~
Ex.
3.
/i {x, y, z)
df
dz
0, /2 {x, y, z)
0.
We
have two
differential relations
fâx+f^dy^f^dzÔ.
df:
dfi
dfi
fUx-^l^dy^fUzÔ,
We We
could eliminate y from the two equations should then obtain s as a function of x.
/i
0, fz
0.
The
total de-
Chap. XI.
is
129
rivative of this function
found by eliminating dy and solving
dz
for the ratio
dx
-r-
The
result is
dz
dfidf2__dhdh dx dy dy dx
dx
dfidh__dfidf2
dz dy
dy dz
99.
Directional Derivative.
point
(x, y) in
the xy-plane,
move away from
P in
Let u = f {x, y). At each u has a definite value. If we any definite direction PQ, x and y will
Fig. 99.
be functions of the distance moved. with respect to s is
Thfc derivative of
du
ds
du dx dx ds
dii dy dy ds
dii
du
dy
dx
This
is
called the derivative of
in the direction
PQ.
The
partial derivatives -r- and -r- are special values of -r- which ^ dx dy ds result when PQ is drawn in the direction of OX or OY.
Similarly,
if
w =/
,
(x, y, z),
du
ds
is
T-
dudy du dx = = T~T~ + ^j~ + ^Tr dy ds dz ds dx ds

,
du dz
du
"E~
dx
cos
a-f^- cos /3 +
, ,
du
dy
du
-T-
cos
dz
the rate of change of u w4th respect to
as
line
with direction cosines cos
a, cos
/3,
cos y.
we move along a The partial
130
derivatives of
u
are the values to which
Chap. XI.
du
-r-
reduces
ds
when
s is
measured in the direction of a coordinate Example. Find the derivative of x^ +

<t>
axis.
y^ in
the direction
45 at the point
result
is
(1, 2).
The
OS
^(x^-hy') = 2x^+2y^==2xcos<f>-\-2ysm<f>
OS OS
=
100.
2~ + 4-4== 3V2.
+
If
Exact Differentials.
P
y,
and Q are functions
of
two independent variables x and
Pdx
may
and
or
y.
Qdy
a;
may
not be the total differential of a function w of
If it is the total differential of
such a function,
-\-
P dx
-\-
Q dy = du =
-r-
dx
dx
-T- dy.
dy
Since dx and dy are arbitrary, this requires
du dx
Consequently,
dy
dP
dy
dH ~ dydx
dQ
dx
dhi
dx dy
Since the two second derivatives of
u with
respect to x
and
y are equal,
An
it is
expression
P dx
-\-
Qdy
\s
called
an exact
differential
y.
if
the total differential of a function of x and
We
{
have
just
it
shown that
(100a)
if
must then be
satisfied.
Conversely,
can be shown that
this equation is satisfied
P dx
Qdy
is
an exact
differential.*
^ See Wilson,
Advanced Calculus,
92.
Chap. XI.
Similarly,
if
131
Pdx
is
+ Qdy +
dQ^dR
Rdz
x, y, z,
the differential of a function u of
dP^dQ
'
dR^dP
dx
dz
dy
dx
dz
dy'
(100b)
and conversely. Example 1. Show that

(x2
is
-h2xy)dx+
(x2
+ y') dy
an exact
differential.
In this case
The two
exact.
partial derivatives being equal, the expression is
Ex.
2.
In thermodynamics
it is
shown that
being the
dU = T dS p dv, internal energy, T the absolute
temperature,
the entropy, p the pressure, and v the volume of a homogeneous substance. Any two of these five quantities can be
assigned independently
and the others are then determined.
Show
that
\dp)s
\ds).
The
result to
be proved expresses that
TdS +
is
dp
is
an exact
differential.
That such
-\-
the case
is
shown by
replacing
T dS by its value dU + pdv. We thus get TdS + vdp = dU pdv-^vdp = d(U + pv).
EXERCISES
w =/ =/
1.
If
(x, y),
<f>
(x),
find
2.
If
{x, y,
z),z=4>
(x),
find
[^
'
132
3.
l!u =f{x,
If
y, z), z
Chap. XI.
= =
<l>
(x, y),
y
r
=^
(x), find
^.
f
4.
M =/
(x, y),
4>
{x, r),
=^
(x, s),
find
|^j
and
5. 6.
U/ (X,
If
J,,
2)
= =
0, z
0,
= F
(X, y),
find^-
(x, y, z)
show that
i dx dy dz^ dy dZ dx
7.
If
M = x/ w =/
(z),
-,
show that x s
dx
f-
V t " dy
that
8.
If
(r, s),
= x+a<,
= y + 6<, show
-r-
-rr 3i
a tdx
+&
5j/
9.
If z
= / (x
+ ay),
x
show that
r cos 9,
dy
dx
10.
li
u =f
(x, y),
r sin 0,
show that
(5r+(^sy=(s)'+(s)'
moving in a plane is determined by the coordinates h, k of the moving origin and the angle <t> between the moving x-axis and a fixed one. A variable point P has coordinates x', y' with respect to the moving axes and x, y with respect to
11.
The
position of a pair of rectangular axes
the fixed ones.
Then
y', h, k,
),
=f (x',
y
it is
= F
the
(x', y', h, k,
0).
one reprewere rigidly connected with the moving axes, the other representing its velocity with respect
Find the velocity
of P.
Show
that
sum
if it
of
two
parts,
senting the velocity the point would have
to those axes conceived as fixed.
Find the directional derivatives of the rectangular coordinates y and the polar coordinates r, ^ of a point in a plane. Show that they are identical with the derivatives with respect to s given in Arts. 54 and
12.
X,
69. 13.
Find the derivative of

(3, 4).
x^
y' 'm the direction
<f>
30 at the
point
14.
is
At a distance
.
r in space the potential

directional derivative.
due to an
electric
charge e
F=
16.
Find
its
Show
that the derivative of xy along the normal at any point of
the curve x^
y^
a^ is zero.
Chap. XI.
16.
= f {x,
y),
133
Given u
show that
if i
and 82 are measvu*ed along i>erpendiciilar directions. Determine which of the following expressions are exact 17. y dx X dy. 18. {2x + y)dx + (x-2y) dy. 19. exdx+ eydy + (x + J/) asdz. 20. yzdx xzdy + y^dz. 21. Under the conditions of Ex. 2, page 131, show that
differentials:
\dT)p
22.
\dp)T
\dT}v
KdvJT
In case of a perfect gas, pv
kT.
Using this and the equation
dU = TdS -pdv.
show that
dp
Since
that
U is always a function of U is & function of T only.
p and T,
this last
equation expresses
101.
Direction of the Normal at a Point of a Surface.
Let the equation of a surface be
F
(x, y, z)
0.
dF
dx
Let PN through P
direction
tional to
.dF,
,dF,
dz
^
(101a)
dy " Une be the (x, y, z) with

propor-
cosines
dF^dF^dF
dx' dy
If
'
dz
moves along a curve

surface, the direc-
on the
tion cosines of its tangent
PT are
proportional to
:
dx
dy
dz.
Equation (101a) expresses that PN and PT are perpendicular to each other (Art. 61). is perpendicuConsequently
PN
134
lar to all the
tangent lines through P.
to the
Chap. XI.
is
This
expressed by-
saying PA'"
is
the normal to the surface at P.

surface
that the normal
(x, y, z)
at
We conclude P {x, y, z) has

(101)
direction cosines proportional to
^:^:^.
dx
102.
dy
dz
B,
Equations of the Normal at Pi {xi, yi, zi). Let A, be proportional to the direction cosines of the normal
(xi, yi, zi).
to a surface at Pi
The equations
of the
normal
are (Art. 63)
xA
xi
_ y-yr _ z- Zi ~ B ~ C
^^^^^
'
Equation of the Tangent Plane at Pi (cci, j/i, si). All the tangent lines at Pi on the surface are perpendicular
103.
Fig. 103.
to the normal at that point.
All these lines therefore
lie in
plane perpendicular to the normal, called the tangent plane

at Pi.
It is
shown
in analytical
geometry that
\i
A, B,
are pro-
portional to the direction cosines of the normal to a plane
passing through
(xi, y\, Zi),
the equation of the plane

y{)
is
A{x-Xx)^B{y*
(z
z,)
0.*
(103)
See Phillips, Analytic Geometry, Art. 68.
Ch.\p. XI.
P.\RTL\L DIFFERENTL\TIOX
135
A, B, C are proportional to the direction cosines of the normal to a surface at Pi, this is then the equation of the
If
tangent plane at Pi. Example. Find the equations of the normal line and tangent plane at the point
x2
(1,
1,
3z
2) of the ellipsoid
+
2
2t/2
+
3
= 3x+12.
3 X
The equation given

x2
is
j/2
equivalent to
22
12
0.
The
direction cosines of its
normal are proportional to the

:
partial derivatives
2z
4y
2.
At the point
(1,
1,
2),
these are proportional to
A :B :C = -1
The equations
of the
-4
1
12
-12.
normal are
1
_ ~
y 44
2-2
~ -12
is
'
The equation
X
of the tangent plane

1
+ 4 (y +
1)
12
(0
2)
0.
EXERCISES
Find the equations of the normal and tangent plane to each of the
following surfaces at the point indicated:
1.
Sphere, z
2. 3. 4.
6. 6.
Cylinder, x
Cone, 2^ t/*, Hj'perbohc paraboloid, xy = 3 z 4, at (5, 1, 3). EUiptic paraboloid, x = 2 y* -|- 3 2*, at (5, 1, 1).
+ y + 2' = 9, at (1, 2, + ly + = 7, at (2, = x + at (3, 4, 5).

!/
2).
-3,
3).
Find the
locxis of
points on the cylinder

(x
+ 2)* +
(y
2)
where the normal

7.
J/*
is
parallel to the xy-plane.
Show
4- 2*
that the normal at anj- point P (x, y, z) of the surface 4 X makes equal angles with the x-axis and the line joining that the normal to the spheroid
9
and
8.
(1, 0, 0).
Show
"^25
at
P
(0,
(x, y, z)
determines equal angles with the lines joining
with
A'
-4, 0) and
(0, 4, 0).
136
104.
Chap. XI.
of
Variables.
Maxima and Minima A maximum value
of
Functions
Several
of a function
is
a value
greater than
any given by neighboring values of the variables. In passing from a maximum to a neighboring value, the funcis
tion decreases, that
Aw <
0.
(104a)
A minimum
value
is
a value
less
boring values of the variables.

to a neighboring value
than any given by neighIn passing from a minimum

0.
Aw >
(104b)
If the condition (104a) or (104b) is satisfied for all small
changes of the variables, it must be satisfied when a single If then all the independent variables but variable changes.
X are kept constant, u must be a maximum or minimum du If is continuous, by Art. 31,
in x.
i=
zero
0.
(1040
Therefore, if the first 'partial derivatives of u with respect to the independent variables are continuous, those derivatives must be
when u
is
maximum
if
or
minimum.
When
is zero.
the partial derivatives are zero, the total differential
For example,
x and y are the independent vari-
ables,
du
=^dx +^ dy
u
is zero
'
dx
'
dy
0.
(104d)
Therefore, if the
total differential of
first partial derivatives
are continuous, the
when u
is either
maximum
or a
minimum.
To find the maximum and minimum values of a function, we equate its differential or the partial derivatives with respect to the independent variables to zero
resulting equations.
It is usually possible to decide
is
and solve the from

a maximum,
the problem whether a value thus found
minimum, or
neither.
Chap. XI.
1.
137
paralielo-
Example
Let
X, y,
Show that
the
maximuin rectangular
is
piped with a given area of surface
a cube.
If F" is
zhe
the edges of the parallelepiped.

surface
the
volume and
A the area of its A = V = xyz,
2 xy \- 2 xz
-\-
yz.
Two
X, y.
of the variables x, y, z are independent.
Let them be
Then
z
A -2xy
2{x-\-y)
Therefore
-2 xy) + y) -2x^-4xy l &V^t P ^ dx {x + yy J 2L dV ^x^TA -2y^ -4 xy

V=
xy (A
2{x
"'
dy
2L
0,
(x-\-yr
"
The
values x
=
=
0,
cannot give maxima.
Hence
A -
2x^
4:xy
A 2 xz
2y^
4:xy
0.
Solving these equations simultaneously with
A =
we
get
2 xy
-\-
\-
yz,
We know
Ex.
2.
there
is
it
maximum.
Since the equations give
only one solution
must be the maximum.

in the plane
Find the point
x
nearest to the origin.
+ 2i/ + 30=
14
The distance from any point

origin
is
(x, y, z)
of the plane to the
D=
a/x2
2/2
2?.
138
If this is
a
Chap. XI.
minimum
d.j)
^ ^dx-\-ydy-\-zdz ^
Va;2
+
-{-
7/2
+ 22
= =
0.
that
is,
X dx
+ y dy
2 dy
z dz
(104e)
From
the equation of the plane
we
get
0.
dx
-\-
-{-
3 dz
(104f)
The only equation connecting x, y, z is that of the plane. Consequently, dx, dy, dz can have any values satisfying this
last equation.
If x, y, z are so
chosen that Z)
is
a minimum
by all of these values. If two linear equations have the same solutions, one is a multiple of the Corresponding coefficients are proportional. The other. Those in (104f) coefficients of dx, dy, dz in (104e) are x, y, z. are 1, 2, 3. Hence
(104e)
must be
satisfied
_y _ z I~2~3"
Solving these simultaneously with the equation of the plane, we get a; = 1, 2/ = 2, 2 = 3. There is a minimum. Since
we
get only one solution,
it is
the
minimum.
EXERCISES
1.
An
open rectangular box
is
to
have a given capacity.
Find the
dimensions of the box requiring the least material. 2. A tent having the form of a cylinder surmounted by a cone is to contain a given volume. Find its dimensions if the canvas required is a
minimum.
3.
When an
electric current of strength / flows

is
through a wire of
resistance
the heat produced
proportional to
PR.
Two
terminals
are connected by three wires of resistances Ri, Ri, Rz respectively. A given current flowing between the terminals will divide between the wires in such a way that the heat produced is a minimum. Show that the currents Ii, h, h in the three wires will satisfy the equations
IiRi
4.
TiRi
/jRj.
particle attracted
toward each
of three points A, B,
with a
force proportional to the distance will be in equilibrium
when the sum
Chap. XI.
PARTUL DIFFERENTUTION
from the pwints
ib least.
139
Find the
posi-
of the squares of the distances
tion of equilibrium.
6.
Show
that the triangle of greatest area with a given perimeter
is
equilateral.
adjacent sides of a room are plane mirrors. A ray of light P strikes one of the mirrors at Q, is reflected to a point R on the second mirror, and b there reflected to 5. If P and S are in the
6.
Two
starting at
find the positions of Q and R so that the path be as short as possible. 7. A table has four legs attached to the top at the comers Ai, Ai, A 3, Ai of a square. A weight placed upon the table at a point of the diagonal A1A3, two-thirds of the way from Ai to A3, will cause the legs to shorten the amounts Si, sj, sj, S4, while the weight itself sinks a distance h. The increase in potential energy due to the contraction of a The decrease in leg is /:*, where A; is constant and s the contraction. potential energy due to the sinking of the weight is Wh. The whole system \s"ill settle to a position such that the potential energy is a minimum. Assuming that the top of the table remains plane, find the
same horizontal plane
PQRS may
ratios of
Sj, Sj, Sj, S4.
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES
CHAPTER
Find the
^-
III
differentials of the following functions:
^
""
,
6.
(a2
a;2)
Va^
- x\
2
3
+& 2Vax'' + bx
6
Vox*
6x
4,
'
+ 7)^ + 5)3 (x + 2) (x + 4)^ (x + 1)2 (x + 3)6"

(2x+l)(2x
(2x
2ax + b Vox- + &a; +

(ax
(2x-l)V^Hn:
x' _,
'
ft)'H-2
6(ax+b)"+i
a^ (n
^-
o2 (n
-T-
2)
1)
10-
a;
(x"
+ n)
'
Find
11. 12.
13. 14. 15.
in each of the following cases:
6x-4y + 18. + 3 x7/ = x = Sy^ + 2yK = 2a2(x2-2/). (x2 + ^ X = + -^, y = 2ti-1' ^ " (<-l)
2x2-4x2/4-3^2 =
2/3.
x^
2/2)2
16.
X
X X
x2
=
= =
<
V1 +
/
< (<2
'
y
'^
<2
Vl 2/2
/2
17.
18. 19.
+ a2)4
8,
y
2
2/2
z2 + 2 + 22 = a2,
= t{t^-\- a2)5. = + 22/. = &2.

of
20.
The volume elasticity
fluid is e
v-j-.
e
according to Boyle's law, p

21.
constant,
show that
p.
a gas expands without receiving or giving out heat, the pressure, volume, and temperature satisfy the equations
pv
R, n,
When
= RT,
pv"
C,
and
C being
constants.
Find -^ and
140
22.
If 9 is
141
the volume of a spherical segment of altitude h, show that
an
jT
is
equal to the area of the circle forming the plane face of the segment.
If
23.
a polynomial equation
/(x)=0
has two roots equal to
r,
/ /
(x)
(x)
has (x
=
x.
(X
r)* as a factor, - r)Vi (x),

=
0,
that
is,
where /i
where/'
(x) is
a polynomial in
Hence show that

(x)
r is
a root of
f
(x) is
Show by the method

24. x^ 25.
26. 27.
x3
the derivative of/ (x). of Ex. 23 that each of the following equations
it:
has a double root and find
3 x
x^
+4=
5X
0.
0.
4x-8x* -3x
4x^
<ir
+9
=0. =0.
12x
+ x* + 12x + 4
Find -^ and
28.
-j-^
in each of the following cases.

31. 32.
ox*
X Vo*
- X*.
^
'''-(?+T?30. XT/ =a^
34. 35.
If
J/
ax by X = 2 +
+ c = Q.
3<,
= 4-5/.
^
33.
x =
. " 1 ^., + !' +

*
x^,
find
g and 01,
Given
x*
y* =
verify that
d^y
dbfi
_ (Pxfdy^ _ ~ dy^ \dxj

x"
'
36.
If
ra
is
a positive integer, show that

-5-:
=
x,
,
dx"
37.
d*
,
constant,
If
andi;
.
are functions of
show that
dhi
^(u.) -=^..
ihi
+ 4^.^
,
.dhi
dv
du + u^. +6^.^ + 4^.^

<Pv
,
cPv
d*v
CJompare this with the binomial expansion for (u

38.
If
)*.
(x)
(x
r)3/i (x),
where
/i (x) is
a polynomial, show that

^
/'(r)=/"(r)=0.
142
CHAPTER
39.
IV
<
A particle
t
moves along a
s
straight line the distance
4 <3
21
i2
+ 36 +
feet in
seconds.
Find
its
particle
moving forward?
and acceleration. When is the When backward? When is the velocity

velocity
different points
If
increasing?
40.
When
decreasing?
and move along the same the train in front moves a distance 6 t^ in t hours and the rear one 12 t^, how fast will they be approaching or separating at the end of one hour? At the end of two hours? When will they be closest together? 41. If s = Vt, show that the acceleration is negative and proportrains start
Two
from
track in the same direction.
tional to the cube of the velocity.

42.
The
its
velocity of a particle
V
moving along a
straight line is
= 2P -3t.
2.
Find
43.
44.
acceleration
when
is
li V-
k
s
-,
where k
constant, find the acceleration.

'
Two
is
wheels, diameters 3
and 5
ft.,
are connected
by a
is
belt.
What What
45.
the ratio of their angular velocities and which

the ratio of their angular accelerations?
greater?
is
Find the angular velocity of the earth about its axis assuming that there are 365| days in a year. 46. A wheel rolls down an inclined plane, its center moving the
distance s
47.
= 5P
its
in
seconds.
Show
that the acceleration of the
wheel about
interest
is
axis
is
constant.
An amount
If the of money is drawing interest at 6 per cent. immediately added to the principal, what is the rate of
change
48.
of the principal?
If
water flows from a conical funnel at a rate proportional to the square root of the depth, at what rate does the depth change? If the 49. A kite is 300 ft. high and there are 300 ft. of cord out.
moves horizontally at the rate of 5 miles an hour directly away from the person flying it, how fast is the cord being paid out? 50. A particle moves along the parabola
kite
100 y in such a
51.
16x2
way
that
its
abscissa changes at the rate of 10 ft./ sec.

its
Find
the velocity and acceleration of
projection on the
is
j/-axis.
The
large
side of
an equilateral triangle
its
increasing at the rate of

ft.
10
ft.
per minute and

is
area at the rate of 100 sq.
per minute.
How
the triangle?
143
CHAPTER V
52.
The
velocity of
waves
of length X in deep water is proportional to
V^
when a
X
is
a constant.
Show
that the velocity

of a sphere
least
is
a minimum when
a.
53.
that the
54.
The sum of the surfaces sum of the volumes is
and cube is given. Show when the diameter of the sphere
equals the edge of the cube.
A A
box
is
to be
made
by
cutting equal squares from the comers and turning

of the largest
out of a piece of cardboard, 6 inches square, up the sides.
Find the dimensions

55.
gutter of trapezoidal section
box that can be made in this way. is made by joining 3 pieces of
material each 4 inches wide, the middle one being horizontal.
How
wide should the gutter be at the top to have the maximum capacity? 56. A gutter of rectangular section is to be made by bending into shape a strip of copper. Show that the capacity of the gutter wOl be greatest if its width is twice its depth. 57. If the top and bottom margins of a printed page are each of width a, the side margins of width b, and the text covers an area c, what should be the dimensions of the page to use the least paper? 58. Find the dimensions of the largest cone that can be inscribed
in a sphere of radius a.
59.
Find the dimensions

a.
of the smallest
cone that can contain a
sphere of radius
60. To reduce the friction of a Uquid against the walls of a channel, the channel should be so designed that the area of wetted svuâce is as small as possible. Show that the best form for an open rectangular channel with given cross section is that in which the width equals twice the depth. 61. Find the dimensions of the best trapezoidal chaimel, the banks
.iiaking
62.
an angle 6 with the vertical. Find the least area of canvas that can be used to make a conical
ft.
tent of 1000 cu.

63.
capacity.
Find the
maximum
capacity of a conical tent

light
made
of 100 sq.
ft.
of canvas.
64.
Find the height of a
above the center of a table
of radius a,
so as best to illuminate a point at the edge of the table; assimaing that the illumination varies inversely as the square of the distance from the
Ught and directly as the sine of the angle between the rays and the
surface of the table.
144
65. A weight of 100 lbs., hanging 2 ft. from one end of a lever, is to be raised by an upward force appUed at the other end. If the lever weighs 3 lbs. to the foot, find its length so that the force may be a
minimum.
66.
vertical telegraph pole at a

ft.
from tipping over by a stay 40

stake in the grovmd.
bend in the line is to be supported long fastened to the pole and to a
How
far
from the pole should the stake be

as just to
driven to
67.
make the tension in the stay as small as possible? The lower corner of a leaf of a book is folded over so
If the
reach the inner edge of the page.
width of the page
is
6 inches,
find the width of the part folded over
when the length
of the crease is
a minimum.
68. If the cost of fuel for running a train is proportional to the square of the speed and $10 per hom* for a speed of 12 mi./hr., and the fixed charges on $90 per hour, find the most economical speed. 69. If the cost of fuel for running a steamboat is proportional to the cube of the speed and $10 per hour for a speed of 10 mi./hr., and
the fixed charges are $14 per hour, find the most economical speed against a current of 2 mi./hr.
CHAPTER
Differentiate the following fimctions:
sin
VI
x
X
1
X
.
76. sec^
tan^ x.
3
70.
smd
71.
1
,
77,
sin'- sec =
i
cos
72.
73.
+ cos B
TO 78.
,__
'
tan-
X -
sin e sin
2 tan x
1
ax cos ax.
tan^ x
2 75. tan 2 x
74.
,9 COtTT
CSCtt2 cot 2 x.
80. o, 81.
5 sec^
sec
X CSC a;
7 sec* 9. 2 cot X.
,
Differentiate both sides of each of the following equations
and show
that the resulting derivatives are equal.

82. 83. 84. 85.
86. 87.
x + csc-x = sec'' x csc^ x. sin2x = 2 sin x cos x. sin 3 X = 3 sin X 4 sin' x. sin (x + a) = sin x cos a + cos x sin a. sec'^ X = 1 + tan* x. sin X + sin o = 2 sin J (x + a) cos ^ (x
sec^
a).
88.
145
coso
cosx
= 2sm Ha; + o) sin Ha; -
o).
Find
89. 90.
91. 92. 93. 94.
^ and $^ in each
= a cos" 9, = a cos* e, = tan9 -e, = sec* e, =
CSC
of the following cases:
x
X
y y
y
X X
X
X =8ec9,
cot
ff,
= a sin- 6. = a sin* d. = cosB. = tan* e. = tanO. = esc + cot 6.
Differentiate the following functions:

95.
Bin-V/^cos-
^^2.
ac8C-^
+ V^^^.
96.
103.
pq-.-cot-
(^).
97.
tan
2
(^)^
-
104.
Vl X sin-i X
,x
, .
"n/x*
,-.
,
2x
+l
,
lOo.
VS"^
_
99.
tan
^^
106.
cos-^^^py-
jQ.
.z 1 +1 sec-i r+sin --: x + 1 x-1 ;+^^^^ sm-^ + a cos X 1 os-x + ^vT:^

^
V5
100.
CSC
'
'
2x-l
108.
Vi^-a* -asec---
101
sec
-'K^-^ylis. 119.
109.
e^.
Ve*.
-tan-'-+^hi(a* a 2
'
+ x).
110.
e-cos(o+W).
121.
113.
114.
7=^.
(.
,
,,,
llo.
a^lnx. n lnsin"x. 116. hilnx.

1
,-_
122.
In
+ l),(x+l)-x-i. V.T + a + Vx a
Vi
,
4- a
Va-
123.
124.
117.
Infi^y
(x
H^* + e"*). hi(Vi + V7T2).

tan"!
125.
126.
+ 2x + 5)+|tan-i^^. secxtan|x + ln(sec|x + tan|x). +

l)hi(x*
146
127.
x sec-i
In f
I
I
/^x
+ -] - In (x2 + 1)
1
128.
x2
a;
+ tan-i
|x.
CHAPTER
ing curves at the point indicated:
129.
VII
Find the equations of the tangent and normal to each of the follow-
130. 131. 132. 133. 134.
= 2x + y,at (1, 2). = 5, at (3, 2). x^ + y^ = x + 3y,at i-1,1). x* + ?/* = 2, at (1, 1). y = \nx, at (1, 0). x2 (x + y) = a" (x - y), at (0, 0).
y^
x2
2/2
135.
X
r
=
=
2 cos
0,
2/
3 sin
at
0,
at 6
5-
136.
(1
+ cosd),
=
8 X,
(9
Find the angles at which the following pairs of curves

137.
x2
2/^
intersect:
2/2
2/2
(2
x)
x^
138.
139. 140. 141. 142.
143.
2/
2/
= 2 ox + a^ x2 = 2 62/ + 62. = ay, (x^ + 'ia^)y = 8a\ y^ = &x, x2 + ^2 = 16, = He^ + e-^ ), = 1. = sin X, = sin 2 x.
x2
4:
2/
2/
1
by
giving different values to
Show
that
all
the curves obtained
in the equation
are tangent at
144.
(a, 6).
Show that
for all values of

x'
a and
3 x^y
6 the curves
X2/2
0,
y^
h,
Examine each
i^c
of the following curves for direction of curvature
and
points of inflection
145.
y
2/
= = =
X
x.
rr^tan
62/2-2i/.
146.
147.
148.
149.
147
= 2<-i,
is
^/
2f
+ |
and tem-
Clausius's equation connecting the pressure, volume,
perature of a gas
RT
^
R,
a, b, c
v-a
r(t;
+ b)''
being constants. If T is constant and p, v the coordinates of a point, this equation represents an isothermal. Find the value of T for which the tangent at the point of inflection is horizontal.
150.
/' (a)
If
two curves y = f
is
F' (a), but /" (a)
(x), y = F not equal to
(x)
intersect at x
(a),
F"
= a, and show that the curves
are tangent
and do not
X
cross at
a.
Apply to the curves y

intersect at
is
3?
and y =
151.
x* at
=
/"
0.
If
two curves y
(a),
(o)
F'
(a)
= f (x), y = F (x) = F" (a), but /'" (o)
a,
and
(a),
not equal to F'"

a.
show that the curves are tangent and cross at x = ciuTres y = X* and y = x* + (x 1)' at x = 1.
point indicated:
152.
153.
Apply to the
Find the radius of ciu^rature on each of the following curves at the

Parabola
X*
y*
=
w*
ax at
1
its vertex.
.
Ellipse
a-
+ rr = b-
at its vertices.
154.
Hyperbola
1/
^-^=
f
at
= Va*
6.
155.
Incscx, at
^,
x = siny jln (sec y tan y), at any point (x, y). X = a cos's, y = a sin' 6, at any point. 158. Find the center of curvature of y = In (x 2) at (3, 0).
156.
157.
Find the angle ^ at the point indicated on each of the following

curves:
159. 160.
r
= =
2*, at
fl
0.
d,
+ 6 cos
at
^
|-
161.
r(l -cose)
r
=k,ate =
162.
a sin 20, at
|-
Find the angles at which the following pairs of curves intersect:

163. 164.
r (1 r
cosd)
a,
=
r
(1
cosd).
asec*s>
6csc*='
148
165. 166.
r
= =
acosd,
asecd,
r r
= =
a cos 2 d. 2 a sin d.
Find the equations of the tangent Unes to the following curves at the points indicated:
167. 168. 169.
X
X
x^
= =
1,
=
y
2 - z
=
t,
f^,
at
=
t,
2.
sint,
cos
sec
at
0.
170.
+ y^+z^ = 6, x + y + z = 2, at (1, 2, z=x^ + y%z'' = 2x- 2y, at (1, -1, 2).
-1).
CHAPTER
171.
its
VIII
Show that
point describes a circle with constant speed.
projection on a fixed diameter

172.
moves with a speed proportional

is
to the distance of the point from that diameter.
The motion
of a point (x, y) 4-
given
by the equations
x = ^ V^^rT2 ^
y
|%in-i 1 ^ Of
\ V^2Tp72
is
-j.
^ In + v^rqr^).
Show
that
its
speed
constant.
Find the speed, velocity, and acceleration in each of the following

cases:
x X 175. X
173. 174.
176.
177.
a;
= = = =
2 3<, 2/ = 4-9<. a cos {o)t a), y = a sin (ost a at, y = b fit, z = c -\-
+ +
+ a).
yt.
e*
sin
t,
e^
cos
t,
kt.
The motion
X
of a point
(x,
y) is
2/
determined by the equations
a cos
{nt
+ ),
& sin {nt
+ a).
and has a
origin.
Show
178.
that
its
acceleration
is
directed toward the origin
magnitude proportional to the distance from the
A
=
particle
moves with constant
acceleration along the parabis
ola y^
179.
2/2
2 ex.
Show
that the acceleration
parallel to the x-axis.

[a, o]
particle
moves with
acceleration
along the parabola
2 ex.
Find
its velocity.
-T-|
-T-^
extends along the normal at

(x,
(x, y)
and
is
in
magnitude equal to the curvature at
y)
149
CHAPTER IX
181.
Show
that the function
xi-1
vanishes at x
182.
= 1 and x =
1,
but that
its
derivative does not vanish
between these values.
Is this
an exception to Rolle's theorem?

4
Show
that the equation
x*-5x +
has only two distinct real roots.
183.
Show
that
x*sm-
Lim
a: =5=
sm X
0,
but that this value cannot be found by the methods of Art.

184.
73.
Explain.
Show
that
_
Lim
x:S.O
cos X
cos X
0.
Why
cannot this result be obtained by the methods of Art. 73?

limits:

185.
Lim ,^'-,^ x = ol-cos2x

^.
189.
z
190.
Lim f i = 0\X*
= 00
^X
/
,^
186.
vTx - Vl2 -X Lim x = 32x -3 Vl9 -ox

tan^
TX
Limx"e-'*.
z
., 191.
xlnx Lim x = osin2x - xcotx

_.
187.
Lim
^
1
+ esc (x
cot
1)
192.
Lim
(.sec
x) *
188.
193.
Lim^(^-^^ (irx)
;
AI
The area
is
of a regular polygon of n sides inscribed in a circle
of radius a
na'sm
- cos
Show
194.
that this approaches the area of the circle
when n
increases
indefinitely.
Show
that the curve

x^
+ y^ =
Zxy
is
tangent to both coordinate axes at the origin.
150
CHAPTER X
Determine the values of the following functions correct to four
decimals:
195. 196.
cos 62.
sin 33.
198.
199.
vTl.
tan-i (t^)esc (31).
197.
hi (1.2).
200.
tt
201.
Calculate
by expanding
tan~* x
and using the formula
\ = tan-i
202.
(1).
203.
Given hi 5 Prove that
1.6094, calculate hi 24.
D = V^h
is
an approximate formula
for the distance of the horizon,
D being the
distance in miles and h the altitude of the observer in feet.
Prove the following expansions indicating X for which they converge:

204.
205. 206.
In (1
a;2)
if
possible the values of
207. 208.
+ = hi 10 + f (x - 3) - 2^ (x - 3)2 + ln(e^ + e-)=f-g + g+ .... In (1 + siax) = X - h x^ + ^ ^ - ^ X* + e^secx = 1 + x + x^ + ^x^ + h x* + In (x + Vr+^0 =^-|f+^f+---'
'
209.
= 2p + ln^ + ^ + ...]. X La;3x^5x* J

J-3
1
210.
In
tan X
hi
+^+
^+
211.
e-eta-
= =
l+x + |-j-^
l+x + |j+^' +
of
212.
^+

213.
x for which the following
series
converge:
1+3^
+ 1+1+5+
'
'
2H. (.-,)
215.
1
(^'+fe^* + (1^111'+....
.
+2x4-3x2 + 4x3+ ...

X
216.
+ 2) _ 2 + -jT2-+-2T3~ + ~3T4~+
+2
(X
+ 2)'
(X
151
CHAPTER XI
In each of the following exercises show that the partial derivatives
satisfy
the equation given:
217.
u = xy
+ y^z\
-+ z
218. 2
= x'-2xV
+ y*,
J/?+^=0ax ay
219..(x
+ ,)ln^.
x(g-g)..f.
221.
u = xy
+ -,
222.
= ln(^ + y^),
y
g+^ =
"^
dj/az
0.
223.
u = y-^,
-z
axay
"^
dz*
di* z is
Prove the following relations assuming that

224.
a function oK x and
y^
u =
ix
+ y- zy,
du 3y
_du _ dudz
dx
dy dx
dz
du dz dx dy
dz
225.
u =
+ e^,
X
du dx
^ dy
du =X dx dy
"
1/
226.
u =
2 (a?
J/*),
âi
227.
If
+ â^^^^-ââ^+'âi;)
(e*
+ e"*),
y ="^{6^
e"*),
show that
Var/e
228.
\dxjy
lixyz
a',
show that
152
In each of the following exercises find A2 and its principal part, assuming that x and y are the independent variables. When Ax and Ay approach zero, show that the difference of Az and its principal part is an infinitesimal of higher order than Ax and Ay.
229. 230.
231.
z z
= =
xy.
x2 -2/2
+ 2X.
232. z
= V^'+^z.
= ^
x^
Find the total

233. ax*
differentials of the following functions:
234.
235. 236.
+ bxY + cy*. hi{x^ + y^+z^).

x* tan-i
^ X
y^ tan-i -
"
yzfF
+ zxe" + xye'.
z
237. If
w = x/ (2),
^,
show that
238.
Ku
=f(r,s),
=x
5m dx
+ y,
.
y,
show that
du _ ^du dy ~ dr'
s
239. If M =/(r,
s,
0,
=
,
-,
=
,
^, z
<
-,
show that
du
240.
If
du
du
the angle between the x-axis and the Hne OP from the ' find the derivatives of a in the directions parallel to the coordinate axes.
is
origin to
241.
(x, y, z),
Show
that
(cot
is
ysecx tan x) dx
of the
(x esc*
+ sec x) dy
an exact
differential.
Find the equations

242.
243.
x2
normal and tangent plane to each of the

at at
(3, 2,
following surfaces at the point indicated:
2x
z2
2/
+ 2y2 - z2 = 16, + 3?/ -4z = 4,

1,
-1).
(1, 2, 1).
244. 245. 246.
= 8xy, at (2, = z2 - x2 + 1,
-4).
(3, 1,
at
-3).
Show
is
surface
that the largest rectangular parallelopiped with a givai a cube.
247.
153
of material.
open rectangular box is to be constructed of a given amount Find the dimensions if the capacity is a maximum. 248. A body has the shape of a hollow cylinder with conical ends. Find the dimensions of the laiêst body that can be constructed from a given amoimt of material. 249. Find the volume of the largest rectangular parallelepiped that can be inscribed in the ellipsoid.
An
250.
Show
that the triangle of greatest area inscribed in a given
circle is equilateral.
251. Find the p)oint so situated that the sum of its distances from the vertices of an acute angled triangle is a minimum.
252.
At the point
(x, y, z)
given function
(x, y, z)
of space find the direction along which a has the largest directional derivative.
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
Page 8
1.
-f
V2. -1.
4.
-1.
1.
2.
6. 6.
3.
i.
Page 14
3.
2.
5.
The tangents are The (1, 1).

Negative.
Positive in 1st
parallel to the x-axis at
(1, 1),
(
(0, 0),
and
slope
is
positive between
1,
1) and
(0, 0)
and on the right

10.
of (1,
1).
in
11.
and 4th quadrants, negative

Pages
27,
2nd and
3rd.
28
31.
When
dx
=
0.2
4,
t/
| and dy
0.072 dx.
When
and an approximate value
for y is y
x changes to 4.2, + dy = 0.814.
This agrees to 3 decimals with the exact value.

32.
When x = 0, the function is equal to 1 and its differential is dx. When x = 0.3, an approximate value is then 1 dx = 0.7.
The
exact value
is
0.754.
35.
(a,
34.
36.
18.
2 a).
Increases
when x
<
5, decreases
when x
39.
>
o 2
37. 38.
x=^.
tan-i|.
-(^:n)5
Page 31
1
3.
(x
{x-iy (x-l) - 1)2 (x + 2)2 (7x + 2),
'
V^rr^j*
(a2-x2)3
12).
(x
1) (x
4.
2. y'
_4
y'
x-r
x*
+ 2)2 (42x2 + 24x 2 1-^

(x-l)3
3xij/S
8.
^ 6
X 2y'
y^
1
42/
154
13.
155
^~
dl
12
gj _
rfy*
12
U2 + 30''
U2-30*'
Pages 3&-38
1.
r
V
=
h
100
32
f,
32.
Rises
SCt
until
3|.
Highest point
decreasing
t
206.25.
2.
= P ~ 12P + S2t, a = between t = 1.691 and

is
8.
241
+ 32.
Velocity
6.309.
Moving backward when
negative or between 4 and

6
7.
CO
2 d,
a =
2 c.
'SVTieel
comes to
15.
rest
when
<
tj--
Jc
10. 11.
12.
9xcu.
ft./min.
12^ ft./sec.,
7| ft./sec.
144 X sq. ft./sec.
16.
ft./sec.
Decreasing 8tcu.
13. 14. 18.
^ %^ ^ V3
25.8
^_
17.
4 VS mi.,/hr. ctan/3, ,
1.
z- it./aec. TO* '
in. /sec.
Neither approaching nor separating.

ft.
19.
sec.
20.
64
\^ ft./sec.
Pages 43-45
1.
Minimum
Maximimi
fv^2.
3|.
2.
3.
4.
at
0,
minima
0.
at
Minimum 10, maximum 22. = 1 and x = +1.

'
Minimum when x =
13.
a V3.
10.
14.
16. 17.
Length of base equals twice the depth of the box. Radius of base equals two-thirds of the altitude.
Altitude equals - times diameter of base.
16 X
19.
V3
20. 21.
Girth equals twice length.
27
i(ai
Radius equals 2
is
Ve
inches.
+ i + aj + 04).
v^2 times the
dis-
22.
The
distance from the more intense source tance from the other source.
25.
23.
12 V2.
[5' 4- 6*]'.
19ift.
24.
26.
Radius of semicircle equals height of rectangle.

4 pieces 6 inches long
27.
28.
29.
The angle of the sector At the end of 4 hours.
and 2 pieces 2 ft. is two radians.
long.
166,
30.
should land 4.71 miles from his destination.
,
He
a
3L
35.
-^
V2
a being the length of
side.
2|mi./hr.
36.
13.6 knots.
Page 48
1.
2.
3.
4.
Maximum = a, minimum = a. Maximum = 0, minimum = {^)K Minimum = 1. Minimum = 0, maximum = ^.

Either 4 or
5.
10.
Pages
19.
62,
53
WTT
20
21.
23. 24.
A = 3. ^ = _ V3 -|.
Velocity
B=
-y?
22.
g, n bemg any mteger.

.
IT
= 2irnA,
acceleration
0.
^ miles per minute.

o
^"-
2+b^tV3.
28. 13 Vl3. V ,. 25. I radians per hour. 29. The needle will be incUned to the horizontal at an angle of about 32 30'
or
30. 31.
120. 120.
If
'*'^-
a
TT*
33.
the spokes are extended outward, they will form the sides of an
isosceles triangle.
Page 56
24.
w =
V
-
cos
<p,
being the radius of pulley and
<t>
the angle formed
by the
25.
string
and
line
along which
its
end moves.
4V35.
Page 61
27. 30.
rnr
+ cot~i 2,
x>2,
n being any
or
integer.
a;<-3,
-2 <
<
1.
Pages
1.
65, 66
2.
7/
2y-x = + 4x =
2y=F X
3.
+ 2x = 0. 4y-x = 15. 8, = d:a, y 2x = Sa.

5,
4.
157
= aix\nb
+ l),
+ ayhxb = a^hab.
a^
7.
vr
8.
9.
x x
+ y = 2, 2-y = 2. + 3i/ = 4, y-3x = 28.

=
a<iniaiih<h-
12.
13. ^^'
90.
tan-2V2.
y -\-xX&a.\4>x tan-if. 10. 90,

11-
^^
_,
In 10
In 10
1'
45.
15.
tan-i3V3.
Page 70
1.
Point of inflection
point,
(0, 3).
Concave upward on the

left.
right of this
downward on the
(|,
2.
Point of inflection
point,
\).
the

upward.
right of this
downward on
is
left.
3.
The curve
everjTV'here concave
There
is
no point
of
inflection.
4.
Point of inflection
(1, 0).
Concave on the
left of this point,
down-
ward on the
6.
right.
Point of inflection! 2,
-j)=
right,
downward on the
6.
left.
Points of inflection at x
^^
V2
Concave downward between
the points of inflection,

7.
upward
outside.
Points of inflection (0, 0), -3 < X < or X > 3.
(3, 1).
Concave upward when

left of
8.
Point of inflection at the origin. the origin.
Pages
1.
76,
-7
77
2V6.
b'
7.
8.
t ^.
a
aecy.
^4.
3V2.
9.
^^
+ ^>'.
4y
^^'^'
10.
6.
ta.
2a8ec^2
158
Page 79
There are two angles depending on the direction in which s is measured along the curve. In the following answers only one
\}/
of these angles
is
given.
'4
"L.
7. s.
0, 90,
and tan- 3 Vs.
d
3.
= dziT.
3.
|.
10-
Page 84
X
1.
v/o ^'^ _ V2
2 1 ^ ,_!^ 4_
1
a
1
irfc
J-
5.
tan-?. tan"' 7
k
X
ft
2.
^ we =
2
-^
6.
tan
-1
''
V2
7.
69 29'.
3.
Pages
1.
92, 93
The angular speed

point.
is
^,
where x
is
the abscissa of the
moving
2.
If Xi is the abscissa of
the end in the x-axis and
yi
the ordinate
is
ct'
the end in the y-axis, the velocity of the middle point
the upper signs being used

right, the 3.
if
the end in the x-axis moves to the

left.
lower signs
is [v
if it
moves to the
The speed
is
The
velocity
aw sin 0,
aw cos 6],
where is the angle from the x-axis to the radius through the moving point. The speed is
y/i^
6. 7.
-\-
aW 2 omv sin
gl],
6.
The boat should be pointed

Velocity
30 up the river.
Acceleration
[o, h,
[0, 0,
g\,
Speed
= Va2 -\--^{e- gt)K
9.
169
Velocity
Speed
Acceleration
= [oko (1 cos<^), aw sin <^], = aw ^2 2 cos <> = 2 aw sin ^ ^, = \au?\a., aoj^cosi^].

ZrP'
^ r L 12. X =
13.
3r^ sinf g
cos f g ~|
sin 5 9 J sin w/.
4 a sin
vi
4o
cos w/,
vt
The
velocity
is
is
the
sum
The
of the parvelocity
tial velocities,
but the acceleration

y
not.
is
a cos cot
+b cos 2 at,
a sin w<
+ & sin 2 ut.
the
14.
sum
of the partial velocities
and the acceleration the sum
of the partial accelerations.
ao)it
a sin {ui + oh)
t,
the
sum
of the partial velocities
a cos (i The velocity is Wi) t. and the acceleration the sum
of the partial accelerations.
Page 100
2.
3.
4.
A.
n.
0.
e.
18. 19.
h
1.
20. 21.
-3.
a.
1
5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
2.
-2.
1.
22.
ir
23. f'{x)dx. 24.

25.
00.
1
0.
ir2.
10.
11. 12.
2-
1.
26.
27.
00. 00.
1. 1.
1.
13. 14.
15. 16.
0.
28.
29.
-i0.
0.
30. 31.
a.
gm
17.
-i.
Page 106
1.
0.0872.
6.
0.1054.
1.6487.
2.
3. 4.
0.8480.
1.0724.
1.6003. 1.0154.
7.
8.
9.
0.0997.
2.833.
5.
Page 118
21.
(-2,1,0)
22.
(1, 1, 2)
160
Pages 123, 124
1.
.
Increment = 0.151, principal part = 0.154. dT l(dl dg\ ^. , ., ,, ^ J ~ 2\~l '^"^^ "' ^^^ ^y "^ either positive or ~T a J'
6.
T may be I the sum of the percentage errors in I and g. The percentage error in g may be as great as that in s plus twice that in T.
negative, the percentage error in
13.
-"^-tl. u
15,
zx
z-').
2z-^-uy 2uv
14.
hx^
+ y^ + xy -
Pages 131, 132

J'
du ^df_ dl_d6^ dx dx~^ dy dx'

dx
dx
"
dz
/du\ ^df_ \dx/y dx
df^d^^
"*"
dz dx'
'
dy dx
\dx
dy dx*'
13.
dldF_dldF
p
5.
dz dy dx dx dy = -^T TT-^TTdx ^,dldF "^
'
14.
3V3-4. p _ --3(xcosa+2/cos^+zcoS7).
dy
dz dy
Page 135
^l^y_-2^-^^
j_
(a;_i)+2(i/-2)+2(z-2)=0.
=
0.
2.
Normal, y + 4 x = 5, z = 3. Tangent plane, x 4 j/ 14

3 g = a; a;
2/
3.
4.
5.
^^. a;-5 7/-lz-l ^rr'"~^ = ~6~'

"l
=
"^-5
?/
-5 = -3^ ^ 1 z3
4
g
01^ 3x +
a:
42/
c 5z =
n 0.
,^ 52/-32-l +
,
=0.
a;-42/-6z
cicn + 5=0.
6.
+ z = y-z =
db
V2.
Pages 138, 139
1.
The box should have a square base with

depth.
side equal to twice the
2.
The The
cylinder
and cone have volumes

:
in the ratio 3
2 and lateral
surfaces in the ratio 2

4.
3.
center of gravity of the triangle
ABC,
INDEX
The numbers
refer to the pages.
Acceleration, along a straight line,

33.
Differentiation, of transcendoital functions, 49-62.

partial, 113-139. Directional derivative, 129. Direction cosines, 80, 81. Direction of curvatiu^, 67.
angular, 34. in a curved path, 90, 91.
Angle, between directed lines in

space, 79, 80.
between two plane curves, 64. Approximate value, of the increment of a function, 14, 15,
118-120. Arc, differential of, 72.
Divergence of
111.
infinite series,
107-
Exact
differentials, 130, 131.
Exponential fimctions, 56-62.

Function, continuous, 10, 113. discontinuous, 10.
explicit, 1.
Continuous function, 10, 113. Convergence of infinite series, 107111.
Curvature, 73.
center and circle of, 75. direction of, 67. radius of, 74. Curve, length of, 70. slope of, 11.
imphcit, 2, 127, 128. irrational, 2.

of one variable, 1. of several variables, 113. rational, 2. Functions, algebraic, 2, 19-31. exfKinential, 56-62. inverse trigonometric, 54-56. logarithmic, 56-62.
Dependent
variables, 2, 115.
Derivative, 12.
directional, 129. higher, 28, 29, 114. of a function of several variables, 124-127. partial, 114. Differential, of arc, 72. of a constant, 20. of a fraction, 22. of an nth power, 22. of a product, 21. of a sum, 20. total, 120, 121. Differentials, 15. exact, 130, 131. of algebraic functions, 19-31. of transcendental functions, 4962. partial, 120. Differentiation, of algebraic functions, 19-31
transcendental, 2, 49-62. trigonometric, 49-53. Ftmctional notation, 3.
Geometrical apphcations, 63-84.
ImpUcit functions,
2, 127.
Increment, 10. of a function, 14, 15, 118, 119. Independent variable, 2. Indeterminate forms, 95-100.
Infinitesimal, 7. Infinite series, 106-112.
convergence and divergence 107-111.

Maclaurin's, 106. Taylor's, 106. Inflection, 67.
of,
161
162
Length
of a curve, 70. Limit, of a function, 5. .sin 5 . of -^,49.
INDEX
Rate
of change, 32. Rates, 32-38.
related, 35.
Limits, 4-9. properties
Related rates, 35. RoUe's theorem, 94.

Series, 106-112.
of, 5, 6.
Logarithms, 56,
natural, 58.
58.
convergence and divergence

107-111. Maclaurin's, 106. power, 110, 111.
Taylor's, 106.
of,
Maclaurin's
series, 106.
exceptional types, 45, 46. method of finding, 42, 43. one variable, 39-48. several variables, 136-138. Mean value theorem, 101.
Maxima and minima,
Sine of a small angle, 49. Slope of a curve, 11. Speed, 85.
Tangent plane,
134.
Natural logarithm, 58. Normal, to a plane curve, 63. to a surface, 133, 134.
Partial derivative, 114. geometrical representation
Tangent, to a plane curve, 63. to a space curve, 81-83. Taylor's, theorem, 102.
series, 106.
Total differential, 120, 121.

Variables, change of, 30, 127. dependent, 2, 115.
of,
116, 117. Partial, differentiation, 113-139. differential, 120. Plane, tangent, 134. Point of inflection, 67, 68.
independent,
Vector, 85. notation, 88.
2.
Velocities, composition of, 89, 90. Velocity, components of, 86, 87.
Polar coordinates, 77-79.
Power
series, 110, 111.
along a curve, 85-89. along a straight line, 32.

angular, 34.
operations with, 111.
V
r
WORKS OF
H. B. PHILLIPS, PH.D.
PUBLISHED BY
Inc.
JOHN WILEY & SONS,

Differential Equations.
Second Edition, Rewritten.

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In one volume.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
BY H. B. PHILLIPS, Ph.D.
AssocicUe Professor of Malhematics in the MassachttseUt
Institxde of Technology
r-
NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY &

Lo(ax>N:
SONS, Isc
CHAPMAN
& HALL, LmtTBD
Copyright, 1917,
BY
H. B. PHILLIPS
Stanbope ]press
f,
H.GILSON COMPANY BOSTON, U.S.A.
5-25
PREFACE
This text on Integral Calculus completes the course in mathematics begun in the Analytic Geometry and continued
in the Differential Calculus.
Throughout
this course I
have
endeavored to encourage individual work and to this end
have presented the detailed methods and formulas rather

as suggestions than as rules necessarily to be followed.
needed.
list
The book As
contains more exercises than are ordinarily
material for review, however, a supplementary
of exercises is placed at the
end of the
text.
The appendix contains a

the courtesy of Prof. R. G.
short table of integrals which
includes most of the forms occurring in the exercises.
Through
Hudson
have taken a two-page

Tyler, C. L. E. Moore,
table of natural logarithms from his Engineers' Manual.

I
am indebted
to Professors H.
W.
and Joseph Lipka

the manuscript.
for suggestions and assistance in preparing
H. B. PHILLIPS.
Cambridge, Mass.
June, 1917.
CONTENTS
HAFTXB
I.
PAOsa 1-13
Integration
II.
Formulas and Methods of Integration

Definite Integrals
14-34
35-46 4/-59 60-69
III.
IV. Simple Areas and Volumes V. Other Geometrical Applications VI. Mechanical and Phtsical Appucations
70-89
VII.
VIII.
Approximate Methods Double Integration
90-96
97-111
IX. Triple Integration
112-125 126-lo6
157-170 171-185
186-189
190-191
X. Differential Equations Supplementary Exercises
Answers Table of Integrals Table of Natural Logarithms

Index.
193-194
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
CHAPTER
I
INTEGRATION
1.
Integral.
(x)
A
dx
is
function
called
F ix) whose
integral of
/
differential
is
equal to /
function
is
an
/ {x) /
dx.
Such a
represented by the notation

(x)
(x) dx.
Thus
F
are
Jf (x) dx,
equivalent
dF
(x)
= / (x)
dx,
by
definition
equations.
is
The
process
of
finding
an integral
of a given differential
(x-)
called integration.
For example, since d
2 x dx,
x^.
2 X dx = /^
Similarly,
I
cos
xdx =
sin x,
j e'
dx
e'.
The
2.
test of integration is to differentiate the integral.
If
it is correct, its differential
Constant of
must be the expression integrated. Integration. If C is any constant,
d[F{x)
If
+C] =dF{x).
differential,
then
(x) is
is another.
one integral of a given For example,

x^
-\-
{x)
+C
2xdx =
is
C,
cos X dx
sin X
+ C,
"where
any constant.
Integration
Chap. 1
We shall now prove that,

variable have the
if
two continuous junctions of one

{x)
same
differential, their difference is constant.
Suppose Fi
ential.
functions having the
and F^ {x) are same differ-
Then
dFi
{x) (x)
dFi
(x).
I
^
Let y
Fi
Fi {x) and plot
the
locus
locus
representing
x.
as
function of
Fig.
2.
The
slope of this
is
dy-^ dF^jx) -dF,{x) dx dx

Since the slope
line.
is
^Q
a horizontal
The equation
everywhere of such a
Fi
(x)
zero, the locus is

line
\s,
=
C,
C.
Therefore,
F, (x)
which was to be proved. If then F (x) is one continuous integral of / other continuous integral has the form
(x) dx, diTiy
Jf{x)dx = F{x)
Any
3.
+ C.
It is called
(2>
value can be assigned to C.
an
arbitrary
constant.
Formulas.
Let
dv
zt
a and n be constants,
u,
v,
w,
variables.
I.
I
du
db
dw =
du.
du
dv
zt
dw.
n.
III.
fa du = a
J/
u^' u" da = ^ ,
+1+
,
C,
if
is
not -1.
IV.
fu-^du=f^ =
lnu
+ C.
Art. 3
Formulas
3
differential
These formulas are proved by showing that the

of the right
integral sign.
member
is
equal to the expression under the

differentiate the right
side
Thus to prove III we and so obtain
\n+
Formula
I
expresses that the integral of an algebraic

is
sum
of differentials
obtained by integrating them separately

factor can be trans-
and adding the results. Formula II expresses that a constant

ferred
from one side of the symbol
to the other without
changing the result. A variable cannot be transferred in this way. Thus it is not correct to write
I
xdx = X
dx
xi^.
Example
1.
x* dx.
Apply Formula du and
III, letting
x and n
5.
Then dx
/
Ex.2.
CzVidx.
II
By Formula
fs
Ex.
3.
we have
3
Vx dx =
fxs dx
^+C = 2x^ +
C.
Ax J{x -
1) (x
+ 2) dx.
term by term.
We expand and integrate

1) (x
+ 2) dx = J{7^ + X - 2) dx = ix3 + Ax2-2x + C.
Integration
Chap. 1
Ex.
4.
dx.
Dividing by a^ and using negative exponents,
we
get
In
a:
+ 2a;-i-â:-2 + C
2
a;
1
'
2x2
V.J
^x.
5.
V2 X + 1 dx. /V2
/
-{-
li
u = 2X
I,
du
2 dx.
We
therefore place a factor
2 before dx and | outside the integral sign to compensate

for
it.
rV2 X +
dx
r(2x
+ l)^2dx =
fu^ du
Apply IV with w =
x^
1
1.
Then du = 2xdx and

1,
,
/xdx
r2xdx
Tdw
/^
^/
By
division,
we
find
4x4-2
2xTherefore
'
2x-l
Art. 4
Motion of a Particle
fi
EXERCISES
Find the values of the following integrals:
Vi (x2 + 2x +
1) dx.
/ ^"'
l/21^'
J x^+ax
(2
J^. /(V^7.
v^)'dx.
(x
/:Vx-
+ ft*^+ a) dx + ax + 6
fx
^
(x
+ a)
+ b) dx.
f ^^^* J 1
<'d/
^8.
/23dx.
^.
a/* "di. jK.-,0
(x
+ i)y-2) ^^^
//,;_i_x.^d^.
.-./(,-i)'f.
^-L-^-
X^
C X dx
A,y3
4.
particle
Motion of a Particle. Let the acceleration of a moving along a straight line be a, the velocity v,
s.
and the distance passed over

a "
Consequently,
dv
Then,
ds
"
dv = = 5'
= =
*
vdt.
adt,
ds
Integration
is
Chap. 1
If then a
known
function of the time or a constant,
v=
If
iadt
+ Ci,
= iv dt
+ C2.
(4)
the particle moves along a curve and the components of
velocity or acceleration are known, each coordinate can be
found in a similar way. Example 1. A body

acceleration of gravity
g.
falls
from rest under the constant Find its velocity and the distance
t.
traversed as functions of the time
In this case
dv
Hence
v=Jgdt =
Since the body starts from
values of
v
gt
+ C.
=
when
t
rest, v
0.
These
gt
-\-
and
must
satisfy the
equation v
C.
Hence
=
whence C
g-0
+ C,
v
and
gt.
Since
ds
-r.,
ds
gtdt and
= Jgtdt
+C
hQt'
+ C.
and
plane.
s
When
Ex.
0, s
0.
Consequently,
C =
\ gf.
2.
projectile is fired with a velocity Vo in a direction
making an angle a with the horizontal

the resistance of the
particle starts.
air, find its
Neglecting
motion.
Pass a vertical plane through the line along which the In this plane take the starting point as
origin, the horizontal line as x-axis,

y-axis.
and the
of
vertical line as
The only acceleration is that downward and equal to g. Hence
gravity acting
^=
di^
'
^=-g. ^
dt^
Art. 6
CtJBVEs WITH A Given- Slope
Integration gives,
dx
di
Ci
dii ~jI
|=-^ +
c,.
When
and
dx
-J-
dx
0> "j:
^^^
are the components of
t'o.
Hence
C\ = t'o cos a, Cj = Vo sin a,
Vo
cos a,
at
dy -^
= Vosma
gt.
Integrating
get
again,
we
x y
= =
0.
v4 cos a,
Vot
sin
gf-,
Fig.
4.
the constants being zero because x and y are zero

t
when
Is
5. Curves with a Given Slope. a given function of x,
If the slope of
a curve
l=/w.
then
dy
=f (x) dx
and
y
is
= //(x) dx-[-C
the equation of the curve.
Since the constant can have any value, there are an

infinite
Fig.
5.
number of curves having the given slope. If the curve is required to pass through a ^ven point P, the
value of
can be found by substituting the coordinates of
in the equation after integration.
Integration
Chap. 1
(1, 2)
Example
1.
Find the curve passing through
with
slope equal to 2 x.
In this case
ax
Hence
y
= j2xdx =
x'^
+ C.
2),
is
Since the curve passes through
(1,
the values x
1,
2 must satisfy the equation, that 2
+ C.
x^
-\-
Consequently,
curve.
C =
and y =
1 is
the equation of the
Ex.
2.
On
a certain curve
=
d^y dx^
If
r
^
the curve passes through
2, 1)
and has at that point
the slope
2, find its
equation.
By
integration
we
get
At (-
2, 1),
= -2
and
^=
2
2.
Hence
or
+ C,
i
rr^
C = 4.
y
Consequently,
=J{h x2 1
4)
dx
- 4x + C.
1),
Since the curve passes through
(2,
= -I
5f and
,
+ 8 + C.
4:X
Consequently,
C=
y
\a^
bl
is
the equation of the curve.
Arte
6.
Separation of the VARLtBLES
Separation of the Variables.
The integration formu-
one variable. If a differential contains two more variables, it must be reduced to a form in which each term contains a single variable. If this cannot be done, we cannot integrate the differential by our present methods. Example 1. Find the curves such that the part of the
las contain only
or
tangent included between the coordinate axes

at the point of tangency.
is
bisected
Let
curve.
be the point at which Since P is the middle

(x, y)
AB
\&
tangent to the
point oi
AB,
OA =2y,
The
dy dx
OB =
OA OB
2x.
slope of the curve at
P is
This can be written
Since each term contains a single variable,
we can
integrate
and
This
so get
In y
is
+ In X
=
=
C.
C.
equivalent to
Inxy
Hence
xy
C, and consequently
e^
k.
are rectangular
k, can have any value. The curves hyperbolas with the coordinate axes as
asymptotes.
Ex.
2.
According to Newton's law of cooling,
when k is constant, a the temperature of the air, and 6 the temperature at the time t of a body cooling in the air. Find
^ as a function of
t.
10
Integbation
Chap. 1
6
Multiplying
by
dt
and dividing by
a,
Newton's
equation becomes
d
we
a
get
Integrating both sides,
\n{dHence
e
a)
-kt-\- C.
e-*'+<^
eê-*'.
When
and so
0,\ete
do.
Then
do a
d
is
eê"
e^,
- a=
{do-
a) e-*'
the equation required.
Ex.
disk
3.
The
retarding effect of fluid friction on a rotating

co.
is
proportional to the angular speed

t.
Find
co
as a
function of the time

portional to
The statement means that the

oj,
rate of change of
is
pro-
that
is,
do)
It
where k
is
^'"'
constant.
Separating the variables, we get
= kdt,
0}
whenco
\n
0}
= =
kt
-\-
and
CO
e*^'+<^
=
t
e^g*'.
Let Wo be the value of w when

050
= =
0. e^.
Then
e^'ê^
Replacing e^ by
wq,
the previous equation becomes

CO
OJoC*',
which
is
the resuJt required.
Art. 6
Separation of the Variables
11
A cylindrical tank full of water has a leak at the Assuming that the water escapes at a rate proof it escapes the first portional to the depth and that day, how long will it take to half empty? Let the radius of the tank be a, its height h and the depth The volume of the water at any of the water after t days x. time is ira^x and its rate of change
Ex. 4. bottom.
dx
This
is
assumed to be proportional to
Va^
"77
x,
that
is,
=KX,
at
where k
is
constant.
Separating the variables,

irar
dx
-.
X
Integration gives
7ra2
kat.
In
kt
+ C.
h.
When
the tank
is full
and x =
Hence
TraHnh
C.
Subtracting this from the preceding equation,

xa^ In T
we
get
kt.
When When
= =
1,
-^jj
h.
Consequently,
xa' In
^ji
=
,
k.
\h,
to,^
.
<
^^
n,
In
-r
j^ =
In^
c- 1 6.5/ days.
12
Integration
Chap. 1
-y V 1.
fiiid
EXERCISES
the velocity of a body moving along a line the distance traversed between t = 2 and i = 5.
If
ia
fl,
/I. Find
the distance a body started vertically

ft. /sec.
downward with a
thrown
vertically
velocity of 30
will fall in the

ft.
time
t,
./
3.
From a
point 60
above the
ft. /sec.
street a ball is
upward with a speed

.
of 100
Find
its
height as a function of
Also find the highest point reached. ball is fired through a 3-inch plank the resistance of which causes a negative constant acceleration. If its velocity on entering the plank is 1000 ft. /sec. and on leaving it 500 ft. /sec, how long does it take the ball to pass through?
the time.
4.
rifle
\^\,
''
6.
A
<.
particle starts at (1, 2).

is
After
seconds the component of
its
velocity parallel to the x-axis

is 1
<
and that
parallel to the t/-axis
Find
its
its
coordinates as functions of the time.
Also find the.
equation of
y'
path.
6
find
A bullet is fired at a velocity of 3000 ft. /sec. at an angle of 45 from
ft. above the ground. Neglecting the resistance of the air, where the bullet will strike the ground. 7. Find the motion of a particle started from the origin with velocity Vo in the vertical direction, if its acceleration is a constant X in a direction making 30 with the horizontal plane. t/ 8. Find the equation of the curve with slope 2 x passing through
a point 100
(1, 0).
y^"9. Find the equation
of the curve with slope equal to y passing
through
10.
(0, 1).
On
a certain curve
1 = ^^+3.
If
the curve passes through 11. On a certain curve
(1, 2),
find its lowest point.
J- =
1.
If
the curve passes through

12.
1,
1)
and has
at that point the slope 2,
find its equation.

/
On
a certain curve
v/
L'
If the slope is
at x
0, find
the difference of the ordinates at x
and X
4.
Art. 6
Separation- of the Vablables

air
13
level h are con-
13. The pressure of the noted by the equation
p and altitude above sea
dh
'"P'
where k
14.
is
constant.
Show
that p
at
po^"**,
when
pjis the pressure at
sea level.
Radium decomposes
If half
a rate proportional to the amount
present.
the original quantity disappears in 1800 years, what
percentage disappears in 100 years?

15.
When
bacteria grow in the presence of imlimited food, they
increase at a rate proportional to the
number present. Express that number as a function of the time. 16. Cane sugar is decomposed into other substances through the presence of acids. The rate at which the process takes place is propormass x
of sugar
still
tional to the
unchanged.
Show
that x
cc~^.
What
17.
does
represent?
rate at which water flows
The
of a
from a small opening at the
bottom
water.
tank
is
proportional to the square root of the depth of the
If half
the water flows from a cylindrical tank in 5 minutes,
find the time required to

18.
Solve Ex. 17,
empty the tank. when the cylindrical tank
is
replaced
by a
conical
funnel.
19.
A sum of money is placed at compound interest

interest being
at 6 per cent per

instant.
Ilovr
annum, the
added to the principal at each
many
years will be required for the
sum
to double?
20. The amount of light absorbed in penetrating a thin sheet cf water is proportional to the amount falling on the surface and approximately proportional to the thickness of the sheet, the approximation increasing as the thickness approaches zero. Show that the rate of change of illumination is proportional to the depth and so find the
illumination as a function of the depth.
cL
CHAPTER
II
FORMULAS AND METHODS OF INTEGRATION

7.
Formulas.
The following
In these u
is
is
a short
list
of integraof a
is
tion formulas.
single variable
any variable or function
and du
is
its differential.
The constant
should be added to each function determined by integration. A more extended list of formulas is given in
omitted but
it
the Appendix.
u" du =
TT n.
/
r^ n+
1
if
is
not
1.
r*^"
J u
/
=
cos
sin
In u.
in.
IV.
udu =
sin u.
udu = cos u.
\/
V.
VI.
sec**
udu =
tan u.
esc**
udu = cot u.
tan
cot
v/
^
>
Vn.
VIII.
sec
CSC
u
u
udu =
sec u.
u du = CSC u.^
=4
IX.
X.
tan
cot
a du
In cos u.
In sin u.
u du =
u du =
v_^
XI.
sec
In (sec
14
+ tan u).
.\rt 8
Integration by StTBJsTrrmox'
17
Xn.
Jcscuda = ln(cscu-'^^^^- Letu=xV3,
xm.
r_= = sin-^-*
/flit u'* +
1
a**
U
a
^
du
w-
XV.
r
/
=^^= = - sec
di
II
\^
\ ir
XVI
^" = In (u + VII^T^. r-74i=
rTi-^ = -Lin!l^. J u'^ - a" 2a u -{-a XVm. Tc- du = e*.

xvn.
\\
by showing that
equal to the expression
Any one
of these formulas can be proved
the differential of the right
member
to
is
under the integral

/
sign.
Thus
show that
sec
M dw =
In (sec
+ tan u),
=
sec
we note
J
,
that
d In (sec u
8.
+ tan u) =
,
(sec
u tan u + sec' u) du ;- sec u -\- tan u
m du.
Integration by Substitution.
is
When
some function
taken as u, a given differential may assume the form of the differential in one of the integration formulas or differ from such form onlj'^ by a constant factor. Integration accomplished in this way is called integration by
of the variable
substitution.
Ekch
differential is the
More
*
errors result
from
failing to
product of a function of u by du. pay attention to the du

is
In Formulas XIII and
XV it is assumed that sin-* -
an angle
in
the 1st or 4th qvAdrant, wid sec-* - an angle in the 1st or 2nd quadrant.
In other cases the algebraic sign of the result must be changed.
Methods of Integration
cause.
Chap. U
4ie
Thus the student may

III that the integral of a
Formula
iO write
FORMULAS
7.
/
let
arc
cos 2 X dx
=
is
'
sin 2 x.
Formt''
^^
2 x
4
^^
=
C
/
u,
dx
not du but \ du and so

^
i
tion form, , cos 2 X

.
smgle Y<
omitt*'
cos
m aw =
sm w =
.
''J
f
,
sm o 2 x.
r
1.
/
by
;*;;.
ia'xampZe
sin'
x cos x dx.
If
we
/
let
sin x,
du
j
cos x dx
and
sin'
X cos xdx
u^du
_,
= \u*
+C
j sin* x
+ C.
Ex.2.
sm^ xdx
?cf-^lA.
Jf + cos ^ X
w =
We observe that sin ^ x dx fa tor from the differential of

1
differs
1
only by a constant
+ cos ^ x.
sin ^
Hence we
let
+ cos 3 X.
x dx
,
Then
and
,
dw
= I sin ^ X dx,
^
= 3 dw,
,
J
3.
-r-^
1
sin ^
+ cos f X
xdx rdw ^ r = 3/ = -31nw + C J

u
= - 3 In
Ex.
I
(1
+ cos ^ x) + C.
(tan x
+ sec x) sec x dx.
Expanding we get
/
(tan X
+ sec x) sec x dx =
=
,
tan x sec x dx
sec^
x dx
sec
+ tan x + C
JEx, 4.
r 3dx / J V2-3x
Art 8
Integration by Substitutiox'
17
This resembles the integral in formula XIII.
Let u
=x Vs,
= V2.
Then du = Vsdx and
3dx
r
I
V3
u^
/-
du
u^
J V2-Zx^
=
Ex.
0.
J Va2 -
^J Va2 -
VSsin-i o
+ C. + C = V3 sin-i^-^ V2
V4
*
<2
This suggests the integral in formula
XV.
Let w =2i,
a =
3.
Then
rf^
/ V4
t
f2
_ ~
/^
2dt
2
f
J
a
V4
a
<2
du _ r ~ J w Vw2 _
7,
a-
= - sec~^ - + C =
J V2 2:2
This
sec~^
tt
3
C'-
may
let
suggest formula
XVI.
is
If,
however, we
let
u = X V2, du =
V2 dx,
M
which
not a constant times x dx.

1.
We
should
2x2
Then xdx =
du and
1
xdx
rdu
= |V^4-C = ^V2x2
Ex.
If
7.
+ l+C.
/ e**
'
sec2
x dx.
=
/
tan
X,
by formula XVIII
X dx
c**' sec2
/ e"
du
e"
+ C = e**
'
4- C.
18
Chap. 2
EXERCISES
1.
of the following integrals:

21.
(sin
2X
cos 3 x) dx.
cos
x sin
a;
dx.
sec"
X dx
+
3.
2 tan X
sin
Jsin
^
(n< 4- a) d<.
23.
^~
r
r
-^ 1
cos 2 X dx
4.
fsec^êdd.
24.
ec^ (ax)
2x' dx
tan (ax)
^^^
6.
ycsc ^ cot ^ dd.

Jcos^sin^de.
dx
25.
6.
26
27.
J
I
V3 2x2 f?i^
3 X-
+4
dx
/ cos" X
J
"^
V3 x"
'
sin"x sin" X
sin
29.
X dx cos* X
CSC 2
-^
30.
r / V VTx^ +
7 x"
dx î^
11.
cot- j
CSC
-de
31.
12.
J'cos(x2 l)xdx.
32.
r__zE_ CJ X Va"x" dx 3- 4x" dx
/
/'
13.
^ r+ff cos"3x
dx.
/
(3x2)dx
-^
gg
'
14.
.
r(8ecxrl
1)2 dx.
15.
17
*n
//
^
I
sin
cosx
dx.
34.
-^
/x
36.
^4-x" / 2x + 3 dx. V x" + 4

j
' .
-p 4
4 X"
r (co8x
sin"
+ sinx)"
- 5 '^* ^^~^
dx.
.
ntj
X cos X dx.
^ '* oo JttJ.
COS X dx f cos J ^2^ sin" X
19.
r tan' X sec* x da?, J

, I
/^''in sin I
X cos x dx ;== V
C(
sin"
20.
r8ec"xtanxdxl
^
89.
r_22i^.
+ sin" X
Art 9
40.
Integrals Co.vtai.vi.vg a Qctadratic Expression

sec-xdx
,
19
/ tanx Vtan^x-
-_ ^
*
r^'dx rj
-^ 1
l'
+ e*'
Vl-cosd"
60-
/ '^
/x[4-(lnx)^r
r
^
6L
X
52.
sin
X cos x ax
j^^
/*_^_
e-^
v'cos- X
siii^
45.
r-^
x^
I
k2^
63.
CO
r
,
g'' <^J^
46.
47.
/e-..dx.
^^^--,g
^^
dx
64.
/(."+e-)dx.
Integrals Containing ax^
/e^
+ e-
9.
+ 6x +
c.
Integrals
-\-
con-
taining a quadratic expression ax- -\-hx
can often be reduced to manageable form by completing the square of
03?
+ hx.
1.
Example
/ ^
., ,
j-^-
Completing the square, we get

3 x2
If
+6 +5
a;
(x2
+ 2 X + 1) + 2
rf
3(x
+ 1)- + 2.
then M
(x
+ 1) Vd,
dx (x + 1) ^ r ^ _i_ r_(du f J 3x2 + 6x + 5 ~J 3(x + l)2 + 2 V3 J w- + 2
Ve
-
tan-(lI^ + C. V2
J V2 The
and 3 X
2
3X
coefficient of x- being negative,
in a parenthesis preceded
we place the terms x* by a minus sign. Thus
3X
x2
(x2
+ 3 x)
V-
(a;
iY-
20
If then,
Chap.
2:
+ I,
we have
r
Ex.3.
2dx
J V2-dx-x^
r
J
2sin-i
f-7^
+ C.
/; V4 x2 + 4 + 2
a:
^ (2^-1)^^-
Since the numerator contains the

resolve the integral into
first
power
of x,
we
two
parts,
r (2x-l)dx ^1 r (Sx-\-4:)dx J V4x2-f4a:+2 4-4 x-h2 3:4-2 V4rr2 -4-4 3:4-2 4^ 4J V V4rr2 4x^+4
In the
first
C dx J V4x2+4x+2 ^
^
integral
to the differential of 4
numerator
is
dx.
on the right the numerator is taken equal In the second the a;^ + 4 x + 2. The outside factors \ and 2 are chosen
so that the
two
sides of the equation are equal.
The
first
integral has the
form
The second integral The final result is

{'2,x\)dx
is
evaluated by completing the square..
r-x
J* >/4x2+4x
+2
In
(2x
-f
l-f V4x2
7
+ 4x + 2) + C.
(2
EXERCISES
1
'
Jx2-f6x4-13"
J i' -1- 4 V9 J. tJ ^V 2-H4x-4x
-r
r__^__
-f-
5)
^-
(2 X - 1) dx -^Vax^-ex +
^-
J4x 4x
dx 2*
3^
dx
VS x2 +
4 X -h 2
>/
^
rf:c
J 3 x2 + f "" J /;(2x 4-1)^4x^-1- 4 x-1

11.
X dx j-2x 2 X -h 2 (2x X -1- 3) dx. (2
VI+6X-5X-'
(x- 3) V2x2- 12x4-15
dx (i-|-o)(x4-6) (i-|-o)(x-f 6)"
r .f'^r^V'^,. J (x^ 2x 4- 3)1

J
c/
^2.
y-
--dx.
^^
^^'
r J 2e*^4-3e*
e'dx
Integrals of Trigonometric Fdnctioks
21
10. Integrals of Trigonometric Functions. A power of a trigonometric function multiplied bj' its differential can be integrated by Formula I. Thus, if w = tan x,
tan^ X
sec-
xdx =
u*
du
^ tan^ x
-\-
C.
Differentials can often be reduced to the
above form
by
trigonometric transformations.
following examples.
This
is
illustrated
by the
Example
If
1
1.
sin*
x cos* x dx.
as
we take
sin^ X,
cos
xdx
du and use the
relation cos^
the other factors can be expressed in terms of sin X without introducing radicals. Thus
sin*
X cos' xdx
=
(1
sin*
x cos* x cos x dx
=
Ex.
2.
sin*
a;
sin* x)
dsinx =
} sin*
a;
sin'^ a:
+C
tan' x sec* x dx.
If
1
we take
sec*
x dx as du and use the relation
sec*
+
=
tan- x, the other factors can be expressed in terms rf
tan x A^nthout introducing radicals.

tan' X sec* xdx
Thus
x
tan' x
sec*
sec*
x dx
j tan'
(1
+ tan* x) d tan x
= itan*x+itanx + C.
Ex.
3.
I
tan^xsec'xrfx.
^2
If
Chap. i\
rela-
we take tan x
sec x dx
d sec x as du, and use the
tion tan^ X
/
=
X
sec^
1,
the integral takes the form

tan^ x
tan^
sec'
xdx=
sec^
x tan x sec x dx
=
=
Ex.
4.
I
j (sec^
a;
1) sec^
X'dsecx
i sec* X
I sec' x-{- C.
sin 2
a;
cos 3 x dx.
This
is
the product of the sine of one angle and the cosine
of another.
difference
This product can be resolved into a
sum
or
by the formula
sin
AcosB =
sin
Thus
X cos
^ [sin (A ~~^
+ 5) + sin (A - B)].
Sx =
=
Consequently,
/
^ [sin 5 a; I [sin 5 re
+ sin ( x)]
sin x]
sin 2
X cos
dxdx =
^ j (sin 5
a;
sin x)
dx
=
Ex.
If
5.
/
tV cos 5 X
+ ^ cos x + C
tan* x dx.
we
replace tan^ x
by
sec^
a;
1,
the integral becomes
tan* a: da;
tan' a; (sec- a;
l)dx
= jtan^x
tan^xdx.
The
/
integral
is
thus
made
to
depend on a simpler one
tan' X dx.
/
Similarly,
j tail
tan'
xdx =
(sec^
a;
1) da:
^ tan^
a:
+ In cos x.
Hence
finally
I
tan*
xdx =
I tan*
| tan^ x
In cos x
+ C.
Art. 12
Trigonometric SuBSTmrrioxs
23
11.
Even Powers
of Sines
and Cosines.
Integrals of
the f^rm
f^
where
fail.
sin"
X cos" X dx,
Art. 10.
odd can be evaluated by the methods of however, those methods In that case we can evaluate the integral by the use
or n
If
is
both
m and n are even,

1
of the formulas
sinû
cos'û
= =
cos 2
2u + cos 2
'
(11)
sin
u cos u =
sin
2u
2
Example
1.
co^xdx.
By the above formulas

I
cos^
xdx =
(cos^
xy dx =
^
j
dx
= r(i
+ |cos2x + icos22a;)
-\-
Ex.
2.
/
f [\ + ^ cos2x + 1(1
f
a;
cos^x)]dx
+ 4 sin 2 X +
3^5
sin
4X
+ C.
cos^
X sin- x dx.
cos*
I
X sin* xdx
sin* I J
2xdx=
1(1
cos Ax) dx
=
12.
2:
^V sin 4 X
+ C.
Trigonometric
Substitutions.
4- X-,
Differentials
a*,
con-
taining
Va-
X-,
Va2
or
Vx-
which are not
24
Chap. 2
reduced to manageable form by taking the radical as a new variable, can often be integrated by one of the folbwing
substitutions:
For Va^ For Va^

1.
x^,
let let
let
l
x
a;
a sin Q. a tan
Q.
+ x^,
a^,
For
V'a:^
= =
a sec Q.
x^dx.
Example
Let X
Va^
a sin 6.
Then
x"^
V a^
Consequently,
a cos
0,
dx
a cos
c?^.
fVa''- x^dx =
Since
6
a:
a2
Ccos^ddd
= ^(^
+ ^sin 2 ^W C.
a;
a sin d,
,
sm~^ a
a^
>
- sm 2
2
= sm cos 6 =
/,
Va^
5
x"^
a^
Hence
finally
J
^^2If
fV^^^r^^dx = ^sin-i-+^Va2-x2
2
+ C.
J ^^2âY
let
a;
we
a tan
^, 3:^
+ 0^
a^ sec^ 6,
dx
a sec^
d^j
and
/(^^ = i/s"S-0 = ^/^^^'^^^

=
Since
a;
iT^
(^
+ sin
cos e)
+ C.
=
:. -t-i a^ -\- x^
otan0,
'
tan-^-, a
sin
cos
Hence
dx
(a;2
_ 11"
_i
a;
"I
+ a2)2-2a3L
a "â^ ^^^^J
^ "^ ^'
Art 12
it6
77
Trigonometric ScBSTrrunoNis
EXERCISES
1.
sin'
X dx.
21.
J
J
sin* ax di.
2.
J cos'xdz. J
(cos
22.
cos*
ax dx.
3.
+ sin x) dx,
23.
Jcoe* X sin* X dx.

Jcos* i X
I
4.
J
J
cos*
z sin* X dx.
I cos* \xdx.
24.
sin* ^
rdx.
5.
sin*
26.
sin'xdx.
.
6.
rsin3coe3ddff.
26.
j^_^. sinx
(
/
7.
JCcos*
/
sin* 9) sin ad0
27.
+ cos X
g
g
cos^ X
1
J J
10
11.
I
dx sin X
28.
j/l +Bined0.
/ cos-
zdx
X
dg
80.
29.
sin
sin* g
J*Vx*
adi.
r J
cos g
fV^^+^'dx.
sec*xdx.
31.
^'^
f.
^-^
12.
jcsc^ydy.
j
32.
f
^
(x*-
o*)*
13.
tan*xdx.
14.
pec3g
sec
^
+ tang + tan
fl
16.
Jtan
j
X sec*
x dx.
16.
tan* 2 x sec' 2 x dx.

36.
(a*
x2)i
17.
Jcot'xdx.
I
/
fx^V3?
-/
+ a*dx.
a*
18.
tan'xdx.
37.
r-^^=. V +
X* I*
j^g
cos*xdx J sin* X
88.
f^x' 4x + 5dx,
r
^
20.
sec'
X C8C X dx.
39.
^-^---^^^^
V2 2x
4x
26
13.

Integration of Rational Fractions.
Chap, 2
fraction, such
as
x^
-2x-S
is
whose numerator and denominator are polynomials

a rational fraction.
If
called
the degree of the numerator
is
equal to or greater than
that of the denominator, the fraction should be reduced

division.
by
Thus
x'-2x-Z
+ 2 x2-2a;+3
' ' '
A fraction with numerator of lower degree than its denominator can be resolved into a sum of partial fractions with denominators that are factors of the original denominator.
Thus
lOx + G ^ x^-2x-^
lOx
+6
9
,
(a;-3)(x+l)
x-3"^x +
trial.
l'
These fractions can often be found by

ceed as in the following examples.
If not, pro-
Case 1. Factors îd none repeated.
of the
denominator
all
of the first degree
rx*
+ 2x + 6.
Dividing numerator by denominator, we get

x*
x^
-\-
+ 2x-\-Q ^^_^
x^
3x2
+6
2x
2x
7? -\-x^
=
Assume
3 x2
+6 x-l + X (x 3x2 - 1) (x + 2)
JL.
(x
1) (x
+6 Â^. ^ + 2) X X '
^
X
'
+2
ways
of
The two
sides of this equation are merely different
Art. 13
Integration of Rational Fractions
27
writing the
same
function.
If
then we clear of fractions, the
two
sides of the resulting equation
3 x2
+6=A
(x
1) (x
+ 2) + fix (x + 2) + Cz
(a;
- 1)
= {A-{-B-\-C)x^-\-{A-\-2B-C)x-2A
are identical.
That
is
A+B + C =
3,
A-\-2B-C =
we
get
0,
-2A
3.
Q.
Solving these equations,
A = - 3,
Conversely,
if
B=
S,
C =
A, B, C, have these values, the above equaTherefore

1
tions are identically satisfied.
J^+a:^-2x ^=Jl^-^-x+^^ + ^^^

rx^
,
+ 2x + 6
= |x2-x- 31nx
z
+ 31n(xX
1)
+31n(x + 2)+C
The
constants can often be determined more easily by
substituting particular values for x
on the two
sides of the
equation.
3 x2
is
Thus, the equation above,
+6
(x
1) (x
+ 2) + fix (x + 2) + Cx (x is
1)
particular,
an identity, that if x = 0,
is, it
satisfied
by
all
values of
x.
In
it
becomes
6= -2A,
tihence
A =
we
get
3.
Similarly,
by
18
substituting x
and
2,
whence
fi
= 35, = 3,
= C =
6 C,
3.
Case
2.
Factors of the denominator

*
all of first
degree
but some repeated.
(8x^
(x
+ 7)dx + l)(2x +
28
Chap. 2
Assume
Corresponding to the repeated factor {2 x -\- ly, we thus introduce fractions with (2 x + 1)' and all lower powers as
denominators.
Clearing and solving as before,
1,
we
find
0.
A =
Hence
B=
12,
C= -
C,
D=
Case
3.
Denominator containing factors of the second
degree but none repeated.
Ex.3.
/"*-^^t + idx.
of the
The factors Assume
denominator are x
and
x^
-\-
-\-
1.
With the
Bx-\-C + x+ 1 ^ A -\ l X - l^ x^ + X we thus use a quadratic denominator x^ + x +

4 x^
X^
-\-
1,
numerator that
Ex
C.
not a single constant but a linear function Clearing fractions and solving for A, B, C, we find
is
A =2,
Therefore
B=
(x
2,
C =
1.
x^
\x
x^
1)
= 21n
Case
degree,
+ X 4- 1/ + In (x2 + X 4-
1)
+ C.
4. Denominator containing some being repeated.
factors of the second
Ex.4:.
C-fÂ'^.dx. 1)2'
(X2+
Art 14
I^'TEGRAI;s
29
Assume
x'
(X^
+ 1 Â + 1)2 X
Bx-hC
'
Dx-\-E
'
(X2
1)2
X-
Corresponding to the repeated second degree factor (x^ 1)^, we introduce partial fractions having as denominators ly and all lower powers of x^ (x^ 1, the numerators
being
all
of first degree.
Clearing fractions and solving for
A, B, C,D, E, we find
A =
Hence
l,
B=-l, C=-l, D=-l, E =

"^^
l.
(X2
1)2
J
=
In
Ix
,
(X2
+1)2
X2
'^
1
Vx2+
tan-i x +C +^ 2 2 (x2 + 1)
,
,.
'
14.
Integrals Containing {ax

p
+ b)'. Integrals containz'^.
ing (ox
+ 6)9
can be rationalized by the substitution

ax-\-h
If
several fractional
powers of the same linear function ax
ax
6 occur, the substitution
+ & = 2"
all
may
be used, n being so chosen that
the roots can be
extracted.
Examvlel.
Let X
2^.
f l + Vi J Then dx =
^^
2 z dz and 22
= =
Ex.2.
2 In
2 Vi -
+ 2) + C 2 In (l + Vx) + C.
(1
rJ2r3)^^x J r2r(2x-3)^+l
30
Chap. 2
To
rationalize
both
(2
a;
3)*
and
(2
a;
3),
let
2x-Z
J
(2a;
z\
Then
-3^ + 1 J
=f
2'
+1
f
J\
2'+!
dz
= 3(y (2
a;
+ 1 - 2 + tan-i2) + C
(2
+ (2 - 3) - 3 (2a; - 3) + tan-^ (2a: - 3) + C.

3)^
3)^
a:
EXERCISES
X3
1.
2.
X2- 3a; 2x + 3
+ X2 dx. +2
dx.
L4.
/ X*x3
x^
x*dx
1'
/dx
+
1*
3.
4.
J x' 1 r x^ + l ^^^ - "^ {x'' J X {x^ 1) r x^ x3- 1 dx. J 4x]
x^dx
+ l'
dx
X*
/
xdx
6.
(X
1) (x
+ 3)
(X
+ 5)
2 x2 2x-=
+ x^ + X 2
X*
;
J
X*
(x2(X2
1)2
'^^"
6.
16xdx (2x-l)(2x-3)(2x-5)'
/
(x
+ 24 x^
- 8X
dx.
7.
f4^.dx. x^ x^ J
x'dx
(x
20.
1)**
D* dx
X
x X'
î
8.
+
dx
l)(x-
i_ /x*
21. 22.
dx.
9.
J
/x^/^JT6dx.
10.
/(f^y-
11.
/ x^
dx
X*
vT+^r vx23.
/
+3
dx
1) (X*
dx.
x'dx
12.
/ (x* / (x*
24.
4)*'
(X*
1)
xdx
13.
4)>
dx
26.
/ y/x+l - Vx
'
Art.
15
Integration by Parts
31
15.
Integration by Parts.
From the formula

-\-
(uv)
= udv
f^d**
udv
V du,
we
get
udv = d
whence
j
{uv)
udv = uv
j V du.
(15)
If j
vdu
is
known
is
this gives
v du.
Integration
by the
use of this formula
called integration by parts.
Example
Let u
1.
jlnxdx.
\n X, dv
dx.
Then du =
X
j
dx
,
x,
and
l]nxdx = \nx'X
x-
= xQnxEx.
2.
/
1)
+C.
x^ sin
x dx.
Let u
x^
and dv
sin
dx.
Then du = 2 x
dx,
t;
cos x,
and
/
x^ ^ sin
xdx = x^ cos x
+
-\-
I j
2x cos x dx.
!
second integration by parts with u
x, dv
cosx
dx^
gives
I
2 X cos xdx
= 2xsmx
2 sin
xdx
=
Hence
/
2 X sin a;
+ 2 cos x + C
finally
x* sin
xdx = x^ cos x
+ 2 x sin x + 2 cos x + C.
32
Formulas and Methods of Lvtegration
Chap. 2
The method
of integration
to functions that are simplified
by parts applies particularly by differentiation, like In x,
or to products of functions of different classes, like x sin x. In applying the method the given differential must be resolved into a product u dv. The part called dv must have a known integral and the part called u should usually be
simplified
by Sometimes
differentiation.
after integration
by
parts a multiple of the

right side of the equation.
original differential appears

It
on the
can be transposed to the other side and the integral can be solved for algebraically. This is shown in the following
examples.
Ex.
3.
/v^
/
Va2
x^dx
Integrating by parts with u
= Va^
x^
x^,
dv
dx,
we
get
/v
Adding
a^
x^dx
Va^
x^dx Va2J
/
,
a^ to the
^n equivalent integral,
numerator of the integral and subtracting this becomes

I ,
/Va^ x^dx = x Va^ x"^
J Vo2-x2
dx-^-d?
J Va'-x^
-
= X Va^ - x^ - fVa'-x^dx + a^ f /^ J J Va^-x^

Transposing / â^
^^
dx and dividing by
2,
we
get
/Va2 -x^dx = ^ Va2 Ex.

4.
I
x^
+^
sin"^
+ C.
e"*
cos hx dx. parts with

,
Integrating
e'"'
/.
by
u =
r
e^',
dv
cos bx dx,
we
get
cos bx dx
e"^ sin 6a;
a
r
Ce"^ n. v j dx. sm bx
Art. 16
Reduction Formulas
3S
ef',
Integrating
by parts again with

e^^sinftx T
do
sin hx dx,
/,
gives
this
becomes
,
f"cos,hxdx=
a[
r
-\-
e"'cos6x
T
hr
a^
/*_,
I
t (f'smhxdxX
" ^'
Transposing the
(b sin hx
i
a cos hx\
j
"^
e"sm6x(ix.
1
last integral
and dividing by
hx
a2
-\-
+ -^,
this
e" cos 6a; rfx
fh sin
e*"'
f
a cos hx\
/
+ 62
Reduction Formulas. Integration by parts is often used to make an integral depend on a simpler one and so to obtain a formula by repeated appUcation of which the given integral can be determined.
16.
To
illustrate this
take the integral

/
sin"
X dx,
Integrating
wnere n
is
a positive integer.
dv
by
parts with
u =
sin*"^ X,
sin
x dx, we get
/
/sin"xdx=
sin"~^xcosx+
(n
1) sin*~'xcos'a;dx
I
= sin""^ x cos X + (n 1)
sin""-
(1
sin' x) dx
sin""' X cos
-{-
(n 1)
sin""'
dx
(n 1)
Transposing the
sin'xdx.
last integral
and dividing by
, 1
n,
.
we
get
,
J /. sin" xdx =
sin"~'
X cos X
Csin"~' , x dx. J
I
By
/
successive application of this formula

sin"
we can make
IS
X dx depend on
dx or
j sin
x dx according as n
even or odd.
34
Chap. 2
Example.
j sin^
x dx.
By
the formula just proved

sin^
J /. sin^ xdx =
X cos X
^
5
b
fi
1"
/ ^^^
^ ^^
,
= =
sin^
x cos x g
a
r + g|_
,
sin^
a;
cos
re
^
.
+ jjsinâ:dxj
,
"I
sinâ;cosa;
H7 24
sin^
X cos a;
5 7^ sin a; cos X Id
.
+^ + 77; Id
.
a;
(7.
EXERCISES
1.
\
X cos 2 X dx.
xdx.
11.
X? e-* dx.
2.
Jinx-
12.
J*
3.
(x
1)2 sin (2 x) dx.
Jsin-ixdx.
I
13_
JVi^^T^dx.
>.
,
4.
X tan-^ X dx.
14.
Va-''
5.
+ ^ j^ dx /,In X Vx- 1
fin (x
-
J
I J
Va^
+ x^dx.
x'O dx.
16.
e^ sin 3 x dx.
cos X dx.
7.
In (In
x)^.
^T
16.
^(f
I
-^
8.
Jx^ sec- xdx.

re-*ln(c*
(xê^dx..
" /^-î'^2xdx.
l)dx.
18.
9.
j'sec'êdd.
10.
19.
I
sin 2
X cos 3 xdx.
20.
Prove the formula
/_
and
xise it
sec" (x) dx
sec"-''
X tan x
1
n 2
/
I
n
J
IJ
_ / s , sec"-2 (x) dx.
to integrate
sec*
x dx.
21.
Prove the formula
and use
it
to integrate j (o*
x*)' dx.
CHAPTER
III
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
17. Summation. Between x = a and a: = 6 let f{x) be a continuous function of x. Di\'ide the interval between a and h into any number of equal parts Ax and let X\, Xz, Form the sum Xn, be the points of di\'ision.
. .
/(a)Aa:+/(x,)Ax+/(x2)Aa;+
This sum
is
+/(x,)Ax.
represented by
the notation
etc.,
Since / (a), /(xi), /(xj), are the ordinates of
the
curve
Xi, X2,
y
(xi)
= f
(x)
at
etc.,
the terms
/ (a) Ax, /
etc.,
Fig. 17a. Ax, / (xa) Ax, represent the areas of the rectangles in Fig.
(x)
1.
17a,
and 2^^f
Ax
is
the
sum
of those rectangles.
Example
Find the value of
V' x^ Ax
inter%'al
when Ax =
between
1
|,
The
is
and 2
Ax =
divided into parts of length The points of division ^.
are 1{,
U,
If.
Therefore
Fig. 176.
2^'x2Ax= P.Ax+(|)2Ax-h (1)2 Ax + (1)2 Ax = -/Ax = ^3.i = 1.97.
Ex.
2.
X-axis, the
From
Find approximately the area bounded by the curve y = V^, and the ordinates x = 2, x = 4. Fig. 176 it appears that a fairly good approxima35
36
Definite Integrals
Chap. 3
tion will be obtained
by dividing the
0.2.
interval between 2
and
4 into 10 parts each of length thus obtained is
The value
of the area
^Wx Ax={V2-\-V2^+\/2A-\The area

Art. 20)
18.
'
+V3^) (0.2) =3.39.
correct to
two decimals (given by the method of
is 3.45.
Definite
indefinitely
and Indefinite Integrals. the number of parts into which
If
we
a
is
increase
divided,
(x)
Ax
usually
approaches a limit. This limit is called the definite integral of / (x) dx between x = a and x = b. It is represented by
the notation
/
f{x)dx.
That
is
f'f (x) dx = lim
2V
(^) Aa;.
(18)
The number a
the integral.
is
called the lower limit, b the
upper limit of
In contradistinction to the definite integral (which has a

definite value), the integral that
we have
previously used
is
(which contains an undetermined constant)
called
an
in-
definite integral.
The
be
connection between the
two integrals shown in Art.

19.
will
21.
Geometrical
Representation. If
the curve y = f (x) lies above the a:-axis and a < 6, as in Fig. 17a,
Fig. 19o.
/
(x)
dx represents
by the sum of the inscribed rectangles and that limit is the area between x = a and x = b bounded by the curve and the ic-axis.
the limit approached
Art.
19
Geometrical Representation
37
At a point below the a;-axis the ordinate / {x) is negative and so the product / (x) Ax is the negative of the area of the
corresponding rectangle.
Therefore (Fig. 19a)

of rectangles
^
and
/ (x) Ax
= (sum
above OX)
in the limit
(sum of rectangles below OX),
i: f
(x)
dx
(area
above OX)
(area below
OX)
(19a)
Fig. 196.
If,
however, a
6,
>
from o to we have /
Ax is
6, as in Fig. 196, x decreases as we pass negative and instead of the above equation
(x)
dx
(area below
OX)
(area
above OX).
(19b)
Example
1.
Show
graphically that
sin'xdx
0.
The curve y = sin^ x is shown in Fig. 19c. Between X = and x = 2ir the areas above and below the X-axis are equal. Hence
27r
sin'xdx = Ai ^2 = 0.
2.
Fig. 19c.
Ex.
Show
that
/ -''
dx
e-^'
dx.
38
Definite Integrals
Chap. 3
It is
The curve y =
e~^' is
shown
in Fig. 19a.
symmetrical
with respect to the ^-axis.
The
and
X
area between x
a:
= 1
and
is
therefore equal
to that between x
1.
Consequently
dx
Je''
Fig. 19d.
= Ai-\-A2^ 2 At =
2 fe-^'dx. Jo
EXERCISES
Find the values of the following sums:
1.
xAx,
10
Ax =
\.
2.x:
3.
Ax
X
Ax =
1.
V]_ VxAx,
Show
that
Ax =
V
\.
4.
7
approximately.
5.
sin
X Ax
cos -
Use a table
of natural sines
and take Ax = -^^
Calculate x approximately
>i
by the formula Ax =
X2
0.1.
'-s:r +
6.
Ax
y
is
=
f
7.
X*,
Find correct to one decimal the area bounded by the parabola the X-axis, and the ordinates x = 0, x = 2. The exact area
By
Find correct to one decimal the area of the circle x^ + y^ = 4. representing the integrals as areas prove graphically the following
equations
8.
Jo
f'sin {2x)dx =
0.
J-2t cos^ X dx
=
2
0.
ir
10.
Jo
sin'
xdx =
Ja
sin*
x dx.
Art 20
+
DebitATTV of Aba
39
It
xdx
1
X
J_l
1
+x*
0.
"
13.
dx
+ X*
Jo
l+x*
J"
fix)dx =j"' fia- x)dx.
20.
Derivative of Area.
The
area
bounded by a
curve
y=f{x),
a fixed ordinate x = a, and a movable ordinate MP, function of the abscissa x of the movable ordinate.
is
The increment
Let X change to x of area
+
is
Ax.
AA = MPQN.
Construct the rectangle
MP'Q'N
equal
If
in
area
of
to
MPQN.
points
of
some
the
are
the arc
PQ
above P'Q', others must be

below to make
MP'Q'N
intersects
equal.
PQ at
and Hence P'Q' some point R.
MPQN
Fig. 20.
Let
y'
be the ordinate of R.
Then
y' is
the altitude of
MP'Q'N and so Â = MPQN = MP'Q'N = y' Ax.
Consequently
Â
Ax
y'
When Ax
approaches
y.
approaches zero, if the curve Therefore in the hmit
is
continuous, y'
dA
Let the indefinite integral of /
(20a)
(x)
dx be
I'
f{x)dx
Fix)-\-C.
40
Definite Integrals
(20a)
Chap. 3
From equation
we then have
Cf{x)dx = F{x)+C.
a.
A =
The area
is
zero
when x =
Consequently
= F(a)+C,
whence C
= F (a) and
A=F{x)
This
X.
is
-F(a).
the area from x
The area between a: = a&ndx =
a to the ordinate 6 is then
MP with abscissa
(20b)
A = F (b) - F (a).
The
difference
(h)
F
is,
(a) is
often represented
by the
notation
F {x)
that
Fix)
21.
= Fib)-F (a).
(20c)
Relation of the Definite and Indefinite Integrals.

I
a,
The
x
definite integral
(x)
dx
is
equal to the area bounded
by the curve y = f
(x),
the x-axis, and the ordinates x
b.
If
f^
by equation
(20b)
'*fix)dx
F(x)
+ C,
F
(a).
this area is
(b)
We therefore
(21)
conclude that
f{x)dx^F{x)
that
is,
^F{b)-F{a),
j
to
find the value of the definite integral
(x) dx,
substitute
a,
and x
= bin
from
the indefinite integral
f (x) dx
and
subtract the former
the latter result.
Art 22
Properties of Definite Integrals
41
Example.
Find the value of the integral

'1
r
Jo
dx
1
+x
The value
required
is
n
Jo
22.
gral has the
I.
dx
1+X2
tan~^ X
tan~*
tan-iO
7-
Properties of Definite Integrals.
definite inte-
foUowing simple properties:
rfix)dx= - rfix)dx.
r / (x)
dx =
n.
ff ix) dx-î'f (x) dx.

a
m.
/V W dxîh- a)f(xd,
x^
h.
The first of these is due to the fact that if Ax is positive when X varies from a to 6, it is negative when x varies from The two integrals thus represent the same area with h to a.
different algebraic signs.
Fig. 22a.
Fig. 22&.
The second property expresses that the area from a to c sum of the areas from a to 6 and b to c. This is the ease not only when h is between a and c, as in Fig. 22a, but also when 6 is beyond c, as in Fig. 226. In the latter
is
equal to the
case
(x)
dx
is
negative and the
sum
rf(x)dx-\- rf{x)dx da t/5

is
equal to the difference of the two areas.
42
Definite Integrai^
Chap. 3
Equation III expresses that the area

altitude
PQMN
is
equal to
that of a rectangle
P'Q'MN
with
between
MP and NQ.
23. Infinite Limits. It has been assumed that the limits a and h were finite. If the integral
dx
Fig. 22c.
'J a
approaches a limit when b increases indefinitely, that limit
/
a
(x) dx.
That
is,
t/r.
f (x) dx
lim
5=30
fV â
(x) dx.
(23)
If
the indefinite integral
Jf{x)dx = F{x)
approaches a limit when x increases indefinitely,
r
/a
/(re)
dx
lim [F
6 = 00
(6)
- F (a)] = F (oo) - F (a).

if
The value
is
thus obtained by equation (21) just as
the
limits were finite.

..00
Example
1.
dx
1
/o
+ x^
The
indefinite integral is
f dx ^ J l-\-x'
When X
approaches
tan~^ X.
infinity, this
approaches
jr
Hence
dx
J/100
tan~â;
Art. 24
Infixtte Values op the

r*aa
PuNcnoN
iZ
Ex.
2.
'cosxdx.
/
The indefinite when X increases
integral sin
indefinitely.
a:
does not approach a limit
Hence
r
has no definite value.
24.
cosxdx
Infinite
Values of the Function.

infinite
If
the function
/ (x) becomes
the limit
when x =
6,
f{x) dxis defined as
Jf
a
(x)
dx
lim
z=b
/ (x)
dx,
*J a
z being between a
Similarly,
if
and
6.
(a) is infinite,
J/
a
(x)
dx
lim
z=a
/ (x)
dx,
*J z
z being
If
b,
between a and
6.
the function becomes infinite at a point c between o and
(x)
dx
is
defined
by the equation
(24)
rf{x)dx= rf{x)dx+ rf(x)dx.

t/a
i/a
/c
Example
dx
1.
/
When
0,
-77=
vx
is
infinite.
We
therefore divide the
integral into
two parts:
dx
3 2
3^
2
J -I V X
J_i
VX
Jo
v^
44
Definite Integrals
Cha|i. 3
Ex.2
If
dx
we
use equation (21),
we
get
1
'^dx^_l
'-1 x:
= -2.
-1
x^
Since the integral

absurd.
is
obviously positive, the result

x^
we
is
This
Q.
is
due to the fact that -5 becomes
infinite
when X =
Resolving the integral into two parts,
get
ri dx
ndx
n dx
25.
Change
of Variable.
If
a change of variable
is
made
in evaluating
an
integral, the limits
can be replaced by
the corresponding values of the new variable. suppose that when x is expressed in terms of t,
To
see this,
fix)dx s>
is
=
=
Fix)
changed into
'
f<
If
to, tif
{t)dt
^{t).
are the values of
t,
corresponding to
Xo, Xi,
F
and so
that
is
(xo)
= $ (to),
F (x,) = $ (<i),
F{xr)-F{xo)=^{U)-^{k),
rf(x)dx= f
If
<f>{t) dt.
more than one value
of
corresponds to the same value
of X, care should be taken to see that to
when
varies from
X varies from Xo to values, / (x) dx = 4> (t) dt.

ti,
Xi,
and that
for all intermediate
Example.
Va^
x^ dx.
Art.
26
Change of Variables
45
Substituting x
a sind, we find
When
a,
sin0
1,
and
K'
When x = a,
sind
= 1 and
= -.
T
Therefore
r cos^ Odd =^ld-\-^sm 2e]'
J''
V^^^^dx = a^r
~2
^
|t
"2
Since sin^Tr
= 1,
it
might seem that we could use

then get
as the lower limit.
We should
"'I
s
cos'dde=
-^
is
This
is
crosses
the
not correct because in passing from |t to ^x, third and second quadrants. There cos 6
negative and
Va^
and not
7? dx =
{ a cos d)
cos Odd,
o' cos' d d6 as
assumed above.
EXERCISES
/4
definite integrab:
6.
I
1.
sec*
a;
dr.
'-
xlnxdx.
J a Va-
8.
tanxdx.
3.
f
(^
{x-l)^dx.
xdx
ra\a2(
Jo
>
_\
^
^-4 Vj2
144
do.
sin'
10.
J^
;^-
46
Definite Integrals
Chap. 3
J
11.
13.
J
2
csc^xdx.
'<'
e-k'x^xdx.
12
/i
X y/x^
Evaluate the following definite integrals by making the change of

variable indicated:
r*
16.
Vr -^
X
dz
-dx,
x-\=z\
^
1^
_^
18.
Jo
^^-. 5 sm +
-;
r-T-f
sin^ 9
Sin
0=2.
Jo
a^+x^
CHAPTER
IV
SIMPLE AREAS AND VOLUMES

Area Bounded by a Plane Curve. Rectangular The area bounded by the curve y = / (x), the X-axis and two ordinates x = a, x = b, is the limit approached by the sum of rectangles y Ax. That is,
26.
Coordinates.
Fig. 26a.
Fig. 266.
A = hm V ^^
Ai=0
y
a
Ax =
/
*J a
ydx=
by a
I
*J a
f{x)dx.
(26a)
Similarly,
the area bounded
curve, the abscissas
a,y
b,
and the
y-axis
is
A =
lim
Ay=0
2 X A?/ =
xdy.
(26b)
%J a
Example 1. Find the area bounded by the curve x y- and the i/-axis.
47
-|-
48
Simple Areas and Volumes

at y
Chap. 4
The curve (Fig. 26c) crosses the 2/-axis y = 2. The area required is, therefore,
and
Fig. 26c
A = J\dy=^ {2 + y-y^)dy = 2y + ^-y^

Ex.
2.
4i
Find the area within the
circle x^ -{ y^
16 and
parabola x^
Solving
?/.
the
equations
circle
simultaneously,
intersect
(Fig.
the
parabola and
at
P (
we find that 2V3, 2) and

the circle
is
(2\/3, 2).
The area
MPQN
2M) under
ydx=
The
area
\/l6-x2da: =
^x + 4V3.
MPO + OQN under the parabola is

2v/3 3.2
x
The
Ex. y
3.
,-
-2V3
6
is
area between the curves
the difference
MPQN - MPO - OQN = J/tt + J Vs.

Find the area within the hypocycloid x
4>.
sin^ 0,
cos^
Art.
26
Rectangular Coordinates
49
The area
OAB
/
in the first
quadrant
is
Jydx=
=
a CDs' <^ 3 a
X
sin^
<f>
cos
<t>
d<t>
3 a^
cos*
sin'^ 4>d<l)
g\ x a^
Fig. 26c.
The
entire area
is
then
ÔAB =
lira\
EXERCISES
Find the area bounded by the Hne 2 y S x 5 =0, the x-axis, and the ordinates x = 1, x = 3. 2. Find the area bounded by the parabola y = 3 x-, the y-axis, and
1.
.^.
r the abscissas y
3.
2,
4.
Find the area bounded hy y' = x, the line y = ordinates x = 0, x = 3. 4. Find the area bounded by the parabola y = 2 x
X-axis.
2,
and the
and the
x-
.y 6. Find the area bounded by y 'z = 2, X = 8.

6.
In x, the x-axis,
and the ordinates
Find the area enclosed by the
ellipse
^ +g cr a7.
l.
Find the area bounded by the coordinate axes and the curve
j/i
x*
a*.

50
8.
Chap. 4
y
/
9.
Find the area within a loop of the curve x^ = y^ (i y^). Find the area within the loop of the curve y"^ = (x I) {x
2)2.
k^,
10.
Show
that the area
bounded by an arc
of the hyperbola
xy
the X-axis and the ordinates at its ends, is equal to the area bounded the same arc, the y-axis and the abscissas at its ends.
by
tX 11.
y-
Find the area bounded by the curves
y^
4.
ax, x^
ay.~\
12.
Find the area bounded by the parabola y
iline
2x
x"^
and the
r/^
X.
/
is
13.
Find the areas
of the
two parts into which the
circle x^
divided
14.
by the parabola
16.
y^
2 x.
x^
/
a;2
Find the area within the parabola
4y
4 and the circle
4-^ =
5.
16.
Find the area bounded by y* = 4 x, x^ = 4 y, and x'' + y^ = 5. Find the area of a circle by using the parametric equations
0,
a cos
a sin
6.
fn^
</
18.
Find the area bounded by the x-axis and one arch of the cycloid.
X
(4)
sin
</>),
(1
cos 0).
Find the area within the cardioid

X
a cos
d {1
cos
6),
a sin 0(1
<(>,
cos 6).
19.
Find the area bounded by an arch
of the trochoid,
cuj)
b sin
</>,
b cos
and the tangent

20. 21.
at the lowest points of the curve.

ellipse x"
Find the area of the
xy
y^
y"^
3.
Find the area bounded by the curve
=^
and
its as-
ymptote X = 2 a. 22. Find the area within the curve
l+(f)' =
27.
'-
nates.
radii
To
Area Bounded by a Plane Curve.

find the area of the sector
Polar Coordi-
POQ bounded by two
OP,
OQ and
the arc
PQ
into
of a given curve.
Divide the angle
POQ
and construct the

of these sectors
circular sectors
any number of equal parts A^ shown in Fig. 27a. One

A^.
ORS
has the area

i
OR^ A0 =
r2
Art 27
If
Polar Coordinates
/S
51
a and
is
are the limiting values of
6,
the
sum
of all the
sectors
then
As A^ approaches zero, this sum approaches the area the sector POQ. Therefore
of
A=
lim
r2A5=
^r^ dd.
(27)
Fig. 27a.
Fig. 276.
In this equation
must be replaced by
its
value in terms
of d from the equation of the curve.
Example.
Find the area of one loop of the curve
^
Its
sin 2
(Fig. 276).
A
area
loop of the curve extends from d

is
to 6
TT =-.
A=
r ^r^ dd = r ^sm^2e) dd
cos 4:d)dd
=fra-
xa*=
52
Chap. 4
EXERCISES
1.
Find the area
of the circle r
2.
3.
Find the area
of the circle r
= a. = a cos Q.
line
Find the area bounded by the coordinate axes and the
= asecfe -^y
4.
Find the area bounded by the
initial line
and the
first
turn of the
spiral r
ae^-
\b^ Find the area

6.
of
one loop of the curve

r
r^
=
cos
o^ cos 2 6.
fl
Find the area enclosed by the curve
=
a
+
cos
2.
0).
TT) Find the area within the cardioid r

8.
(1
+
r
Find the area bounded by the parabola
sec^
-^
and the
y-axis.
9.

f
=
1
2a
cos 6
and the
10.
radii 9
-:,
^-
2
initial line
Find the area bounded by the
and the second and
third tiu-ns of the spiral r

11.
aB.
Find the area of the curve
2 a cos 3 9 outside the circle
a.
12.
Show
that the area of the sector bounded by any two radii of
the spiral rd
13.
= am
proportional to the difference of those radii.
Find the area asin 9. a cos 6
common
to the
two
circles
a cos
n
9,
14. 16. 16.
Find the entire area enclosed by the curve Find the area within the curve
(r
cos' 5
ff^).
aY =
a? {I
Through a point within a closed curve a chord is drawn. Show that, if either of the areas determined by the chord and curve is a maximum or minimum, the chord is bisected by the fixed point.
28. Volume of a Solid of Revolution. To find the volume generated by revolving the area ABCD about the
X-axis.
Inscribe in the area a series of rectangles as

Fig. 28a.
shown
in
One
of these rectangles
PQSR generates a
circular
Art 28
Volume of a Solid of Revolution'
53
of this
cylinder with radius y cylinder is
and
altitude Ax.
The volume
Ty-^x.
D
Fig. 28a.
If
IS
a and b are the limiting values of
x,
the
sum of the cylinders
2
The volume generated by
TZ/2AX.
is
the area
the limit of this

iry-dx.
sum
(28)
let
?/i
x?/-Ax=
If
the area does not reach the axis, as in Fig. 286,

t/2
and
be the distances from the axis to the bottom and top
Fig. 286.
of the rectangle
it
PQRS. When revolved about the axis^ generates a hollow cy Under, or washer, of volume
T
(2/2^
Vi^)
Ax.
54
Chap. 4
The volume generated by

V
the area
yi^)
is
then
/6
I
lim
Ai=0
y ^^
b
TT (?/2^
Ax =
TT
(yi^
y^) dx.
tJ a
If the area is revolved about some other axis, y in these formulas must be replaced by the perpendicular from a point
of the curve to the axis
and x by the distance along the
axis
to that perpendicular.
Example 1. Find the volume generated by revolving the ellipse
O
Fig. 28c.
Ax
ax
about the
x-axis.
From
the equation of the curve
we
get
The volume
required
J-'o Tty^dx
is,
therefore,
= -Y
^52
fa
{aJ
is
x^)
dx
=4 -Tah\
its
Ex. 2. A circle of radius a plane at the distance b (greater than a) from its center. Find the volume
generated.
Fig. 28d,
circle, the Revolve about the line
revolved about an axis in
CD.
radii
The
rectangle
MN
generates a washer with
R^
= b-x=b- Va^-y^,
Fig. 28d.
is
R^=b-^x=b-\- Va^-y\
The volume
of the
washer
{Ri"
Ri")
=4x6 Va'-y-'Ay.
Art. 28
Volume of a Solid of Revolution

required
V
is
55
The volume
then
r 4x6 Va2 _ y2dy = 2Trâ%.

circle
Ex.
r
3.
Find the volume generated by revolving the
a sin 6 about the x-axis.
In this case
y X
= =
rsind rcosd
is
= =
sin- 6,
acosflsin^.
The volume
V
required
Ty^ dx
=
I
ira? sin*
(cos- d
sin- 6) d9
x-a-'
The reason for using x as the lower limit and as the upper is to make dx positive along the upper part ABC of the curve.
Fig. 28e.
As
OABCO.
from x to 0, the point P describes the path Along OA and CO dx is negative. The integral thus gives the volume generated by MABCN minus that
6 varies
generated by
0AM and OCN.

EXERCISES
Find the volume of a sphere by integration. Find the volume of a right cone by integration. 3. Find the volume generated by revolving about the z-axis the area X)unded by the i-axis and the parabola y = 2 x x*.
1.
2.
56
4.

Find the volume generated by revolving about
Chap.
OY
the area
bounded by the coordinate axes and the parabola x' + 2/ = a 5. Find the volume generated by revolving about the x-axis the
area bounded by the catenary y
lines
-x
ye"
-j-
e"y
the x-axis and the
a. X = 6. Find the volume generated by revolving one arch of the sine curve y = sin X about OX. 7. A cone has its vertex on the surface of a sphere and its axis 1/ Find the common volume. coincides with a diameter of the sphere. V 8. Find the volume generated by revolving about the y-axis, the part of the parabola y"^ = "iax cut off by the line x = a. iX 9. Find the volume generated by revolving about x = a the part of thp parabola y^ = 4tax cut off by the line x = a. 2 a the \/ 10. Find the volume generated by revolving about y = part of the parabola r/^ = 4 ax cut off by the line x a. 11. Find the volume generated by revolving one arch of the cycloid
((^
sin
<^),
(1
cos
<^)
about the x-axis. 12. Find the volume generated by revolving the curve
= o sin' <> X = o cos' 0, 2/ about the y-axis. 13. Find the volume generated by revolving the cardioid r = a cos (?) about the initial line. 14. Find the volume generated by revolving the cardioid
o
(1
(1
-|-
+ cos 0)
about the
line
j*
xy -h
2/2
16.
Find the volume generated by revolving the eUipse

x^ -h
\t^^
line
^*
about the x-axis. 16. Find the volume generated by revolving about the
the part of the parabola x* -H
2/*
y
a.
"* cut off
by the
line
-{
a Solid with Given Area of Section. be the by parallel planes. Let area of section at distance x from a fixed point. The plate PQRS with lateral surface perpendicular to PQR has the
29.
of
Volume
Divide the
solid into slices
volume
PQR 'Ax = X Ax.
Art.
29
Volume of a Solid with Given Area of Section

x,
57
If
a and h are the limiting values of
the
sum of such plates is
Xx^x.
The volume
required
v
is
the limit of this
sum
(29)
\\my\XAx=rXdx.
Ai=0
Example
1.
Find the volume of the

?! _L ^' 4_ !! -r "f^2 ^2 ^2
ellipsoid
Fig. 296.
The
section perpendicular to the x-axis at the distance

is
from the center
an
ellipse
?! = A _ ^ ^ 52-1-^2
-J1
o2*
58
Chap. 4
The
semi-axes of this ellipse are
MP
By
= cv/l-|,
MQ
= 6\/l-^.
is
exercise 6, page 49, the area of this ellipse
TT
MP MQ
.
Tbc ll
- ~)
The volume
of the ellipsoid
is,
therefore,
Trbc
(1
^jdx
^ irabc.
Ex.
2.
The axes
of
two equal right circular cylinders Find the common volume.
Fig. 29c.
OABC
In Fig. 29c, the axes of the cylinders are OX and OZ and The section of OABC is I of the common volume. by a plane perpendicular to OF is a square of side
MP = MQ
= Va^ -
y\
Art. 29
Volume of a Solid with Given Abea of Section

of the section
is
59
The area
therefore
MP MQ = a2 - y*,
and the required volume
is
EXERCISES
Find the volume of a pjTamid by integration. wedge is cut from the base of a right circular cylinder by a plane passing through a diameter of the base and inclined at an angle a to the base. Find the volume of the wedge. 3. Two circles have a diameter in common and lie in perpendicular planes. A square moves in such a way that its plane is perpendicular to the common diameter and its diônals are chords of the circles. Find the volimae generated. 4. The plane of a moving circle is perpendicular to that of an ellipse and the radius of the circle is an ordinate of the ellip)se. Find the volume generated when the circle moves from one vertex of the eUipse to
1.
2.
the other.
5.
The plane
of a
moving
triangle
is
perpendicular to a fixed diam-
and its vertex Ues on a diameter at distance h from the plane of the circle. Find the volume generated by the triangle in moving from one end of the diameter to the other. 6. A triangle of constant area A rotates about a line perpendicular to its plane while advancing along the line. Find the volume swept out in advancing a distance h. 7. Show that if two soUds are so related that every plane parallel to a fixed plane cuts from them sections of equal area, the volumes of the soUds are equal. 8. A cj-lindrical siuâce passes through two great circles of a sphere which are at right angles. Find the volume within the cylindrical
eter of a circle, its base is a chord of the circle,
line parallel to the fixed
surface
9.
and sphere.
cylinders of equal altitude h have a
Two
their lower bases are tangent.

cj-linders.
common upper base and Find the volume common to the two
10. .\ circle moves with its center on the 2-axis and its plane parallel to a fixed plane inclined at 45 to the 2-axis. If the radius of the circle
is
always
= Va-
z*,
where
2 is the coordinate of its center, find the
volimae described.
CHAPTER V
OTHER GEOMETRICAL APPLICATIONS

Higher Order. In the applicawe have previously made, the quantity desired has in each case been a limit of the form
30.
Infinitesimals
of
tions of the definite integral that
lim
Ai=0
V' fix) Ax. â
We shall now
consider cases involving limits of the form
lim
Fix, Ax)
Ax) is only approximately expressible in the form Such cases are usually handled by neglecting That such neglect infinitesimals of higher order than Ax. does not change the limit is indicated by the following theorem // for values of x between a and b, F ix, Ax) differs from f ix) Ax by an infinitesimal of higher order than Ax,
ix,
when F
(x)
Ax.
lim
Y
e
Fix, Ax) =lim
V
-\-e
fix) Ax.
To show
this let
be a number so chosen that

Ax.
F ix. Ax) = fix) Ax

If
ix.
Ax) and /
e
order than Ax,
proaches zero
Art. 9).
ix) Ax differ by an infinitesimal of higher Ax is of higher order than Ax and so e apas Ax approaches zero (Differential Calculus,
The
difference
y" Fix, Ax) -
V'fix) Ax =
60
V%Ax
Art. 31
Rectangtjlar Coordinates
61
is
graphically represented
by a sum
of rectangles (Fig. 30), of

c.
whose altitudes are the various values values approach zero * with Aa;,
the total area approaches zero
Since
all
these
and so
limVV(x,Aa;)=limV
/(x)Ax,
Am
kO.
^^^- ^^ which was to be proved. Rectangular Coordinates. 31. Length of a Curve. In the arc AB of a curve inscribe a series of chords. The length of one of these chords PQ is
VA^MÂ^ =
Y
y/l
+ (^)'Aa:,
B
Ay
c1
f"
Fig. 31a.
and the sura
of their lengths is
The length of the arc AB is defined as the limit approached by this sum when the number of chords is increased indefinitely, their lengths
*
approaching zero.
For the discussion to be strictly accurate it vaaai be shown that there is a number larger than any of the e's which approaches zero. In the language of higher mathematics, the approach to the limit must be uniform. In ordinary cases that certainly would be true. A similar remark applies to all the applications of the above theorem.
62
Other Geometrical Applications
Chap. 5
The quantity
V1
+(t^) \^x)
zero,
is
not a function of x alone.

the
difference
If
When
V/^
Ao;
approaches
v/l
however,
of
{^ ^^^
is
+ (^J
approach es
zero.
then
we
an
replace
V1+(t^) Aa;byyi+
-^ J
Ax, the error
is
infinitesimal of higher order

of arc
than \x.
Therefore the length
In applying
this
formula
~ must be determined from the

dv
result
equation of the curve.
The
can also be written

(31)
s=
In
this formula,
y,
r Vd^+~dy^.
A
and
terms of
or both
may be expressed in terms of x, or x in may be expressed in terms of a parameter.
In any case the limits are the values at

variable that remains.
of the
y^
Example 1. Find the length = 4:X between x = and x =

dx In this case tdy V =^
2
.
of the arc of the parabola

1.
-\
The
limiting values of y are
and
2.
Hence
s
= J'\/l+(^Jdy =
Ex.
2.
lV^^^dy = V2 + \nil + V2).

of the curve
Find the perimeter
x
In this case
ds
a cos^
</>,
sin^
</.
= Vdx^ + dy^ = Vo a^ cos* sin^ 0+ 9 a^ sin" <^ cos^ = 3 a cos sin

(f)
<j)
<f>
d<l>
d.
Art.
32
Polar Coordinates
is
63
One-fourth of the curve

to
jz.
described
is
when
<f>
varies
from
Hence the perimeter
Jo
rSa
cos <f> sin
<f>d<f>
a.
EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
Find the circumference of a circle by integration. Find the length of y^ = x' between (0, 0) and (4,
Find the length of x
8).
-^y
In sec
y between y
and y =
4.
5.
6.
Find the length ofx = \jf |lny between y = 1 and y Find the length of y = e^ between (0, 1) and (1, e). Find the perimeter of the curve
x'
2.
+2/
tt
7.
Find the length of the catenary
-M + 9
e
between x = a and x = a. 8. Find the length of one arch

x
9.
of the cycloid
{<(>
sin
<f>),
{1
cos
(^).
Find the length of the involute of the

X
circle
a (cos
+dsia6),
(sin
66 cos 6),
between ^ = and 6 = 2v. 10. Find the length of an arc of the cycloid
X
If s is
a{d
+ siD.6),
= a{lcosd).
(x, y)
the length of arc between the origin and any point

arch,
of the
same
show that
s2
8 ay.
32.
Length
of
Curve.
curve
is
Polar
Coordinates.
The
differential of arc of a
(Differential Calculus, Arts..
54,59)
ds
= Vdx^
di/2
= Vdr2
r2
dd\
64

(31)
is,
Chap. 5
Equation
therefore, equivalent to
(32)
^^
M
X ^
In using this formula, must be expressed in terms of or ^ in terms

r
of
from the equation
of the curve.
The
limits
are the values at

of
and
the variable
that re-
mains.
Example.
length
Fig. 32.
Find
the
first
the
of
turn
of the spiral r
ad.
In
this case dr
= add and
2
dd^
Jo
+ a2^2
(IQ2
Jo
+ 02,
7ra
Vl +4x-+^ln(2x + Vl+4x2).
EXERCISES
1.
2.
Find the circumference of the Find the circumference of the Find the length of the
spiral r
circle r circle r
a.
2 a cos
Q.
3.
e"*
between
line r
and
->
4.
Find the distance along the straight

to
(9
a sec ( ^
~ 5 ) from
^-axis.
=
6.
^
6 cut off
6.
Find the arc of the parabola r = a sec* J Find the length of one loop of the curve
r
by the
a cos* 7' 4
7.
Find the perimeter of the cardioid

r
(1
+ cos6).
r
8.
Find the complete perimeter of the curve
8 a sin' = o
Art.
33
Area of a Surface of Revolution
05
Area of a Surface of Revolution. To find the area generated by revolving the arc AB about the x-axis. Join A and Z^ by a broken line with vertices on the arc.
33.
Let
X,
y be the
of
coor-
dinates
and X
q_
Ax, y -\- Ay those of Q. The chord PQ generates
a frustum whose area

7r(2y
of
is
cone
+ Ay) PQ =
Fig. 33a.
ir(2y
+ A?/) VAx2+A2/2.
by the broken
7r(2
The
area generated
line is
then
2)
2/
+ Ay)VAx2 + Ai/2.
The area S generated by the arc AB is the limit approached by this sum when Ax and Ay approach zero. Neglecting infinitesimals of higher order, (2
i/
+ Ay) VAx^ + Ay^

2y ds.
Hence the
can be replaced by 2 y Vdx^

area generated
is
+ dy^ =
S=
\2Tryds.
(33a)
In this formula y and ds must be calculated from the equation of the curve. The limits are the values at A and B of the variable in terms of which they are expressed. Similarly, the area generated by revolving about the
2/-axis is
=i>^ xds.
(33b)
Example. Find the area of the surface generated by revohing about the y-axis the part of the curve y = \ x* above the x-axis.
66

In this case
ds
Chap. 5
y 1 + (^Jdx
is
= Vl
+ 4x''dx.
AB
of the curve
The area required

between x
generated by the part
and x
1.
Hence
Fig. 336.
S = f 2t xds=
D
2txVi-\-4x'' dx
v)
EXERCISES
Find the area of the surface of a sphere. 2. Find the area of the surface of a right circular cone. 3. Find the area of the spheroid generated by revolving an ellipse about its major axis. = o 4. Find the area generated by revolving the curve x' + 2/ about the 2/-axis. 6. Find the area generated by revolving about OX, the part of the
1.
catenary
between x = a and x = a. 6. Find the area generated by revolving one arch of the cycloid
X
(<t>
sin
<^),
= a
(1
cos
(f>)
about OX.
Art 34
Unconventional Methods
67
7. Find the area generated by revolving the cardioid r about the initial line.
a (1
+ cos 0)
8.
The
arc of the circle

*
+ y* = a'
-{-
between (a, 0) and (0, a) is revolved about the line x the area of the surface generated.
9. The arc of the parabola revolved about the line y = 2.
a.
Find
^ =
4 x between x = and x Find the area generated.
1 is
10.
Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the lemnis-
cate
r^
2 a' cos 2
about the
line
fl
7-
34. Unconventional Methods. The methods that have been given for finding lengths, areas, and volumes are the ones most generally applicable. In particular cases other methods
may
To
give the results

solve
more
easily.
tion, it is
problem by integramerely necessary to ex-
press the required quantity in
any
way
as a limit of the form used in
defining the definite integral.
Example
taut
circle,
is
1.
When
a string held
unwound
end
from
its
describes
a fixed a curve
circle.
called
the involute of
the
Find the length of the part described

string
is
when
the
first
turn of the
Fig. 34a.
unwound.
reaches
Let the string begin to unwind at A. When the end P the part unwound QP is equal to the arc AQ.
Hence
QP = AQ =
When P moves
a
circle
ad.
to R the arc PR is approximately the arc of with center at Q and central angle M. Hence
PR =
ad
Id
68
Chap. 6
approximately.
varies
The
tt
length of the curve described
when
from
s
to 2
is
then
ad
Ae=o
lim 2i
Ad
Jo
addd
2ira\
Ex.
X-axis,
2.
y-axis the area
Find the volume generated by rotating about the bounded by the parabola x^ = y 1, the and the ordinates a: = 1.
Resolve the area into slices by ordinates at distances Aar When revolved about the y-axis, the rectangle between the ordinates x, x -\- Ax generates a hollow cylinder
apart.
PM
whose volume
TT
is
(x
-\-
Ax)- y
TTX^y
2 irxy
Ax
+ Ty {AxY.
Fig. 346.
Fig. 34c.
{AxY is an infinitesimal the required volume is

Since
Try
of higher order
than Ax,
lim
2 TTxy
Ax =
ttx (1
+ x^) dx
%Tr.
Ex. 3. Find the area of the cylinder x^ -\- y^ = ax within the sphere x^ -\- y^ -\- z^ = a^. Divide Fig. 34c shows one-fourth of the required area. the circle OA into equal arcs As. The generators through
Art.
34
Unconventional Methods
6^
the points of division cut the surface of the cylinder into

rips.
the strip
Neglecting infinitesimals of higher order, the area is As. If r, d are the polar coordinates
MPQ MP
=
a A0,
is
M,
a cos d and
As
MP =
Va-
r-
a sin 6.
The
required area
therefore given
by
= hm im Tâ^sinflA^ = Ja-smddd.
4
Ad-
Consequently
S = 4a'
Jo
sindde
= Aa\
EXERCISES
Find the area swept over by the string in example 1, page 67. 2. Find the area of surface cut from a right circular cyUnder by a plane passing through a diameter of the base and incUned 45 to the
1.
base.
3.
The axes
of
two
right circular cylinders of equal radius intersect
at right angles.
(Fig. 29c).
4.
Find the area of the soUd coounon to the two cylinders

is
An
equilateral triangle of side a
to the base at distance b below the base.

5.
revolved about a line parallel Find the volume generated.

i*
The area bounded by the hyperbola

is
y^
a-
and the
lines
Find the volume generated. 6. The vertex of a cone of vertical angle 2 o is the center of a sphere of radius a. Find the volume common to the cone and sphere. 7. The axis of a cone of altitude h and radius of base 2 a is a generator of a cylinder of radius a. Find the area of the surface of the * cyhnder within the cone. 8. Find the area of the surface of the cone in Ex. 7 within the
= a
revolved about the x-axis.
cylinder.
9.
Find the volume of the cylinder in Ex. 7 within the cone.
CHAPTER
VI
MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL APPLICATIONS

The pressure of a liquid upon a horiequal to the weight of a vertical column of the liquid having the area as base and reaching to the surface.
35.
Pressure.
is
zontal area
By the pressure at a point P in the Hquid is meant the pressure

upon a horizontal surface
of unit area at that point.
The
Fig. 35a.
Fig. 356.
volume
of a
column
of unit section
is
and height h
is h.
Hence
the pressure at depth h
wh,
(35a)
w being the weight of a cubic
unit of the liquid.

vertical plane area (Fig. 356),
To find the pressure upon a we make use of the fact that

same
in all directions.
the pressure at a point

pressure
is
the
The
upon the
strip
AB
parallel to the surface is
then approximately
pAA,
p being the pressure at any point of the
area.
strip
and
AA
its
The reason
for this not being exact
is
that the pressure
70
Art.
35
Pressitbe
71
at the top of the strip
This difference
plies
is a little less than at the bottom. however, infinitesimal, and, since it multiilA, the error is an infinitesimal of higher order than
is,
Ai4.
The
total pressure
is,
therefore,
P=
The
lim
VplA
= fpdA = w ChdA.
(35b)
Before integration
limits are the values of
submerged
Example.
area.
expressed in terms of h. h at the top and bottom of the In case of water the value of w is about
s^-nicircle of
dA must be
62.5 lbs. per cubic foot.
Find the water pressure upon a
Fig. 3oc.
radius 5
ft.,
if
its
plane
is
vertical
and
its
diameter in the
surface of the water.
In this case the element of area
is
dA =
Hence
V25 -
h^ dh.
P = w jhdA =2w jhV2o-h^dh

=
i5 o.
^=
2.^0.
(62.5)
5208.3
lbs.
EXERCISES
1. Find the pressure sustained by a rectangular floodgate 10 ft. broad and 12 ft. deep, the upper edge being in the surface of the water. 2. Find the pressure on the lower half of the floodgate in the preceding problem. 3. Find the pressure on a triangle of base 6 and altitude h, sub-
merged so that
vertical.
its
vertex
is
in the surface of the water,
and
its
altitude
4. Find the pressure upon a triangle of base b and altitude h, submerged so that its base is in the surface of the liquid and its altitude
vertical.
72
5.
Mechanical and Physical Applications
Chap. 6
Find the pressure upon a semi-ellipse submerged with one axis and the other vertical. 6. A vertical masonry dam in the form of a trapezoid is 200 ft. long at the surface of the water, 150 ft. long at the bottom, and 60 ft. high. What pressure must it withstand? 7. One end of a water main, 2 ft. in diameter, is closed by a vertical bulkhead. Find the pressure on the bulkhead if its center is 40 ft. below the surface of the water. If 8. A rectangular tank is filled with equal parts of water and oil. the oil is half as heavy as water, show that the pressure on the sides is one-fourth greater than it would be if the tank were filled with oil.
in the surface of the liquid
36.
Moment.
Divide a plane area or length into small
parts such that the points of each part differ only infinitesi-
mally in distance from a given axis. Multiply each part by the distance of one of its points from the axis, the distance being considered positive for points on one side of the axis and negative for points on the other. The limit approached by the sum of these products when the parts are taken
smaller
and smaller
is
called the
moment
of the area or length
with respect to the
axis.
Similarly, to find the
moment
of a length, area, volume,
or mass in space with respect to a plane,
we
divide
it
into
elements whose points
differ
only infinitesimally in distance
from the plane and multiply each element by the distance of one of its points from the plane (considered positive for points on one side of the plane and negative on the other). The moment with respect to the plane is the limit approached
by the sum smaller and

parallel to
of these products
when
the elements are taken
smaller.
Example. Find the moment of a rectangle about an axis one of its sides at distance c. Divide the rectangle into strips parallel to the axis (Fig. Let y be the distance from the axis to a strip. The 36). area of the strip is b Ay. Hence the moment is
ybAy==
bydy = ab[c-\--].
Art. 37
Center of Gravity of a Length or Area

the area of the rectangle and
c
in a
Plane
73
Since ab
is
+x
is
the distance
from the axis to its center, the moment is equal to the product of the area and the distance from the axis to the center of the
rectangle.
b
r-*~
'
Fig. 36.
Fig. 37a.
37.
Plane.
plane
The Center of Gravity of a Length or Area The center of gravity of a length or area
in in
is
the point at which
it
could be concentrated without
changing its Let C (x,

37a),
moment with
y)
respect to
any
axis in the plane.
and
let s
be the center of gravity of the arc AB (Fig. be the length of the arc. The moment of AB
is
with respect to the x-axis
/;
If
yds.
the length
sy.
By
s were concentrated at C, its moment would be the definition of center of gravity
sy
yds,
whence
Similarly,
= 1:
xds
74
Chap. 6
limits are the values at A and B of the variable in terms which the integral is expressed. Let C {x, y) be the center of gravity of an area (Figs. 376, 37c). Divide the area into strips dA and let {x, y) be the
The
of
center of gravity of the

strip
dA
The moment
is
of the area with respect
to the X-axis
/^ dA.
If
the area were conat C,
centrated
the
moment would be Ay,

Fig. 376.
where
area.
is
the
total
Hence
Fig. 37c
The strip is usually taken parallel to a coordinate axis. The area can, however, be divided into strips of any other
kind
if
convenient.
1.
Example
the circle
Find the center of gravity of a quadrant of

y^
x"^ -\-
=
ds
a^.
In this case
~^
i
f\
= Vdx^
-j- dy"^
= -dx
\J
Art. 37
Center OF Gravity OF A Length OR Area
IN A
Plane
75
and
j
yds
=
is
'
-dx =
a^.
The
length of the arc

s
T
-a.
(2 7ra)
^^ X
is
Hence
^
y
yds
2_a
IT
Tig. 37d.
It
is
evident from the symmetry of the figure that x has the

value.
2.
same
Ex.
circle.
Find the center of gravity of the area of a semiit is
From symmetry
to
evident that the center of gravity
is
in the y-axis (Fig. 37e).
OX.
j
Take the element Then dA = 2xdy and

I
of area parallel
ydA =
is
2xydy =
a^.
y Va^
y^ dy =
ia\
The
area
A =
jr
Hence
CydA
4o
Fig. 37e.
Fig. 37/.
Ex. 3. Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the X-axis and the parabola y = 2x x^. Take the element of area perpendicular to OX. If {x, y)
76

its
Chap. 6
are the coordinates of the top of the strip,

is (a^,
center of gravity
is
I).
Hence
its
moment
with respect to the x-axis
The moment
of the
i2
whole area about
OX
is
then
15
The
area
is
A =
Hence y =
%.
ydx =
(2X
X^)
dx =;:
Similarly,
\xdA
X
38.
r{2x^-x^) dx
1.
Center of Gravity of a Length, Area, Volume, or

in Space.
Mass
The center
of gravity
is
defined as the
at
point
which
be
the
mass, area, length, or
volume
can
con-
centrated without changing its moment

with
plane.
respect
to
any
Thus
mass
to find the cen-
ter of gravity of a solid

(Fig. 38a) cut
it
into slices of
mass Am.
the cen-
If {x, y, z) is
Fig. 38o.
ter of
slice,
gravity of the
its
moment
with
respect to the a;y-plane
is
Am and the moment of

Am =
I z t/
the whole
mass
is
Am*0 ^^
lim
dm.
Art 38
If
Center of Gravitt
77
its
the whole mass

{x, y, z),
were concentrated at
center of
gravity
!
the
moment with
respect to the xy-plane
would be zM.
Hence
zM =
or
12 dm,
Jzdm
Similarly,
/
X dm
y
is
y dm
(^^>
^M-'
volume
-M-'
If
The mass
dv
is
of a unit
called the density.
then
the volume of the element
dm and
p its density,
dm =
To
it is
pdv.
find the center of gravity of a length, area, or
volume
s,
merely necessary to replace

V.
M in these formulas by
of the
S, or
Example 1. Find the center of gravity an octant of a sphere of radius a. The volume of the slice (Fig. 38a) is
dv
volume of
irx^
dz
= \w (a^
z^) dz.
Hence
fzdv = l.ia^-z^)zdz =
The volume
of
f-â\
an octant
of a sphere
is
ird^.
Hence
/^^"
V
i^^'
6"
From symmetry
value.
it is
evident that x and y have the
same
78
MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL APPLICATIONS
Chap. 6
Ex. 2. Find the center of gravity of a right circular cone whose density is proportional to the distance from its base. Cut the cone into slices parallel to
the base.
slice
Let y be the distance of a from the base. Except for in-
finitesimals of higher order, its
volume
is
is
TX^ dy,
is
and
its
density
its
is
ky where
constant.
Hence
mass
Am =
By
Fig.
38fe.
kwx^y dy.
similar
triangles
rih
?/).
Hence
h'
M = J dm = J
Therefore, finally,
-iîji-yfydy =
h'
12
ydm
n M
2,
5
EXERCISES
1. The wind produces a uniform pressure upon a rectangular door. Find the moment tending to turn the door on its hinges.
2. Find the moment of the pressure upon a rectangular floodgate about a horizontal line through its center, when the water is level with the top of the gate.
3.
horizontal, altitude vertical,
water.
and altitude h is submerged with its base and vertex c feet below the surface of the Find the moment of the pressure upon the triangle about a
triangle of base h
of the area of a triangle,
y^
horizontal line through the vertex.

4.
6.
Find the center of gravity

a;
Find the center of gravity of the segment of the parabola
ax,
cut ofT by the line
a.
Art 38
6.
Center of Gravity
of a
7^
quadrant of the
ellipse
FLid the center of gravity of the area

a*
6'-
7.
of the area
a'.
bounded by the coordinate
axes and the parabola x'

8.
+ y* =
a*.
Find the center of gravity of the area above the x-axis bounded
x*
by the curve
9.
+y
Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the x-axis and
one arch of the curve y = sin x. 10. Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the two parabolas y11.
ax, x^
ay.
Find the center of gravity of the area of the upper half of the cardioid r = o (1 -f- cosfl). 12. Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the x-axis and one arch of the cycloid,
X
a (<^ sin0),
(1
co8<^).
13. Find the center of gravity of the area within a loop uf the lemnis-
cate
r-
a^ cos 2 d. a.
14.
16.
Find the center of gravity of the arc of a semicircle of radius Find the center of gravity of the arc of the catenary
y
= ^(^ +
e")
a and x = a. between x = 16. Find the center of gravity of the arc

in the first quadrant.
17.
of the curve x*
+ y*
a*
Find the center of gravity X
of the arc of the curve
= \y^ h\ny
of
between y = 1 and y = 2. 18. Find the center of gravity

X
19.
an arch
y
of the cycloid
cos4>).
a{ sm),
a{\
Find the center of gravity of a right circular cone of constant
density.
Find the center of gravity of a hemisphere of constant density. Find the center of gravity of the solid generated by revolving about OX the area bounded by the parabola y- = 4 x and the line x = 4. 22. Find the center of gravity of a hemisphere whose density is proportional to the distance from the plane face. 23. Find the center cf gravity of the soUd generated by rotating a sector of a circle about one of its bounding radii.
20.
21.
so
Chap. 6
24. Find the center of gravity of the solid generated by revolving the cardioid r = a (1 cos e) about the initial line. 26. Find the center of gravity of the wedge cut from a right circular
cylinder
26.
27.
by a plane passing through a diameter of the base and making with the base the angle a.
Find the center
of gravity of a hemispherical surface.
is
Show
that the center of gravity of a zone of a sphere
midway
between the bases of the zone. 28. The segment of the parabola' i/^ = 2ax cut off by the line x = a is revolved about the x-axis. Find the center of gravity of the surface
generated.
39.
Theorems
is
of
Pappus.
Theorem
is
I.
If
the arc of a
plane curve
its plane,
and not
crossing the arc, the area generated

of the length of the arc
equal to the product

of the path described
and the length

is
by
its
its
center of gravity.
If
Theorem II.
a plane area

is
plane and not crossing the area, the volume generated

center of gravity.
first
equal to the product of the area and the length of the path
described by
its
To prove
the X-axis.
the
theorem,
its
let
the arc be rotated about

is
The
ordinate of
center of gravity
^ I'
whence
27r
/
yds
yds
2irys.
The
left
side of this equation represents the area of the
surface generated.
Also 2Try
is
the length of the path
described
by the center
of gravity.
This equation, therefore,
expresses the result to be proved.
the X-axis.
To prove the second theorem let the area be revolved about From the equation
JydA
Art. 39
Theorems of Pappus
81
we
get
2ir
I
ydA =
2iryA.
is
Since
2t
dA
is
the volume generated, this equation

II.
equivalent to theorem
Find the area of the torus generated byrevolving a circle of radius a about an axis in its plane at distance b (greater than a) from its
Example
1.
center.
Since the circumference of the circle

is
and the length of the path described by its center 2 wb, the area gen2
7ra
erated
is
S = 27ra-2 7r6 =
Ex.
circle
2.
4:ir-ab.
Fig. 39a.
Find the center of gravity of the area of a semi-
by using Pappus's theorems.
When a semicircle of radius a is revolved about its diameter,

the volume of the sphere generated
diameter,
is J xa'. If y is the distance of the center of gravity of the semicircle from this
by the second theorem

^
Tra^
of
Pappus,
i-
2 Try
A =
2 x^
xa^,
whence
y
$xa'
TTâ-
4a
3x"
Ex.
erated
r
3.
Find the volume genby revolving the cardioid
(1
+ cos 6) about the initial

of the triangle
line.
The area
is
OPQ
approximately
1
r^
Fig. 396.
Ad,
and
its
center of gravity
is
f of the distance f r sin 0.
from the vertex
to the base.
Hence
y
82
Chap,
ft
By
the second theorem of Pappus, the volume generated

is
by
OPQ
The
then approximately
2 TT?/
AA =
7rr^
sin 6
M.
entire
V
volume
j
is
therefore
{1
lTr^smddd = ^Tra^
2 O
-(l
Jo
t/o
+ coseysmddd
,
+ eos^)-'|4
I
8 o
EXERCISES
V 1.
By
using Pappus's theorems find the lateral area and the volume
of a right circular cone.
2.
radius a about an axis in

its center.
Find the volume of the torus generated by revolving a circle of its plane at distance b (greater than a) from
groove with cross-section an equilateral triangle of side i inch Find the volume
steel
J
is
3.
A
A
cut around a cylindrical shaft 6 inches in diameter.
of material cut away.

</
4.
band
is
placed around a cylindrical boiler 48 inches in
diameter.
cross-section of the
band
is
a semi-ellipse,
its
axes being 6
and
l^y^.
Vq inches,
respectively, the greater being parallel to the axis of the

of the
boiler.
What is the volume The length of an arch

X
band?
of the cycloid
<^),
{<j>
sin
(I
cos
<j>)
is
iro*. 8 a, and the area generated by revolving it about the x-axis is Find the area generated by revolving the arch about the tangent at its
highest point.
revolving the lemniscate
page 81, find the volume generated by about the x-axis. 7. Obtain a formula for the volume generated by revolving the a. Apply this formula to polar element of area about the line x = a the sector of obtain the volume generated by revolving about x = a, 6 = -\- a. the circle r = a bounded by the radii d = If tho 8. A variable circle revolves about an axis in its plane. distance from the center of the circle to the axis is 2 a and its radius
i/^&.
By
the method of Ex.

r^
3,
2 a^ cos 2
is
a sin
9.
6,
where
d is the angle of rotation, find the
volume
of the horn-
shaped
solid that is generated.
Can
the area of the surface in Ex. 8 be found in a similar
way?
Art. 40
10.
Moment of
The
Inertia
83
circular cylinder
vertex of a right circular cone is on the surface of a right and its axis cuts the axis of the cyhnder at right angles.
Find the volume common to the cyhnder and cone (use sections determined by planes through the vertex of the cone and the generators of
the cylinder).
40.
Moment
of Inertia.
The
moment
of its
particle about
of
its
an axis is the product distance from the axis.

find the
it
of inertia of a mass and the square
To
divide
moment
of inertia of
a continuous mass,
Let
we
into parts such that the points of each differ only
infinitesimally in distance
from the
axis.
Aw be
such a
axis.
part and
inertia of
the distance of one of its points
from the
Ebccept for infinitesimals of higher order, the
\m
about the axis
is
R- Aw.
moment The moment
of
of
inertia of the entire
mass
is
therefore
(40)
Am=0
fR'dm. UmX^^^^= ^ J
By
mean
the
moment
volume
of inertia of a length, area, or volume,
we
the value obtained by using the differential of length,

in place of
area, or
dm
in equation (40).
Example 1. Find the moment of inertia of a right circular cone of constant density about its axis. Let p be the density, h the altitude, and a the radius of the base of the cone. Di\nde
it
into hollow cyhndrical sUces

of cylindrical sur-
by means
the cone.
faces having the
same
axis as
By similar triangles
Fig. 40a.
the altitude y of the cylindrical surface of radius r is
y=-(a-r).
84
Chap. C
the cylinders of radii r and r
Neglecting infinitesimals of higher order, the volume between Ar is then
Ay
irry
Ar =
r (a
r) dr.
The moment
I
of inertia
r^p
is
therefore
r^
dm =
dv
2Trhp
r^(a
r)
dr
Tpha*
t/O
10
The mass
of the cone is
M = pv = I wpa^h.
Hence
I
Ex.
2.
ertia of the area of a circle
Find the moment of inabout

circle.
a diameter of the
Let the radius be a and let the xaxis be the diameter about which
Fig. 406.
the
moment
of
inertia
is
taken.
Divide the area into strips by lines parallel to the x-axis. Neglecting infinitesimals of higher order, the area of such a
strip is 2
a;
Ay and
its
moment
of inertia 2 xy^ Ay.

is
The
moment
of inertia of the entire area
therefore
= j2xy^dy =
2 j
Va-'
y^y^ dy
ira*
EXERCISES
1.
Find the moment of inertia
of the area of a rectangle
about one
of its edges.
2.
3.
Find the moment of inertia of a triangle about its base. Find the moment of inertia of a triangle about an axis through
its
its
vertex parallel to
4.
base.
Find the moment of inertia about the r/-axis of the area bounded by the parabola y^ = iax and the line x = a. 5. Find the moment of inertia of the area in Ex. 4 about the line X = a. 6. Find the moment of inertia of the area of a circle about the axis
perpendicular to
its
plane at the center.

circle.)
(Divide the area into rings
with centers at the center of the
Art. 41
7.
Work Done
by a Forge
8^
a.
Find the moment of inertia of a cylinder of mass

its axis.
about
8.
M and radius Find the moment of inertia of a sphere of mass M and radius
ellipsoid
is
a.
about a diameter.
9.
An
generated by revolving the eUipse
^-ul^=
about the x-axis. Find its moment of inertia about the x-axis. 10. Find the moment of inertia of a hemispherical shell of constant density about the diameter perpendicular to its plane face. 11. Prove that the moment of inertia about any axis is equal to the moment of inertia about a parallel axis through the center of gravity plus the product of the mass and the square of the distance between the
two
the
ils
axes.
12.
Use the answer to Ex.

of inertia of
moment
6, and the theorem of Ex. 11 to determine a circular area about an axis, perpendicular to-
plane at a point of the circumference.
41.
Work Done by
a Force.
Let a force be applied to

That
is,
a body at a fixed point. Wtien the body moves work is done by the force. If the force is constant, the work is defined as
the product of the force and the distance the point of application
moves
in the direction of the force.
W
where
If
Fs,
(41a)
is
the work,
the force,
and
the distance
moved
in the direction of the force.
the direction of
motion does
not coincide with that of the force,

the work done
force
is
the product of the
^^^^
^j.
from.
and
the projection of the disforce.
Fig. 41a.
placement on the
Thus when the body moves
to
(Fig. 41a) the work done by the force
is
W = Fs cos
If
e.
(41b>
the force
is
variable,
we
divide the path into parts As.
'Tn
so
moving the distance As, the force is nearly constant and. the work done is approximately FcosflAs. As the
Chap. 6
intervals As are taken shorter and shorter, this approximation becomes more and more accurate. The exact work is then the Hmit
]imy.FcosdAs= jFcoseds. W = As=0 ^ J

To determine
in
(41c)
the value of
terms of a single variable.

is
W, we express F cos 6 and ds The limits of integration are

If
0,
the values of this variable at the two ends of the path. the displacement
cos
in the direction of the force, 6
6=1
and
-P
ds.
(41d)
-B
vwvvww-^Fig. 416.
Fig. 41c.
Example
1.
The amount a
helical spring is stretched

If
is
proportional to the force applied.

required to stretch the spring
stretching
it
a force of 100
lbs. is
1 inch, find
the work done in

stretched.
4 inches.
is
Let
force
is
be the number of inches the spring then
The
F=
k being constant.
ks,
When
1,
F=
100
lbs.
Hence k
100 and
F =lOOs.
The work done
in stretching the spring 4 inches
is
JFds =
*Jo
100
ds
800 inch pounds
66 foot pounds.
Art. 41
Work Done by
2.
a Force
87
Ex.
A gas is confined in a cylinder with a movable piston.

=
k, find
Assuming Boyle's law pv
the
work done by the
pressure of the gas in pushing out the piston (Fig. 41rf).
per unit area of the piston.
Let V be the volume of gas in the cylinder and p the pressure If A is the area of the piston,
is
pA
the total pressure of the gas upon

is
it.
If s is
the distance
the piston moves, the work done
W=
But
JpAds.
ds
dv.
Hence
W=
is
f^pdv= r'^dv = k\n^

I'l
the work done
when the volume expands from
to
i'2.
Fig. Aid.
Fig. 41e.
Ex.
3.
e^
The
force with
is
which an
ke-iCz
electric
charge
Ci
repels
a charge
at distance r
where k
is
constant.
e^
Find the work done by

r
this
force
when
fixed.
the charge
moves from
a to r
6, Ci
remaining
Let the charge

(Fig. 41e).
d move from A The work done by the
to
along any path
AB
force of repulsion is
W = jFcosdds =
ffdr =
r^dr
A
and
The work depends only on the end

on the path connecting them.
points
and not
Chap. 6
EXERCISES
1.
the length a to the length a
According to Hooke's law the force required to stretch a bar from -{- x ia
kx
where
2.
K is constant.
Find the work done in stretching the bar from the

b.
length a to the length
Supposing the force of gravity to vary inversely as the square of the distance from the earth's center, find the work done by gravity on a meteor of weight w lbs., when it comes from an indefinitely great
distance to the earth's surface.
3.
>,
^
ft.
If
a gas expands without change of
temperature, according to van der Waal's equation,
P
a, b, c
being constant.
Find the work done

vi
when
4.
the gas expands from the volume

t'2.
to
the volume
to
The work in foot pounds required move a body from one altitude to
41J.
another is equal to the product of its weight in pounds and the height in feet Find the work required ^j^^^ j^ jg raised.
ft.
to
pump
5.
the water out of a cylindrical cistern of diameter 4

vertical shaft is supported
and
depth 8
by a
flat
step bearing (Fig. 41/).
The
frictional force
HP, where p is pressure per unit area
between a small part of the shaft and the bearing is the pressure between the two and m is a constant. If the
is
the same at
all
points of the supporting surface,

is
and the weight
of the shaft
and
its
load
P, find the work of the
fric-
tional forces during each revolution of the shaft.

6. When an electric current flows a distance x through a homogeneous conductor of cross-section A, the resistance is
kx
A'
where
Find the resistance is a constant depending on the material. the current flows from the inner to the outer surface of a hollow
when
cylinder, the
two
radii being a
and
b.
Art 41
7.
Work Doxe by
a Force
89
Find the resistance when the current flows from the inner to the
Find the resistance when the cmrent tnmcated cone to
electric current i flows
outer surface of a hollow sphere.

8.
flows from one base of a
the other.
9.
When an
an
in-
finitesimal distance
AB
(Fig. 41^) it
produces
at
any point
a magnetic force (perpendicular
to the paper) equal to
ide
r
'
where
10.
r is
of a circle
and 0. Find the force at the center the distance between due to a current i flowing around it.
c
AB
line along
Find the magnetic force at the distance which a current i is flowing.
from an
infinite straight
CHAPTER
VII
APPROXIMATE METHODS
42.
The Prismoidal Formula.
Let
yi,
ys,
ordinates of a curve at distance h apart,
and
let
2/2
ordinate
them.
midway The area bounded
be two be the between
by the a:-axis, the curve, and the two ordinates is given approximately by the formula
Fig. 42a.
A= lh(yi-\- 4:yo+ ys).
(42a)
This
If
to the
called the prismoidal formula because of formula for the volume of a prismoid. the equation of the curve is
is
its similarity
-i-
bx
-i-
cx~
-\-
dx?,
(42b)
where
let
a, 6,
c,
d,
are constants (some of which
may
t
be
zero),
this
the prismoidal formula gives the exact area.
To prove
Then
k be the abscissa of the middle ordinate and
the dis-
tance of
any other ordinate from

X
it
(Fig. 42a).
-[-t.
[f
we
substitute this value for x, (42b) takes the form
y
where A, B, C,
A+Bt + Ct^-{- Dt\

1/2,
D are constants. The ordinates yi, h h obtained by substituting = k, 0,^. Hence

t
ys
are
90
Art. 42
The Prismoidal Forjiula

is
91
Also the area
12
-2
This
is
equivalent to

If
it
may
the equation of the curve does not have the form (42b), be approximately equivalent to one of that type and
so the prismoidal formula

for the area.
may
give an approximate value
While we have illustrated the prismoidal formula by the it may be used equally well to determine a length or volume or any other quantity represented by a
area under a curve,
definite integral,
V
6
(x) dx.
Since such an integral represents the area under the curve y = / (^)> its value can be found by replacing h in (42a) by
a and
t/i,
y^, yz
by /
(a),
/ f^
(6)
respectively.
Exam-pie
area
e~^\
X-axis,
1. Find the bounded by the
the curve y
and the ordinates

0,
2.
The
integral
e-'^dx
Fig. 426.
cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions. Therefore we cannot obtain the area by the methods that we
92
Approximate Methods
Chap. 7
have previously used.

are
yi
The
y2
ordinates
yi, y^, yz,
in this case
1,
e-S
yz
e-^.
The
prismoidal formula, therefore, gives
A = |(l +^+^1=0.869.
The answer
0.882.
correct to 3 decimals (obtained
from a
?/-
table)
is
Ex.
a;
2.
Find the length of the parabola
4 x from
to
X =
5.
is
The length
given by the formula
=xv^-^ dx.
By
integration
we
find s
4.726.
To apply
the prismoidal
formula, let
-^'
7/2
Then
and
/i
4,
Vl
= V2, =
4 (
= Vl,
)
7/3
= Vf,
4.752.
3.
V2 + 4 v^ + Vf =
Ex.
Find the volthe

spheroid
revolving
ume
of
generated by
the ellipse
a-
0-
about the
Fig. 42c.
x-axis.
The
section
of
the
spheroid perpendicular to
OX
=
has the area

ll
A=
Try'-
irh-
^y
Art. 43
Simpson's
is
Rule
93
Its
volume
=
Since
Adx.
(a sp)ecial
is
a polynomial of the second degree in x
case of a third degree polynomial), the prismoidal formula

gives the exact volume.
The
0,
three cross-sections correa,
sponding to x
= a, Ai = 0,
are
Ao =
irlr,
Ai
0.
Hence
y = ^[Ai + 4A2 + A3]=| ra62.

Divide the area between a curve 43. Simpson's Rule. and the x-axis into any even number of parts by means of equidistant ordinates yi, y^, 1/3, ... (An odd number y.
,
of ordinates will be needed.)
Simpson's rule for determining

yi
approximately the area between
and y
is
^l/,
+ 4y2 + 2i/, + 4i/4 + 2i/3+ + + 2 + 4 -f 2 +

1
-i
41
jby
(43)
h being the distance between the ordinates yi and ?/, In the numerator the end coefficients are 1. The others are alternately 4 and 2. The Y denominator is the sum of
the coefficients in the
erator.
num-
^
/
'Jx
This formula
is
obtained
by applying
V.
the prismoidal
"4
"s
formula to the strips taken two at a time and adding

the results.
is
Thus
if
the area
Fig. 43.
r/i, 1/2,
divided into four strips

r/i
by the ordinates
1/3
ys,
J/4,
y
Its
the part between
and
has a base equal to 2'

is
area as given by the prismoidal formula
'
94
Approximate Methods
Chap. 7
Similarly the area between ys
and
y^ is
The sum
of the
two
is
A^h ( + ^ ^2 + ^ ^3 + 4 ^4 + ysN
^^'
By using a sufficiently large number of ordinates in Simpson's formula, the result can be made as accurate as
desired.
Example.
Find In 5 by Simpson's
in 5
1
rule.
Since
ndx
Dividing the interval
we take y = into 4 parts

In 5
m
.
Simpson's formula.
we
get
4 /i
+ 4^ + 2.^ + 4-i + ^
12
1.622.
If
we
In 5
divide the interval into 8 parts,
we
get
1.6108.
^\-
(1
+ I + I + I + f + f + I + I + i) =
is
The value
correct to 4 decimals
In 5
1.6094.
Integration in Series. In calculating integrals it sometimes convenient to expand a function in infinite series and then integrate the series. This is particularly the case when the integral contains constants for which numerical values are not assigned. For the process to be valid all series used should converge. Example. Find the length of a quadrant of the ellipse
44.
is
^^t.= "^
a^
62
1 ^'
Art 44
Integration in Series
6.
95
<t>
Let a be greater than

equation
Introduce a parameter
by the
=
=
a sin
<t>.
Substituting this value in the equation of the
ellipse,
we
find
b cos
4>.
Using these values of x and y we get

r
s= fVdx^ +
This
is
dy-
= jVa- It
(a^
b^) sin^
<f,
d<t>.
an
eUiptic integral.
expression containing only a finite

functions.
cannot be represented by an number of elementary

it
We
(a-
therefore express
as
an
infinite series.
By
the binomial theorem
Va-
b~) sin^
(f>
=
Since
L^
-^^^^^ '^-2li-^j ^^
'^
-J-
we
find
by integrating term by term
*~"L2
^Trgf
a'
128V
3 /a-
a^
'
gj
g^-b^
4a2
2 L
64V
1 - V )''']' as
If a and 6 are nearly equal, the value of very rapidly from the series.
can be calculated
EXERCISES
1. Show that the prismoidal formula gives the correct volume in each of the following cases: (o) sphere, (6) cone, (r) cyhnder, (d) P3'ramid, (e) segment of a sphere, (/) truncated cone or pyramid.
2.
Find the error when the value of the integral
i*dx
is
found
by the prismoidal formula.
96
Approximate Methods
Chap. 7
In each of the following cases compare the value given by the prismoidal formula with the exact value determined by integration. 3. Area bounded hy y = Vx, y = 0, x = 1, x = 3. 4. Arc of the curve y = 3^ between 2, x = +2. 5. Volume generated by revolving about OX one arch of the sine curve y = sin x. 6. Area of the surface of a hemisphere. Compute each of the following by Simpson's rule using 4 intervals: dx 4 Jo 1 +x^ dx
x=
'r Vi+x
9.
Length of the curve y

4 about the x-axis.
Inx from
a;
to
a;
5.
10.
Surface of the spheroid generated by rotating the ellipse x*
4y^ =
11.
Volume
of the solid generated
by revolving about the

x
x-axis the
^rea bounded hy y
12.
0,
=
^
,
2,
2.
Find the value of
J
by expanding
13.
cos (x*) dx,
in series.
Express
'
x
as a series in powers of X.
14.
sin (Xx)
dx
Find the length of a quadrant of the
ellipse x*
ly^
2.
CHAPTER
VIII
DOUBLE INTEGRATION
45.
Double
Integrals.
The notation
/
f{x,y)dxdy
first
c,
is
used to represent the result of integrating
to y (leaving x constant) between the limits with respect to x between the limits a, b.
with respect d and then
As here
defined the
first
integration
is
with respect to the

its
variable whose
differential
stands last and
limits are
attached to the
necessary to
last integral sign.
Some
writers integrate
it is
in a different order.
In reading an article
therefore
know what convention
the author uses.
Example.
Find the value of the double integral
Jo
J -i
(x- -H y^)
dx dy.
We
X,
is
integrate first with respect to y between the limits x, then with respect to x between the limits 0, 1. The result
j\x-'+y'')dxdy = j^dx{xhf
+ \y'y_^ = J\x'dx = l.
46. Area as a Double Integral. Divide the area between two curves y = f {x), y = F (x) into strips of width Ax. Let P be the point {x, y) and Q the point (x + Ax, y
Ay).
The area
of
the rectangle
(Fig. 46a) is
PQ
is
Ax
Ay.
The area
of the rectangle
RS
Ax
V Ay = Ax J ^f(z)
97
/
fix)
dy. ^
98
Double Integration
area bounded by the ordinates x
Chap. 8
a,
The
=
nb
h is then.
Sb Ax
^-y,
If it is
a;-axis,
a
nF(x)
j
PF(x)
j
dy
Jf(x)
Jja
dx dy.
JS(.i)
simpler to cut the area into strips parallel to the

is
the area
=
the limits in the
first
dy dx,
integration being the values of x at the
ends of a variable
strip;
those in the second integration, the
values of y giving the limiting strips. Example. Find the area bounded
by the parabola
y"^
4 ox
+ 4 a^ and the straight line y =
2a
x (Fig. 466).
Fig. 46a.
Fig. 46&.
Solving simultaneously,
line intersect at
we
find that the parabola
and the
the
(0,
2 a) and
(Sa,
6a).
y2
Draw
,
strips parallel to the rc-axis.
The area is
/
/2a
The
and
f2a-y
/
po
dydx=
I
4a'\
64
2(
limits in the first integration are the values of x at i?
S, the ends of the variable strip. The limits in the second integration are the values oi y at B and A, corresponding to the outside strips.
Art 47
47.
Volume by Double Integratiox
99
find
Volume by Double
z
Integration.
y)
To
the
volume under a surface

in the xy-plane.
= / (x,
and over a given region
The volume
(Fig. 47a) is
of the prism
TQ
standing on the base
Ax Ay
Ax Ay.
then
The volume
of the plate
RT is
Ax Ay = Ax
a=u
J/fix)
2 dy,
/ (x), F
is
(x)
the limit of the
being the values of y at R, S. sum of such plates
The
entire
volume
Ax
ui=u
a, b
a
zdy
Jf(.x)
Ja
zdxdy,
Jf(x)
Example.
az
being the values of x corresponding to the outside plates. Find the volume bounded by the surface
a^
x^
y2
and the xy-plane.
Fig. 47a.
Fig. 476.
Fig. 476
shows one-fourth
iS,
of the required
volume,
Ati2,
0.
At
and so
y
Vo
- x2.
100
Double Integration
limiting values of x at
I
Chap. 8
The
v
and
/
are
and
a.
Therefore
= ^\
3 a Jo
48.
zdxdy = il
-id'-x''-4y^)dxdy
The Double
Summation.
(a:,
Divide a plane area by
Integral
as the Limit of a Double

lines parallel to the
Ax and Ay. Let be any point within one of these rectangles. Form the product / {x, y) Ax Ay.
coordinate axes into rectangles with sides
y)
is equal to the volume of the prism standing on the rectangle as base and reaching the surface z = f {x, y) at some point over the base. Take the sum of such products
This product
Fig. 48a.
for all the rectangles that
lie
entirely within the area.
We
represent this
sum by
the notation
2)
^J{x,y)AxAy.
When Ax and Ay
are taken smaller and smaller, this sum approaches as limit the double integral
//
{x, y)
dx dy,
Art 48
The Limit of a Double Summation

it
lot
with the limits determined by the given area; for

the volume over the area and that volume
is
approaches
equal to the
of the form.
double integral.
Whenever then a quantity
is
a limit of a
sum
%^f(x,y)AxAy
Furthermore, sum, infinitesimals of higher order than Ax Ay can be neglected without changing the Umit. For, if e Az A?/ is such an infinitesimal, the sum of
its
value can be found by double integration.
in the formation of this
the errors thus
made
is
%%^x Ay.
When Ax and Ay
approach zero, e approaches zero. The sum of the errors approaches zero, since it is
represented by a volume whose thickness approaches zero.
Example 1. An area is bounded by the parabola y' = 4 ax and the

line
a.
Find
its
moment
Fig. 486.
its
of
inertia
origin.
about the axis perpendicular to
plane at the
Divide the area into rectangles
any point
at
is
P (x,
y) fro
Ax Ay. The distance of the axis perpendicular to the plane

y^.
i2
= OP = Vx- +
If
then
(x, y)
is
a point
within one of the rectangles, the

rectangle
is
moment
y)
of inertia of that
Rr
approximately.
exact
differ
is
^x \y =
(x^
-\-
Ax Ay,
That the result is approximate and not due to the fact that different points in the rectangle slightly in distance from the axis. This difference is.
102
Double Integkation
Chap. 8
however, infinitesimal and, since R^ is multiplied by Ax Ay, the resulting error is of higher order than Ax A?/. Hence in
the limit
(x^
-\-
y^)
dx dy
344
jâ*-
J-2\^z
Ex.
2.
ity of the area
Find the center of gravbounded by the
parabolas y^
4:X
-j-
4:,y^
= 2x
of
+ 4.
By symmetry
gravity
X-axis.
is
the
to
center
seen
be on the
Its abscissa is
- = X
If
/ xdA
Fig. 48c.
we wish to use double intewe have merely to replace dA by dx dy or dy dx. From the
gration
figure
it
is
seen that the
first
integration should be with respect to x.

/'i(4-2)
Hence
_ X2 Ji(yi-4)
2
xdy dx
dydx
16
/-2
11
t/ J (1^2-4)
EXERCISES
Find the values
^'
of the following double integrals:

-2
IT
J, Ji {x
dxdy + yy
rdedr.
6.
/'
'0
e-kr^rdddr.
{x^
Ja
-i
Jo Jy
I
C C
*'0
+ y^)dydx.
dy dx.
/1V3
I
3.
xydxdy.
Art. 49
7.
Double Integratiox.
Polar Coordinates
y^
103
the line

y.
= 1x and
j/*
=
8.
+y=
9.
Find the area bounded by the parabola 3 a, and the x-axis. Find the area enclosed by the ellipse
{y
4 ax, the line
- xT- + x^ =
l.
Find the volume under the paraboloid z = -i x^ y^ and over 1 10. the square bounded by the lines x = l,i/ = lin the xy-plane. y^ 11. Find the volume bounded by the x(/-plane, the cyhnder x-
and the plane x + y + z = 3. 12. Find the volume in the first octant bounded by the cylinder (x 1)- + (i/ 1)^ = 1 and the paraboloid xy = z. 13. Find the moment of inertia of the triangle bounded by the coordinate axes and the line x + y = 1 about the line perpendicular to
1,
its
plane at the origin.

14.
Find the moment of

its
perpendicular to
15.
inertia of a square of side a about the axis plane at one comer.
Find the moment of inertia of the triangle bounded by the lines 2, X = 2, y = 2 about the x-axis. 16. Find the moment of inertia of the area bounded by the parabola y- = ax and the line x = a about the line y = a. 17. Find the moment of inertia of the area bounded by the hyperbola xy = 4 and the line x -{- y = 5 about the line y = x. 18. Find the moment of inertia of a cube about an edge. 19. A wedge is cut from a cylinder by a plane passing through a diameter of the base and inclined 45 to the base. Find its moment of inertia about the axis of the cylinder. 20. Find the center of gravity of the triangle formed by the lines x = y, x + y = 4, X 2y = 4:. 21. Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the parabola = 4 ax -f 4 a* and the line y = 2a x. J/*
49. Double Integration. Polar Coordinates. Pass through the origin a series of lines making with each other equal angles Ad. Construct a series of circles with centers "at the origin and radii differing by Ar. The hues and circles
di\ide the plane into curved quadrilaterals (Fig. 49a).

Q.
Let r, 6 be the coordinates of P, r 4- A0 those of Ar, Since PR is the arc of a circle of radius r and subtends the angle Ad at the center, PR = r Ad. Also RQ = Ar.
104
Double Integration
are very small
Chap. 8
When Ar and \d
PRQ
will
be approximately
a rectangle with area
PR'RQ =
rAd Ar.
Fig. 49a.
It is
higher order than A^ Ar.
very easy to show that the error is an infinitesimal of Hence (See Ex. 5, page 107.)
the
sum
^^rAeAr,
taken for
all
the rectangles within a curve, gives in the limit
the area of the curve in the form
A =
The
jrdddr.
(49a)
limits in the first integration are the values of r at
the ends A,
strips.
If it is
of the strip across the area.
The
limits in the
second integration are the values of
d giving the outside
more convenient the

6.
first
integration
may
be with
respect to
The
area
is
then
//
dr dd.
Art.
49
Double Integration.
Polar Coordinates
105
The
first limits
are the values of 6 at the ends of a strip

(Fig. 496).
between two concentric circles are the extreme values of r.
The second hmite
Fig. 496.
Fig. 49c.
The element
of area in polar coordinates is
dA = rdddr.
(49b)
We can
by
use this in place of dA in finding moments of inertia, volumes, centers of gravity, or any other quantities expressed
integrals of the
form
/
Example
1.
fir,d)dA.
integral
Change the double

{x'^
Jo
Jo
+ y^)dxdy
to polar coordinates.
y = V2
taken over the area of the semicircle 49c). In polar coordinates the equation of this circle is r = 2 a cos 6. The element of area
integral
is
The
ax
x^
(Fig.
106
Double Integration
r cW dr.*
Chap. 8
-\-
dx dy can be replaced by
Also x^
ni
/2
y^
=
r^
r^.
Hence
J^2a
The
n V2ai-i2
Jo
/
COS 9
(x^
-\- y'^)
dx dy
Jo
r dd dr.
limits for r are the ends of the sector
OP.
The
limits
for 6 give the
extreme sectors
=
2.
0, 9
- in-
Ex.
r
Find the moment of
ertia of the
area of the cardioid

cos
6)
(1
about the axis

its
-X perpendicular to
origin.
plane at the
The
(r, d)
distance from
any point
(Fig. 49d) to the axis of rotais
tion
Fjg. 49d.
OP =
of inertia
is
r.
Hence the moment
na(l
Ex.
3.
+ cosO)
/V
(I
-\-
r^-rdedr= -
iJo
cosdYdd
OK îra*. 10
Find the center of gravity of the cardioid in the

of the center of gravity
is
preceding problem.
The ordinate
Its abscissa is
evidently zero.
xdA
X
/ Jo Jo
cosd
'
rdddr
5
J'm
Ex.
4.
Ifrdddr
of radius]
a,
Find the volume common to a sphere

of the cylinder.
2 a and a cylinder of radius
the center of the sphere being]
on the surface
*
This does not mean that

dx dy
= rdd dr,
circle is
but merely that the sum of all the rectangular elements in the equal to the sum of all the polar elements.
Art. 49
Double Integration.
Polar Coordinates
107'
Take Fig. 49e shows one-fourth of the required volume. On the a system of polar coordinates in the xy-plane. element of area r dd dr stands a prism of height
z= V4 a2 -
r',
Fig. 49e.
The volume
of the prism
is
z-rdddr and the
entire
volume
2acoe9
is
Vâ'-r^.rdddr =
X
4:l
^
4).
dB
^r
J^ J^
(1
sin'^) de
= â' (3t -
EXERCISES
Find the values of the following integrals by changing to polar
coordinates:
(i2
+ y2)dy(ir.
3.
e-^'*+*''>
dxdy.
2.
dxdy.
^ J J
^d^-x'-y^dxdy.
a,
6.
lines
Find the area bounded by two circles of radii through the origin, making with the initial
â, respectively.
i.a
and two
zero,
line
the angles a,
a
j '
Show
that
when Aa and Aa approach

Act
the
result differs
from
a
Aa Aa Ao.
by an
infinitesimal of higher order than
108
6.
Double Integration
The
central angle of a circular sector
is
Chap. 8
2 a,
Find the moment

the straight
of inertia of its area about the bisector of the angle.

7.
An
area
is
bounded by the
.
circle r
= a V2 and
line r
= asec
id
its
j]
Find
its
moment
of inertia
about the axis per-
pendicular to
8. 9.

of gravity of the area in Ex. 6.
lies
Find tha center
The
center of a circle of radius 2 a

inertia of the area
Find the moment of
on a circle of radius a. between them about the

r^
common
10.
tangent.
2 a^
Find the moment of inertia of the area of the lemniscate cos 2 about the axis perpendicular to its plane at the origin.
Find the moment of inertia of the area of the
circle r
=
2a
11.
outside the parabola, r
sec*
about the axis perpendicular to its

12.
Find the moment of inertia about the y-axis of the area within
the cu-cle {x
13.
- aY +
(y
- o)* =
its
a?.
is
The
density of a square lamina
proportional to the distance
from one corner. Find through that corner.

14. 15. 16.
moment
of inertia
about an edge passing
Find the moment of inertia of a cylinder about a generator.
Find the moment of

r*
inertia of a cone
about
its axis.
Find the volume under the spherical surface
x^
-{-
y^ \- z^
a?
and over the lemniscate

17.
a^ cos 2 5 in the xy-plane.
Find the volume bounded by the xy-plane, the paraboloid
az
X*
y'^
and the cylinder
x*
y*
2 ax.
18.
Find the moment of inertia of a sphere of density p about a
diameter.
19.
Find the volume generated by revolving one loop of the curve a cos 2 d about the initial line.
50.
Area
of a Surface.
Let an area A
The area
cos 0,
in
one plane
projected upon another plane.
of the projection
A'
<f)
=A
when is the angle between the planes. To show this divide A into rectangles by two
respectively parallel
sets of lines
MN
of
and perpendicular to the intersection the two planes. Let a and h be the sides of one of
Art. 60
Area of a Sttrface
109
these rectangles, a being parallel to

this rectangle will be
a'
MN. The
projection of
a rectangle with sides
a,
h'
h cos ^,
<{>.
and area
a'h'
ab cos
The sum
of the projections of all the rectangles is
â'b'
= âb cos
4>.
As the
rectangles
are
taken
smaller
cos
and smaller
this
approaches as limit
A'
=A
<t>,
Fig. 50a.
To find the area of a curved surface,

differential of area
resolve
it
into elements
whose projections on a coordinate plane are equal to the
dA in that plane. The element of surface can be considered as lying approximately in a tangent plane. Its area is, therefore, approximately
dA
cos<f>
where
is
the angle between the tangent plane and the

is
coordinate plane on which the area

of the surface
is
projected.
The area
the limit
cos
</)
110
Double Integration
angle between two planes
is
Chap. 8
The
equal to that between

()>
the perpendiculars to the planes.
Therefore
is
equal to
Fig. 50&.
the angle between the normal to the surface and the coordinate axis perpendicular to the plane on which If the equation of the surface is
we
project.
F (x, y, z) =
the cosine of the angle between
(Differential Calculus, Art. 101)
its
0,
normal and the
2-axis is
dF
cos 7
dz
py
dxj'^\dy)'^[dzj v/fj
The
cosines of the angles between the normal
and the
or
x-axis
.
or w-axis are obtained
by
replacing ^rdz
by 7
"^
dx
dy
In
finding areas the algebraic sign
Example
1.
is assumed to be positive. Find the area of the sphere x^ y^ -{- z^ =
a^
within the cylinder x^
-}-
y^
ax.
<f)
Project on the x^z-plane. The angle is then the angle 7 between the normal to the sphere and the 2!-axis. Its cosine is
cos
=
Vx2
2/2
22
Art. 60
Area of a Surface
xj/-plane,
if
111
Using polar coordinates in the

z
= Va-
x^
= Va2
j^.
Hence the area
of the surface is
S =
Ex.
z^
fj" =
COS
Jo Jo
= 2aHx r r-îL V
a^
r^
2).
Find the area of the surface of the cone bounded by the plane y -\- z = a and Project on the yz-plane. Then X X 1_
2.
y^
-h
a.
x2 in the first octant
<f>
Vx2 +1/2+22 The area on the cone

is
~ V2x2 ~ V2
therefore
"
S=
Jo Jo
r r
V2dydz =
EXERCISES
1.
Find the area
of the triangle cut
from the plane

6
+ 2y + 3z =
by
the coordinate planes.

2.
the planes z
-\- y- = z* cut out by 3. t/^ = 2 ax. the cylinder i^ 4. Find the area of the plane x z = 2a in the first octant y y^ = a*. bounded by the cyUnder x^ 6. Find the area of the surface ^ = 2xy above the zy-plane bounded by the planes j/ = 1, x = 2.
Find the area of the surface of the cylinder = 0, 2 = mx. Find the area of the surface of the cone x-
x-
-\-
y-
a*
between
+ +
6. Find the area of the surface of the cylinder x^ + y^ = 2ax between the ly-plane and the cone x- -\- y- = z-. 7. Find the area of the surface of the paraboloid y- -\- z- = 2 ox, intercepted by the parabolic cyUnder rf- = ax and the plane x = o. 8. Find the area intercepted on the cylinder in Ex. 4. 9. A square hole of side a is cut through a sphere of radius a. If the axis of the hole is a diameter of the sphere, find the area of the
surface cut out.
CHAPTER IX
TRIPLE INTEGRATION
51.
Triple Integrals.
The notation
I
fix,
y, z)
dx dy dz
first
is
used to represent the result of integrating
with respect
Zi
to z (leaving x
and y constant) between the
limits
and
Za,
then with respect to y (leaving x constant) between the limits 2/1 and y^, and finally with respect to x between the
limits Xi
and
Xg-
Fig. 52a.
52.
Rectangular
Coordinates.
Divide
Ax
Ai/
solid
into
rectangular parallelepipeds of volume

parallel to the coordinate planes.
112
To
find
A2 by planes the volume of
'Art.
62
solid, first
Rectangitlar Coobdinates
113
the
take the
sum
is
of the parallelepipeds in a vertical
column PQ.
The
result
V Ax \y A2 = Ax Ay
Zi
dz,
and
Then
being the values of z at the ends of the colunm. and so obtain the sum these columns along a base
Zt
MN
is
volume
of the plate
MNR. The
/
result
Um
t/i
V Ax Ay
dz
= \x
dy
dz,
and
ya being the
Umiting values of y in the plate.
Finally,
take the
V
sum
of these plates.
The
result is the triple integral
= Um
-^"^
dy dz
=
x.
dxdydz,
Xi, X2
being the limiting values of
be more convenient to begin by integrating with It respect to x or y. In any case the limits can be obtained
may
from the consideration that the first integration is a summation of parallelepipeds to form a prism, the second a summation of prisms to form a plate, and the third integration a
summation
Let (x, Multiply
of plates.
y, 2)
be any point of the parallelepiped

y, z)
Ax Ay
\z.
Ax Ay Az by / (x,
and form the sum
2 2 2-^
^^' ^' ^^
^* ^^ ^^
taken for all parallelepipeds in the soUd. When Ax, Ay, and Az approach zero, this sum approaches the triple integral
III'f
as limit.
the limit.
It can be
(x, y, 2)
dx dy dz
of higher order than
shown that terms
Ax Ay Az can be
neglected in the
sum without changing
114
Triple Integration
differential of
Chap. 9
The
volume
dv
in rectangular coordinates is
dx dy dz.
This can be used in the formulas for moment of inertia, center of gravity, etc., those quantities being then determined by
triple integration.
Example
1.
Find the volume of the
ellipsoid
c^
y^
&
Therefore
Fig. 52a shows one-eighth of the required volume.
dxdydz.
The
and
limits in the first int egration are the values z

z
at
cyl
=
0,
i^fl
^^ ^-
'^^^ Umits in the second
integration are the values of y a t
M a nd N.
x^
^.
At M, y =
and at
iV, 2
whence y
= hyI \
Finally, the limits
for X are
and
a.
Therefore
dx dy dz
irdbc.
Fig. 52&.
Ex.
2.
by the paraboloid
Find the center of gravity of the solid bounded y^ -j- 2 z^ = 4 x and the plane x = 2.
Art. 62
Rectangular Coordinates
y and z are zero. 4
115
is
By symmetry
xdv
The
/
x-coordinate
X =
Jo Jo
1/
xdzdydx
Jiiyi+2^)
_4
Jd.
The
X
limits for
111'^'^ dx
x are the values x
S, X
j (y^
+ 2 2*)
2
2^
2 at Q.
At
for
2 and y
The Umits
are,
therefore,
VS atB.
Ex.
edge.
2
3.
2^
at S.
The
limits
= V4 x y = for 2 are 2 =
at
P and = V8 - 2 2*. ^ and y =

at
2
at'A and
Find the moment of inertia of a cube about an
Fig. 52c.
Place the cube as shown in Fig. 52c and determine
its
moment
point
of inertia
about the
2-axis.
The
distance of any
(x, y, z)
from the
2-axis is
R=
Hence the moment
Vx2
i/2.
of inertia is
(3^
/o
/0
+ y')dxdydz=la\
where a
is
the edge of the cube.
116
Triple Integration
Chao. 9
EXERCISES
1.
Find by
triple integration the
volume
of the
pyramid determined
by the coordinate planes and the plane x

2.
-\-
1.
Find the moment of inertia of the pyramid in Ex.
about the
a>axis.
3. A wedge is cut from a cylinder of radius a by a plane passing through a diameter of the base and inclined 45 to the base. Find its
center of gravity.
4.
Find the volume bounded by the paraboloid f;

b^
= + -; c'
2-
and
the plane x a. 6. Express the volume of the cone

(z
1)2
a;2
2/2
in the first octant as a triple integral in 6

dy, dz, arranged in all possible orders.
6.
ways by integrating with

j/^
dx,
Find the volume bounded by the surfaces
4 a"
3 ax, y^
ax,z
/i.
7. Find the volume bounded the coordinate planes.
by the
cylinder
^ =
y and
53.
of
Cylindrical Coordinates.
P on
the
a;?/-plane.
Let
r,
Let be the projection be the polar coordinates of
in the xy-plane.
The
are
cyhndrical
coordinates of
r, Q, z.
From
x
Fig. 53a it is evident that

r cos Q,
T sin d.
By
using these equations we can change any rectangular into a
cylindrical equation.
The element
PQ,
Fig. 53a.
lindrical coordinates is the
Fig.
536,
volume in cyvolume bounded by two

of of
radii
r,
cylindrical
r
surfaces
Az,
two horizontal planes z, through the 2-axis making angles

Ar,
z
^,
-\-
and two planes

witli
A^
OX.
The
base of
plane.
PQ
is
equal to the polar element
MN
in the xy~
Its altitude
PR
is
Az.
Hence
dz.
dv
rdd dr
(53)
Art. 63
Cttjxdrical Coordixates
117
center of gravity,
This value of dv can be used in the formulas for volume, moment of inertia, etc. In problems con-
Fig. 536.
Fig. 53c.
lected with
cylinders,
cones,
and
spheres,
the resulting
itegrations are usually
much
easier in cylindrical than in
jtangular coordinates.
118
Triple Integration
Chap. 9
Example 1. Find the moment of inertia of a cylinder about a diameter of its base. Let the moment of inertia be taken about the x-axis, The square of the distance from the element PQ Fig. 53c.
to the X-axis
is
iâ
^2
_|_ 22
^2 sin2
4- z\
The moment
of inertia is therefore
R^dv=
Jo
Jo Jo
{r^smH-\-z^)rdddzdr
IT (3a2+4/i2).
The first integration is a summation for elements in the wedge RS, the second a summation for wedges in the slice OMN, the third a summation for all such slices. Ex. 2. Find the volume bounded by the xy-plane, the cylinder x^ -\- y^ = ax, and the sphere x^ -{- y^ -\- z^ = c?.
z
Fig. 53d.
and sphere
required
is
In cylindrical coordinates, the equations of the cylinder The volume are r = a cos B and r^ -\- z^ = a^.
therefore
v v
P2
r a cose
I
f*âi>-f
Jo Jo
Jo
rd9drdz= â^Zir -^).
Art. 64
Sphekical Coordinates
119
54.
Spherical Coordinates.
The
spherical coordinates
of the point
.
(Fig. 54a) are r

it
= OP and the two angles 6
and
From
a;
the diagram
is
easily seen that
i/
= = =
r sin
r sin
cos
sin
(j>.
6, Q,
r cos
r
The
locus
const,
is
sphere with center at 0; 6 = const, is the plane through OZ
making the angle

<f>
with
OX;
Fig. 54a.
const,
is
the cone gener-
ated
by
lines
through
of
The element
volume
is
making the angle ^ with OZ. the volume PQRS bounded
Fig. 545.
by the spheres r,r

</>,
-\-
Ar, the planes 6,9

Ar, A^,
+ A0.
When
+ Ad, and the cones and A0 are very small this is
120
Triple Integration
Chap. 9
approximately a rectangular parallelepiped.
Since
OP =
and
POR =
A<^,
PR =
Also
to
its
r A</).
OM = OP sin
projection
<^
and the arc
PS
is
approximately equal
MN, whence PS = MN =
Consequently
rsm(j> Ad,
approximately.
Av
= PR'PS'PQ =
When
r"
sin
(/>
A^ A0 Ar,
approximately.
the increments are taken
smaller
and
smaller, the result
becomes more and more accurate.

r^
Therefore
dv
sin (j>ddd<j) dr. in
(54)
Spherical coordinates
work best
problems connected
role.
with spheres.
They
are also very useful in problems where
the distance from a fixed point plays an important
Fig. 54c.
Example. If the density of a solid hemisphere varies as the distance from the center, find its center of gravity. Take the center of the sphere as origin and let the 2-axis
be perpendicular to the plane face of the hemisphere. By symmetry it is evident that x and y are zero. The density
Art. 55
Attraction
kr,
121
is
= =
where
A;
is
constant.
Also z
r cos
<p.
Hence
fzdrn^f_krzdv
rr
r2
Pa
r*
cos
<t>
sin <l>dd
d<t)
dr
-5"/2
na
r^
Jr2T
/0
sin
<t>
dd
d<t>
dr
t/0
EXERCISES
y* 2^ = 4 and y* = 3 z. the paraboloid x* 2. A right cone is scooped out of a right cylinder of the same height and base. Find the distance of the center of gravity of the remainder from the vertex.
1.
Find the volume bounded by the sphere a?
3.
Find the volume bounded by the surface
e (^H-i*) and the
xy-plane.
Find the moment of inertia of a cone about a diameter of its base. Find the volvune of the cylinder i* + i/^ = 2 ax intercepted between the paraboloid x^ + y^ = 2az and the xy-plane. 6. Find the center of gravity of the volume common to a sphere of radius a and a cone of vertical angle 2 a, the vertex of the cone being at
4.
5.
the center of the sphere.

surface of radius a
Find the center of gravity of the volume boimded by a spherical and two planes passing through its center and including an angle of 60.
7.
8.
The vertex
a.
of
a cone of vertical angle If
is
on the surface of a
sphere of radius
find the moment sphere about this axis.
is a diameter of the sphere, of inertia of the volume common to the cone and
the axis of the cone
55.
Attraction.
Two
r,
particles of
masses mi, mz, sepa-
rated
by a distance
attract each other with a force

kmiiiv.
122
Triple Integration
Chap. 9
where
tance,
fc is a constant depending on the units of mass, disand force used. A similar law expresses the attraction or repulsion between electric charges. To find the attraction due to a continuous mass, resolve Each of these attracts with a force given it into elements. by the above law. Since the forces do not all act in the same direction we cannot ob-
tain
the
total
attraction
by
^^- ^^"
merely adding the magnitudes of the forces due to the sevforces
eral elements. The must be added geometrically. For this purpose we calculate the sum of the components along each coordinate axis. The force having these sums
as components
is
the resultant attraction.
If dm is the mass of an element at P, r its distance from 0, and 6 the angle between OX and OP, the attraction between is this element and a unit particle at
,
dm _
Its
dm
This force acts along OP.
component along
OX
is
cos 6
dm
is
The component along
OX
=
of the total attraction
then
'*k
cos 6
dm
involve single, double,
The
calculation of this integral
may
or triple integration, depending on the form of the attracting
mass.
Example
length 2
c
I,
Find the attraction of a uniform wire of and mass on a particle of unit mass at distance
1.
along the perpendicular at the center of the wire.
Take the
origin at the unit particle
dicular to the wire.
Since particles
and the a:-axis perpenbelow OX attract down-
Art. 66
Attraction
just as
123
ward
vertical
much as those above OX attract upward, the component of the total attraction is zero. The component along OX is, therefore, the total attraction. The mass of the length dy of the wire is
Mdy
21
Hence
^cos 6 dy X = kM 21 r-
For simplicity
of integration
6,
it is
better to use 6 as variable.
Then
tan
dy
c sec^ 6 dd,
and
Fig. 556.
X~
where a
is
cos
c sec2 d
dd
kM
cl
I
21 J-
& sec^ Q
In terms of
sma,
the angle
XOA
this is
X=
kM
Ex. 2. Find the attraction of a homogeneous cylinder of mass upon a particle of unit mass on the axis at distance c from the end of the cyUnder. By symmetry it is clear that the total attraction will act along the axis of the cyUnder. Take the origin at the attracting particle and let the y-ends be the axis of the cyhnder.
124
Triple Integration
Chap. 9
Divide the cylinder into rings generated by rotating the elements dx dy about the y-axis. The volume of such a
ring
is
2 irx dx dy
and
its
mass
is
dm =
57
'2-Kxdxdy
2M dy. = zj-xdx
all points of this ring are at the same distance from O and the joining Unes make the same angle 6 with OY, the vertical component of attraction is
Since
fcosOJm _
r"
rydm _ ~ J H ~
,
Mk
a^h
A+*
Jc
xydydx
^
aril
Jo (r^+y2)f
Ih
+ V^T^ -
Va'-\-(c-hh)q
Art.
56
Attraction
125
EXERCISES
and length I on Find the attraction of a imiform wire of mass a particle of unit mass situated in the line of the wire at distance c from
1.
its
end.
2.
semicircle of radius a
3.
bent in the form of a Find the attraction of a wire of mass on a unit particle at its center. and radius a on a Find the attraction of a flat disk of mass
unit particle at the distance c in the perpendicular at the center of the

disk.
4.
Find the attraction of a homogeneoxis cone upon a unit particle

its
situated at
6.
vertex.
if
Show
that,
a sphere
is
concentrated at
its center, its
attraction
upon an outside
particle will not

of
6. Find the attraction one comer.
be changed. a homogeneous cube upon a particle at
CHAPTER X
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
56.
Definitions.
differential
equation
is
an equation
containing differentials or derivatives.

(x^
Thus
0,
+ y^) dx -\-2xydy =
^^_dy^ 2
dx"^
dx
are differential equations.
A solution of a differential equation is an equation connecting the variables such that the derivatives or differentials
calculated from that equation satisfy the differential equation. Thus y = x^ above; for when a;^
satisfied.
2 xisa solution of the second equation 2 is substituted for y the equation is

a;
A differential equation containing only a single independent

variable,
and so containing only total derivatives, is called an ordinary differential equation. An equation containing
partial derivatives
is
called a partial differential equation.
We
shall consider only ordinary differential equations in this
book.
The
57.
order of a differential equation

it.
is
the order of the
highest derivative occurring in
Illustrations of Differential Equations.
Whenever
known,
an equation connecting derivatives or
differentials is
the equation connecting the variables can be determined by solving the differential equation. A number of simple cases
were treated in Chapter I. The fundamental problem of integral calculus

the function
is
to find
= jf{x)dx,
126
Arts?
Illustrations of Differential EkjUATioNS

is
127
when / (x)
given.
This
is
equivalent to solving the differdx.
ential equation
dy
= f (x)
is
Often the slope of a curve
known
as a function of x and y.
The equation
of the curve can be
found by solving the
differential equation.
particle
In mechanical problems the velocity or acceleration of a may be known in terms of the distance s the particle
has
moved and the time

ds
t.
dt='^
The
position s can
df
a.
be determined as a function of the time by
solving the differential equation.
In physical or chemical problems the rates of change of

the variables
may
and the time.
be known as functions of the variables, The values of those variables at any time can
be found by solving the differential equations. Example. Find the curve in which the cable of a suspension
bridge hangs.
Let the bridge be the x-axis and

the center of the cable.
let
the
i/-axis
pass through
The
portion of the cable
AP
is
in
128
Differential Equations
Chap. 10
fl"
equilibrium under three forces, a horizontal tension
a tension
FT
in the direction of the cable at P,
at A, and the
weight of the portion of the bridge between A and P. The weight of the cable, being very small in comparison with that
of the bridge,
is
neglected.
The weight
of the part of the bridge

x.
between
and
is
proportional to
Let
it
be Kx.
Since the vertical com-
ponents of force must be in equilibrium
r sin
Similarly,
Kx.
of horizontal
from the equilibrium
components,
we have
Tcos<l>
= H.
this,
Dividing the former equation by

tan
we
get
<f>
y^x.
1
But
tan
<j)
-^
Hence
dx
H
is
'
The
solution of this equation
The
curve
58.
is therefore a parabola. Constants of Integration.
Solutions.
To solve the equation
Particular and General
we
integrate once
and so obtain an equation with one
arbi-
trary constant,
= jf(x)dx
c.
Art. 58
Constants of Integration
129
To
solve the equation
we
integrate twice.
The
result
jf{x)dx^+ CiX
Cj
contains two arbitrary constants.
Similarly, the integral of
the equation
contains n arbitrary constants.
These
indicated
illustrations belong to a special type.

is,
The
rule
however, general.
The complete, or
general,
solution of a differential equation of the nth order in two variables contains
n arbitrary
all of
constants.
If particular values are

is still
assigned to any or
solution.
these constants, the result

is
Such a solution
called a particular solution.
result
In most problems leading to differential equations the desired is a particular solution. To find this we
usually find the general solution and then determine the constants from some extra information contained in the statement of the problem.
Example L Show that

aJf-f_y2_ 2cx
is
the general solution of the differential equation
y^-x^-2xy^ =
Differentiating x^
-\-
0.
y-
2cx
0,
we
get
whence
dy dx
130
it
Chap. 10
Substituting this value in the differential equation,

yi
becomes
2cx
x^
2xy -^ =
y~
x^
=
Q
\s,
2x{c
x)
if -]-x^
it
0.
x^ -{- y^ 2 ex one constant and the
Hence
a solution. equation
Since
is
contains
first,
differential
one of the
order, it
is
the general solution.
Ex.
C2e^^ is
2.
Find the
differential
equation of which y
contains
Cie""
the general solution.
Since the given equation

differential equation is
two constants, the
one of the second order.
We
there-
fore differentiate twice
and so obtain
d'y dx"
C\e-'
+4
cae^*.
EUminating
Cl,
we
get
d:'y
dx"
dy _ dx
2c2e2^,
dy dx
y=
dx
de"'.
Hence
diy_dy^^/dy_\
dx^
\dx
or
+ 2y=0. p^-3^ axax

This
C2fi^'
is
an equation
of the second order having y
Cie" -\-
as solution.
It is the differential equation required.
EXERCISES
solution of the differential equation
In each of the following exercises, show that the equation given is a and state whether it is the general or a particular solution.
Art. 59
The Fikst Obder
ix
ix'
Two
Variables
131
2.^-yS=cx,
3^
4.
1/
06* sin X,
+ y')dx-2xydy = 0. g_2| + 2y = 0.
=ci+ctsin(x+c),
differential
^+
df
"^ -
Find the
tions
5.
is
equation of which each of the following equa*

7.
the general solution:
_ y-cix
y
cj
-'
y
i^
Ci
sin
^
9.
x*y
= ci+c4hxz
+ ci coe z. + cvr.
in
6.
cxe'.
+ Cixy + Cjy* = 0.
Order
59.
Differential Equations of the First
Two
first
Variables.
By
dv solving for -p an equation of the
order in two variables x and y can be reduced to the form
To
solve this equation
is
equivalent to finding the curves
with slope equal to f(x,y).
The
solution
contains one
Fig. 59.
arbitrarj' constant.
There is consequently an infinite number of such curves, usually one through each point of the
plane.
We
tion.
cannot always solve even this simple tj'pe of equaIn the follo\sing articles some cases will be discussed
132
Chap. 10
which frequently occur and for which general methods of solution are known.
60.
Variables Separable.
differential
equation of
the form
Mdx + Ndy =
is
called separable
if
each of the coefficients

is
M and N
;on-
tains only one of the variables or
the product of a function
and a function of y. brought together in the

of X
By
first
division the x's
and dx can be
term, the y's and dy in the
second. The two terms can then be integrated separately and the sum of the integrals equated to a constant. Example 1. (I -^ x^) dy xy dx = 0. Dividing by (1 + x^) y, this becomes
dy
y
_ xdx ~ 1 +a;2'
whence
ln^
If c
= iln(l+a;2)+c.
VT+i",
=
so
In k, this is equivalent to
\ny
= lnVT+^+ln/c =
=
k
lnfc
and
Vl +
x^,
where k
Ex.
an arbitrary constant. Find the curve in which the area bounded by thej curve, coordinate axes, and a variable ordinate is proportions to the arc forming part of the boundary Let A be the area and s the length of arc. Then
is
2.
A =
dA _ yds
dx
or
dx'
ks.
Differentiating with respect to x,
''-v/'+dj
Art. 61
Exact Differential Equations
[13a
Solving for
dy_ Vy^ dx~ k

whence
dy
Vt/2
k^
'
dx
fc2
k'
The
solution of this
In
is
(2/
+ Vi/2 _
^-2
A-2)
=^ +
=
e*e*
c.
Therefore
+ V?/2
-+e
e*
Cie*
where
Ci is
a new constant.
Transposing y and squaring,
we
get
y'
k"
[cie^j
cie*2/
+ y^.
Hence,
finally,
k^
y
61.
= 2'
-^27.'
-I k.
Exact Differential Equations.
An equation
du
an
0,
obtained by equating to zero the total differential of a function u of X
and
y, is called
exact differential equation.

is
The
solution of such an equation
=
-\-
c.
The
condition that
M dx N dy be an exact
dy dx
differential
is (Diff. Cal.,
Art. 100)
(61)
This equation, therefore, expresses the condition that
M dx + N dy =
be an exact
differential equation.
134
exact equation can often be solved
it is
Chap. 10
An
find
by
inspection.
To
merely necessary to obtain a function whose total differential is dx -\dy. If this cannot be found by inspection, it can be determined
from the
fact that
du
M dx -{-N dy
and so
dx
= M.
we
therefore get
By
integrating with y constant,
w = / Mdx-\-j{y).
Since y gration
is
may
constant in the integration, the constant of intebe a function of y. This function can be found
total
differential
by equating the
Since df
of
u to
M dx
-\-'N dy.
(y) gives terms containing y only, / (y) can usually be found hy integrating the terms in dy that do not contain x.
In exceptional cases this may not give the correct result. The answer should, therefore, be tested by differentiation. Example 1. (2x y) dx (iy x) dy = 0. The equation is equivalent to
2xdx
It
is
+ 4:ydy
(ydx+xdy) =
and
x^
-\-
{x^
-\-
y"^
xy)
=0.
therefore exact
its
solution
is
2 y^
xy
c.
Ex.2.
(\iiy-2x)dx
+ {^-2'^dy=Q.
In this case
-r-
dy
=-^{\ny -2x) =-)

dy^
"^
'
dx
dx\y
y'
Art 62
Integrating Factors
is
135
These derivatives being equal, the equation

solution
is
exact.
Its
x]ny
3^
y' =
c.
The part x In y x^ is obtained by integrating (In 2/ 2 x) dx with y constant. The term y^ is the integral oi 2 y dy,
which
62.
is
the only term in
^yjdy that does not contain x.
Integrating Factors.
df/
If
M dx + N
is
not exact
it
multiplj-ing b}' a proper factor.
an equation of the form can be made exact by Such a multipher is called
an iiUegrating factor. For example, the equation
xdy
is
ydx =
by
-j* it
not exact.
But
if it is
multiplied
takes the form
xdy ydx
which
-5 or yoi
is
-0-^
xy
exact.
It also
becomes exact when multiplied by
xy
The
y dx
functions -;-;?
x^
y^
are
all
integrating factors
xdy
0.
While an equation of the form dx -\dy = always has integrating factors, there is no general method of finding them. Example 1. y (I -\- xy) dx x dy = 0. This equation can be written
y
Dividing by
y^,
dx xdy
-\-
xy^dx=
0.
ydx
Both terms
solution
is
y'
dii
+ X dx =
0.
of this equation
are exact differentials.
The
^ y
136
2.
(i/2
Chap. 10
Ex.
+ 2 xy) dx +
{2x^
+ 3 xy) dy
0.
Tliis is equivalent to
y'^
dx
+ Z xy dy
y, it
-\-
2 xy dx \- 2 x^ dy
0.
Multiplying by
becomes
d
{xy^
y^dx
+ 3 xy^ dy + 2 xy^ dx + 2x^ydy =

xy^
+ xV)
0.
Hence
+ x^y^ =
c.
63.
Linear Equations.
differential
equation of the
form
% + Py = Q>
where
liJiear.
(63a)
called
and
are functions of x or constants,

is
is
The
linear equation
one of the
first
degree in one
of the variables (y in this case)
and
its derivative.
Any
functions of the other variable can occur. If the linear equation is written in the form (63a),
fPdx
e
is
an integrating factor; for when multiplied by this factor the equation becomes
The
left side is
the derivative of
Hence
y/^'^^ J/^'^Qdx
is
+c
(63b)
the solution.
Example
1.
^ + ^ ^ = ^*
i
Art.
64
Equations Reducible to Linear Form
137
In this case
P'^-f -dx = 2hix =

Henc3
fpdx
lnx
hix^.
The
integrating factor
is,
therefore, x^.
Multiplying by x*
and changing to
differentials, the
equation becomes
j^
dy
-\-
2 xy dx
a^ dx.
The
integral is
x^y
I x
c.
Ex.
2.
is
a+y')dx-ixy-\-y+y')dy =
an equation
of the first degree in
0.
This
ing
x and dx.
Divid-
by
(1
t/2)
dy^
it
becomes
dx
y _ di'TTy^'^-y-
is
here a function of y and
fpdy
vTT?
Multiplying by the integrating factor, the equation becomes
dx
xydy
ydy
whence
=
and
X
64.
vr+7 r-i-c +
c
= 1+
2/2 -I-
Vl
+?/2.
of the
Equations Reducible to Linear Form. form
An equation
(64)
^4-Pi/ =
Q2/,
138
Chap. 10
linear
where P and Q are functions of x, can be made change of variable. Dividing by ?/", it becomes
by a
If
we take
new
variable, the equation takes the
as a
form
ndx + Pu =
du
Q,
which
is linear.
Examvle.
f^
+ lv =%^
-3
Division by y^ gives
.dy
dx
x^
x^
Let
y~^.
Then
dx
dx'
whence
-3
^
dx~
we
1
get
2dx'
Substituting these values,
2dx'^x'^
and
so
x''
dw_4 ^ _2
dx
This
is
x^
a linear equation with solution
w
or, since
t:;:2
3x2
+ ex*'
+ ^^'
y~^,
y2-3x2
Art. 65
HoMOGEXEOTJS Equations
139
(x, y)
if
65.
Homogeneous Equations.
function /
is
said to be a
homogeneous function
of the nth degree
fitx,ty) =t-f{x,y).
Thus Vx^
degree; for
-f-
y^ is
a homogeneous function of the
first
VxT^ =
It
tnfe
is
Vx2
+ y2. 7\
(
easily seen that a polynomial

is
whos^ terms are
all
of
nth degree
a homogeneous function of the nth degree.
The
differential
equation
Mdx+Ndy = is called homogeneous M and N are homogeneous functions

if
of
the same degree.
To
y
solve
a homogeneous equation
substitute
vx.
The new equation

Example
This
is
1.
will
be separable.
y
x-^
dy
= Vx^
+ y^.
first
a homogeneous equation of the
degree.
Sub-
stituting y
vx, it
becomes
vx
(v+^j-)whence
= Vx^+v^
.| = v/IT7.
This
is
a separable equation with solution
X
Replacing
civ
+ Vl-\-v^).
t;
by
-, transposing, squaring, etc., the equation
becomes
x2
2 q/
c*.
"140
Chap. 10
Ex.2.
dy = ym\2x%-y dx
(i.
Solving for j-,
we
get
dy^ _ dx~
Vx^ + y^
y
or
ydy+xdx= Vx^ + y^ dx.

This
a homogeneous equation of t he much easier, however, to divide by Vx^

is
first
degree.
It is
y^
and integrate
at once.
The
result is
xdx-\-ydy
v x^ + y^
whence
^_^^^^
VxH-^ =
and
2/2
cztx
c2
2 ex.
Since c
may
be either positive or negative, the answer can be

y2
written
c2
+2
crc.
66.
Change
of Variable.
We
X
have solved the homo-
geneous equation by taking as new variable
It
may
by
taking some function w of
be possible to reduce any equation to a simpler form a; and y as a new variable or by
taking two functions u and v as new variables. Such funcIn other cases tions are often suggested by the equation.
they may be indicated by the problem in the solution of which the equation occurs.
Example,
(x
~ VY^
=" ^**
Art. 66
Change of Variable
14 J
Let
u.
Then
dy dx
du
dx
and the
differential equation
becomes
whence
2 u^
2 a^
w*
2<^" .
dx
solution is
The
variables are separable.
The
-\-
In =u +7^ 2 u a
=x
,
he
a,
X
a;
7/+?: In 2
y a ^ +o
1/
he,
or
2/
- In 2 X
y a ^ +a
2/
e.
EXERCISES
Solve the following differential equations:
L
2. 3.
4.
6.
x'dy -jfdx = 0. tan X sin* y dx + cos* x cot ydy = (i/ - x*y) dy = 0. x) dx (xy* (x*j/ -y)dy = 0. (xy* + x) dx
0.
+ +
(3x*
+ 2xy-y*)dx+(x-2xy-3t/*)di/ = 0.
y.
6.
7.
;c^-t/ =
xdx
12.
(2x2/-y)dx
+ xrfy = 0.
+ ydy = a(x + y)dy.

ay
13.
(i_a^)^+2xi/ = (l-x*).
tan
#v
dy
-f-
14.
9.
fc_
y x dx
a.
er'.
10.
= Jf?-2xv dx
3.
W.x|-3,+xV.O.
16.
11.
x*g-2xy =
3t,.
%+y =
xy.
142
17.
(x2
Chap. 10
1)3 {x
dy
18.
19.
X dx
(a;2
-{-
+ (x^ + 3 xy VjnTi) dx + y) dy = 0.
0.
(2/3
0.
20.
21.
2/da;
22.
23.
2/e''
+ dx-2xydy = + + ?/)dy = 0. (x3 _ 3 x2y) dx + dx = {f + 2 xe^) dy.

i/2)
(a:
a;')
dy
0.
xye^
24.
{x
+ +y -
j/^j
1)
dx - xê^ dy = 0. dx (2x + 2 y -
3)
dy
0.
25.
3y2^-y3 =
a;.
30.
The
differential equation for the
a capacity C connected
in series
charge 5 of a condenser having with a circuit of resistance R is
^dl
where
31.
+ c-^'
Find
v as
is
the electromotive force.
a function of
if
is
constant and g
when
in
0.
The
differential
equation for the current induced by an electro-
motive force ance R is
E sin at
circuit
having the inductance
L and
resist-
di
L-r,
dt
+ Ri = ^ sin at.
Solve for
Let
PT
(x,
y)
and determine the constants so that i = I when t = 0. be the tangent and PN the normal to a plane curve at (Fig. 66a). Determine the curve or curves in each of the
i
following cases'
32. 33.
34.
The subtangent TM = 3 and the curve passes through (2, 2). The subnormal MN = a and the curve passes through (0, 0). The intercept OT of the tangent on the a>axis is one-half the
abscissa
35. 36.
37.
OM.
The length PT of the tangent is a constant a. The length PN of the normal is a constant a. The perpendicular from to PT is a constant
o.
Art.
67
Certain Equations of the Second Ordeb
143
Using polar coordinates (Fig. 666), find the curve or curves in each
of the following cases:
Fig. 66a.
38.
Fig. 666.
(1,
The curve passes through

lA
0)
and makes with
OP
a constant
angle
39.
^
angles
i^
40.
41. 42.
The The The
and
d are equal.
distance from
projection of
O to the tangent is a constant a. OP on the tangent at P is a constant
a.
Find the curve passing through the origin in which the area bounded by the curve, x-axis, a fixed, and a variable ordinate is proportional to that ordinate.
43.
Find the curve in which the length of arc
is
proportional to the
angle between the tangents at its end. 44. Find the curve in which the length of arc
difference of the abscissas at its ends.
46.
is
proportional to the
Find the curve in which the length of any arc is proportional to it subtends at a fixed point. 46. Find the curve in which the length of arc is prop>ortional to the difference of the distances of its ends from a fixed point. 47. Oxj'gen flows through one tube into a liter flask filled with air while the mixture of oxygen and air escapes through another. If the action is so slow that the mixture in the flask may be considered uniform, what percentage of oxygen will the flask contain after 10 liters of gas have passed through? (Assume that air contains 21 per cent by volume
the angle
of oxygen.)
67.
Certain Equations of the Second Order.

of the
There
are
two forms
second order differential equation that
144
Chap. 10
occur in mechanical problems so frequently that they deserve special attention.
These are
The
peculiarity of these equations

first,
ables (y in the
in the equation.
first
is that one of the varix in the second) does not appear directly They are both reduced to equations of the
order
by the
substitution
dy
This substitution reduces the
first
equation to the form
This
is
first
order equation whose solution has the form
p
or,
F{x,
ci),
smce p
dy
-f-^
This
is
again an equation of the
first
order.
Its solution is
the result required.
In case of an equation of the second type, write the second

derivative in the form
^ _ dp _dp
dx^
dx
dy
dy dx
dp
dy
The
differential equation
then becomes
p| = /(y,p).
Art. 67
Certain Equations of the Second Ordeb
145
Solve this for p and proceed as before.
Example
1.
(1
+ x^) g + 1 + [^J =
--^,
0.
Substituting p for
we
get
(l+x2)g +
This
is
14-p^
0.
a separable equation with solution

Ci
whence
dy
T^-
dx.
The
integral of this
is
By
a change of constants this becomes

2/
ex
+ (1+
c2)
In (c
x)
c'.
Substituting
dy dx
^_
^'
_ ^P
^dj/'
dx2
we
get
The
solution of this
is
y2p2
t/2 _|_ c^_
dv Replacing p by -^ and solving again, we get

i/2
c,
(a;
C2)2.
146
3.
Chap. 10
Ex.
Under the action

k
is -^
,
of gravitation the acceleration of

is
a falhng body
where k
constant and r the distance
from the center
of the earth.
body to moon.
Let
Ti
fall
to the earth
Find the time required for the from a distance equal to that of the
r2
be the radius of the earth (about 4000 miles),
the
distance from the center of the earth to the
moon
(about
240,000 miles) and g the acceleration of gravity at the surface of the earth (about 32 feet per second). At the surface of
the earth r
ri
and
a
k = 2=
g.
The negative
the origin
(r
sign
is
used because the acceleration
0).
Hence k
gr-^
is toward and the general value
of the acceleration is
ar
r
solution of this equation is
where
v is
the velocity.
The
When
r2,
0.
Consequently,
C=-24
and
The time
of falling is therefore
^
=XV:2
This result
is
gri'
{1-2
dr
r)
116 hours.
and
Ti
and reducing
obtained by using the numerical values of g to miles per hour.
Art. 68
Constant Coefficiknts
147
68.
cients.
Linear Differential Equations with Constant CoeffiA differential equation of the form
d'^y
d"~^y
d"~^y
r/
/ô
where
tial
ai, ch,
an are constants,
is
called a linear differen-
equation with constant

is
coefficients.
For practical appUcaconvenient
tions this
the most important type of differential equation.

shall find it
In discussing these equations we

to represent the operation
by D.
da^
Then
^ = Dt, ^' dx
(DThis
^ = ^^, D^
etc etc.
Equation (68a) can be written
+ aiD"-i + a^D"-'- +
that
Z)
if
+ a,)y
= / (x).
(68b)
signifies
the operation
+ aiZ)"-i + aiD"-^ +
y,
+ a
1
Oi,
(68c)
is
performed on
the result will be /(x).
The operation
times,
as,
consists in differentiating y,
n times, n
1,
times, etc., multiplying the results
by
etc.,
and
adding.
With the
equation
differential
equation
is
associated an algebraic
r"
+ air"-i +
a^r''-'^
+ On
0.
If the roots of this auxiliary
equation are
ri, r^,
r,
the
polynomial (68c) can be factored in the form
(D
If
n) (D
r^)
(D
r,).
(68d)
we
operate on y with
a,
we
get
{D-a)y = ^-ay.
148
If
Chap. 10
we
operate on this with
6,
we
get
^D
b)
'
(D
a)y
= {D - b)(^^-
ay^
The same
result is obtained
by operating on y with
iD-a){D-h) =D^- (a-i-b)D+ ab.

Similarly,
if
we
operate in succession with the factors of

result that
(68d),
we
get the
same
we should
get
by
operating-
directly with the product (68c).

69.
Equation with Right
Hand Member Zero.

To solve
(69a)
the equation
(D
+ aiZ)"-i + (hD^-^ +
+an)y =
factor the symbolic operator
and so reduce the equation to
the form
(D
ri)
(D
ra)
(D
Vn)
0.
The value y =
Cie^^^ is
a solution; for
(D
n)
Cie'"'^
Cirie""!^
riCie'"'^
=
(D-r).0 = 0.
Finally
(69b)
and the equation can be written

(D-r^)

(Z)-r)
{D-n)y=iD-r,)
Similarly, y
C2e'"'^
cê^^,
026"'^
etc.,
are solutions.

y
is
cie^>^+
ce'""^
a solution; for the result of operating on y is the sum of the results of operating on Cie"^^, c^d^^, etc., each of which
is zero.
If the roots
Vi,
7*2,
are
all different,
(69b) contains
of (69a).
If,
n constants and so is the complete solution however, two roots ri and r^ are equal
CiC*'
C2e''^
(ci
Co) e*""
Art. 69
Equatiox
vrira
Right Hand Member Zero

Ci
149
contains only one abitrary constant

tains only n
xe"^^ is
arbitrary' constants.
C2 and (69b) conIn this case, however,
also a solution; for
{D and so
n) xe^^
Tixe^^
-\- e'*'
nxe^^
=
0.
e'**
(D
If
ri)2 xe*-!'
= (D rt
is
rO e^
then two roots
r^
and
are equal, the part of the solu
tion corresponding to these roots

(Ci
+ CiX)e^.
r2,
. .
.
More
generally,
if
roots n,
r^ are equal, the part

is
of the solution corresponding to

(ci
them
+ CoX + C3X2 +
Oi, Oo,
.
.
+ c^x'^^)e^^.
(69c)
If
the coefl5cients
On, are real,
imaginary roots
occur in pairs
ri
= a
+ V/3
1,
r2
=a-
/3
V^T.
The terms Cie*"'', C2e''^ are imaginary' but they can be replaced by two other terms that are real. Using these values of r^ and r2, we have
{D-T,){D-r^) = {I)-aY
+ ^.
By
performing the differentiations

[{D [(D
it
can easily be verified
that
ef^
a)2 a)2
+ +
/32] /32]
e^ sin
^x
e cos /3x
= =
0, 0.
Therefore
[ci
sin /3x
C2
cos
|3x]
(69d)
is
a solution.
therefore,
This function, in which a and /3 are real, can, be used as the part of the solution corresponding^
to two imaginary' roots r
= a
V
/3

1.
To
solve the differential equation
(D-
+ aiZ)-i + aj)--^ +
+ a) y = 0,
160
let ri, r2,
. . .
,
Chao. 10
r be the roots of the auxiliary eqvxition

a^r""-^
r"
+ air"-i +
=
+ +
+ an +
0.
If these ^qvMion
roots are all real

is
and
different,
the solution of the
cie^>^
+
.
cê''^
ce'"''^
// of the roots ri, part of the solution is

(ci
rz,
rm are equal, the corresponding
+ CiX +
1 is
C3x'^
'
'
+ CmX"^-^)
e'-'^
The part of
the solution corresponding to two
imaginary roots
= ado^ V
e^
[ci
sin
^x
Cz
cos ^x],
This
is
equivalent to
{D^-D-2)y =
The
roots of the auxiUary equation
r2
0.
=
is
a,re
and
2.
Hence the
y
solution
Cie~'
+ de^',
0.
Ex.2.
= + *|-5^ + 3s, f^ ^ dx^ dx^ dx
The
roots of the auxihary equation
are 1,1,
3.
The
part of the solution corresponding to the
two
roots equal to
1 is
(ci
+ c^x)
e".
Hence
2/
(ci
+ Gjx) e" + Cie~^'.
Art.
70
Right Hand Member a Function of x

(D2
151
Ex.Z.
+ 2D + 2)i/ =
-
0.
The
roots of the auxiliary equation are
izb v^ni.
(69d)
a:
Therefore a
1,
/3
=
e~'
1 in
[ci
and
Co
y
70.
sin
cos x].
Equation with Right Hand
Member a Function of x.

Let y
= uhe
(I>
the general solution of the equation
+ aiD"-i + a2D"-2 +
t;
+a) y
=
(70)
and
let
be any solution of the equation

-
(D"
+ axZ)-i + a^D--' +
y
an) y
= f (x).
Then
=u
+v
is
a solution of (70)
for the operation
D"
gives
+ ai2)-i + azD'^^ +
+ a
when performed on u
/
(x).
stants.
gives zero and when performed on v Furthermore, u -\- v contains n arbitrary' conHence it is the general solution of (70).
is
The part u
first
called the complementary function, v the
'particular integral.
To
solve the equation with right
solve an equation of the form (70), hand member zero and
then add to the result any solution of (70). A particular integral can often be found bj' inspection. If not, the general form of the integral can usually be deter-
mined by the following

1.
rules:
If
fix)
=
y
ax"
+ flix"-! + + a, assume = Ax" + Aix"-i + + A,.
But,
if
occurs
times as a root in the auxiliary equation,
assume
1/
= =
x [Ax"
ce",
+ Aix"-i +
y
+ A].
2.
If
(x)
assume
= Ae^.
152
if
Chap. 10
But,
a occurs
times as a root of the auxiliary equation,
assume
y
3.
Ax"'e'".
If
(x)
a cos ^x -\-b sin /Sx, assume y
= A
cos ^x
-\-
B sin /Sx.
complementary function,
But,
if
cos
fix
and
y
sin fix occur in the
assume
= x[A =
cos
fix
-^
B sin fix].
fix,
4.
If
(x)
ae^ cos fix
y But,
if
Ae"^ cos
+ 6e"^ sin +
/3a; /3rr
assume
ySa;.
/3e^
sin
e"^ cos jSx
and
e"^ sin
occur in the complementary
function, assume
y
If
xe"^ [A cos fix
-\-
B sin
j8a;].
(x)
sum
of the corresponding expressions.
contains terms of different types, take for y the Substitute the value
of y in the differential equation
and determine the constants
so that the equation
is satisfied.
Example
1.
-^^
-\-
4y
is
2x
+ S.
particular solution
evidently
i{2x-{-3).
is
Hence the complete

y
solution
ci
cos 2 X
C2
1/
sin 2
a;
+ J (2 x + 3).
Ex.2.
(D2
+ 3 Z) + 2)
=A
-\-
+ e\
2-{-e'.
1
Substituting y
Be'',
we
get
2A
Hence
and
y
-^QBe' =
2,
2A =
=
<i'y
.
QB =
i e^
+ cie-' + C2e-2*.
Ex.3.
d'y
^2
Art.
71
Simultaneous Equations
roots of the auxihary equation are
0, 0,
153
The
is
1.
Since
twice a root,
we assume
x'{A3^
+ Bx-{-C)=Ax*-\-Bx^-\- Cx'.
=
x2.
Substituting this value,

12 Ax2
+ (24 A + 6 5) z + 6 B + 2 C
Consequently,
12.4
1,
24A+6B
0,
6B + 2C =
C =
l.
0,
whence
A=^\,
The
solution
is
B=-l
Ix^
y
71.
j\x^
+x~
-\-Ci
+C2PC -{ c^-'.
Simultaneous Equations.
We consider only linear
equations with constant coefficients containing one independent variable and as many dependent variables as equations.
but one of the dependent variables can be eliminated by a process analogous to that used in soh-ing linear algebraic equations. The one remaining dependent variable is the Its value can be found and solution of a linear equation. the other functions can then be determined by substituting
All
this value in the previous equations.
Example.
-z--\-2x
3y =
t,
Using
D for
-r.,
these equations can be written
{D-\-2)x-3y = {D-\-2)y-3x =
To ehminate
second by
3.
y,
t,
^'.
Z)
multipU' the
result is
first
equation by
+ 2 and the
The
(D
+ 2)2x-3(Z) + 2)i/=
32'.
1+2^,
3(D+2)i/-9x =
154
Chap. 10
Adding, we get
[(D 4-2)2 -9]a:
= l+2
is
+ 3e2'.
Cae-^'.
The
solution of this equation
x=
y
-M-H + ye^'+Cie' +
first
<
Substituting this value in the
equation,
we
find
(^
+ 2) X
= -f -
if
+^
e^
'
cie'
C2e-".
EXERCISES
Solve the following equations:
2.
(,
+ i)g_(. + 2)|+x + 2 = 0.
d<2
S^"
rfx3
"dx^'^'^dx
12.
g+j,=0.
25.
g-a=!, =
e".
14.
^=V.
27.
g -,-..-
>..
-S-^| + ^''='>-
28.g-4|+3v = e.....
Art. 71
SufCTLTANEOTrs Equations
155
29.
^-9y = eco8x.
31.
^ + 4y =
e-*.
co82x.
33.
f+. =
.
ax
e.,
-y =
=
X
34.
g=x-2y +
*di-i + ^^
dx dy
,
dy
l,
-y + 2
=
cos<.
3^-
^"^''
dt
dx
2/
37.
Solve the equation
= ^+f^V do^^\dx]
and determine the constants so that y =
38.
and -^
when x =
0.
Solve
0.
j^ =
v^
under the hypothesis that y
and 3^
when X =
39.
When
a body sinks slowly in a Uquid,
its
acceleration
and
velocity approximately satisfy the equation
a
g and
A;
ko,
being constants.
if
Find the distance passed over as a function
of the time
the body starts from rest.
40. The acceleration and velocity of a body falling in the air approximately satisfy the equation a = g kv^, g and A; being constants. Find the distance traversed as a fimction of the time if the body falls
from
rest.
let faU.
weight supported by a spiral spring is lifted a distance b and given by the equation a = fc*s, fc being constant and s the displacement from the position of equiUbriima. Find s in terms of the time t. 42. Find the velocity with which a meteor strikes the earth, assimi41.
Its acceleration is
ing that it starts from rest at an indefinitely great distance and moves toward the earth with an acceleration inversely proportional to the square of its distance from the center. 43. A body falling in a hole through the center of the earth would have an acceleration toward the center proportional to its distance from the center. If the body starts from rest at the surface, find the time
reqxiired to fall through.
156
Chap. 10
44. A chain 5 feet long starts with one foot of its length hanging over the edge of a smooth table. The acceleration of the chain will be proportional to the amount over the edge. Find the time required to
slide off.
45. A chain hangs over a smooth peg, 8 feet of its length being on one side and 10 on the other. Its acceleration will be proportional to the difference in length of the two sides. Find the time required to
slide off.
CHAPTER
xdx
II
cosxdx
18.
+ bi^' J{a + hx)*dx.

J
a a -\-hx
19.
/ cos X + sin X dx / Vtan' X + 2

dx
J p
4.
+ qx fxV2 -3i*dr.
(x
dx.
20.
/ X Vx -
21.
+ a)dx f J Vx + 2 ax + 6
/x1
22.
dx
23.
X*'
7.
dx. / dx / X X dx / Vl + X
sin*
cos*
cot
sin'
J*(i-l)(x-2x)'dr.
24.
dx
^ (2x-l)
8.
V4i*-4x
r. SI J sin ax
in ox
COS*
dx
25.
fxe-^dx.
/
ax
dx.
f^dx
6
26.
J
j
0.
/cos cos2x r-^T2..,

\
+ ce"'
sin2x su
dx.
27.
sec* xe**" * d!x.
1.
/sej sec^xtanxdx a + bsec*x dx secx

cot
28.
jah^dx.
e'
29.
xdx
30. 31.
dx_
/i
/ dx / cos X sin X
dx
sec X
sinx ax dx. cos ax

sin
e - e"
j
tanxlncoexdx.
dx
6**
32.
tan x
33.
/ + 2a6x + xdx / Vx2 _ 2x + 3

a*x*
sin'
dx ax COS* ax
167
(2x
34.
(i
+ 3)dx
Vx*
1)
-2x'

158
35.
r
^
Vf'^ 2X +3
Vax2
56.
fx3 J
-^
Va2
x^ dx.
x2
+ 6*
58. 69.
^^2
- x^
37.
{a?
- x')'^ dx.
^^
x^dx /^^r^^ IP dx
-^
38
39.
+ 6x JV3-2x-x^dx.
r(a3-x?)3dx.
fcosSxsm^xdx.
f J X Vax^
f (' ^^ - ^')*
60.
/^^^Je^ + in*dx.
J
e'^sinftxtte.
40.
61.
41.
62.
42.
r(l+cosx)^dx.
rtan2xsec6 2xda;.
jTcot^xdx.
63.
J^
d^-
43.
64.
Tx In
(ex
+ &)
da;.
44.
65.
Jll^^^da:
J
Cxcoi-^xdx.
45.
fi tan X ^r J +
rX
cot
1
1
66.
46.
/(secx+tanx)^dx,
tan X tan X
I
67.
j^^^0^^-^,
r
x"
47
._
,_
"-
dx
48.
rcos^xdx cos'xdx ^-,
^^
69.
J (r> + r xdx
I
1) (x*
2)
x^
-
+1
dx.
49.
/sin 2 X cos^ X dx.
70.
C ^--rJ (x 1)*
50.
JVI + cos2 X sin 2 X dx.

C
^
71,
fx^cosixdx.
2x^ + 3x f J (x-l)(x-2)(x4-3) f (3x-5)dx J X (x + 3)2
*
dx
X Va^x ^^
51.
+ 62
'^-
^2
f ^ x^ V^3-2
-^
70
"^-
(x
1)
Vx + 2
75.
^-^
^^^
(1
.
64.
Jx(ax
J Vax
+ 6)dx.
/jj^^*
f
'
65.
(^^M.dx. +6
76.
-2x2)
StIPPLEMENTART EXERCISES
84.
159
77.
faec^xtaxi^xdx.
sin
x2 - 3j + 2 fJ Vj^ _ 4 X + 3
,
dx.
78.
Sxcos 4xdx.
a-
CKrLUJl J y a +X
J(sinx
dx.
79.
j'sin2xcos2idx.
86.
- co8x)(ir.
80.
fsinxsinSxdx.
rco8 2xco6 3xdx.
(cotx
87 88 89
90.
^^
l)
cir.
r log (x + Vx^ J Vx2- 1

Jgec^^dx.
/.
+ cscx)^dx.
83.
l)c?x /(3x -===
/(x+)idx.
CHAPTER
91.
IV
Find the area bounded by the x-axis and the parabola y
x*
-4x + 5.
92.
93.
Find the area bounded by the curves y = 3?, y^ = x. Find the area bounded by the parabola y* = 2 x and the witch
1
y-
+
Find the area within a loop of the curve j/* = x= x*. Find the area of one of the sectors boimded by the hyperbola = 3 and the lines x = =fc 2y. Find the area bounded by the parabolas y' = 2 ax a-, ^ -\-
94.
95. X*
y*
96.
+
.
2ax =
97.
0.
Find the area within the loop
of the curve
3aw^
98.
+ wi
r,
o sin
(^
99.
100. 101.
102. 103. 104.
105.
Find the area bounded by the parabola x = a cos 2<t>, y = and the line x = a. Find the area inclosed by the curve x = a cos^ y = b sin* 4>. Find the area bounded by the curve x = asin^, cos* 0. Find the area of one loop of the curve r = a cos nd. Find the area of a loop of the cxu^'e r = a (1 2 cos 0). Find the area between the curves r = a (cos -{- 2), r = a.
<l>,
y=a
Find the total area inclosed by the cxu-ve r a sin \ 0. Find the area of the part of one loop of the curve 1^ = 0^ sin 3 &
r^
outside the curve
a sin 0.
100
106.
By
By
changing to polar coordinates find the area within one loop
of the curve
107.
(x^ ifY = a?xy. changing to polar coordinates find the area of one of the regions between the circle x"^ -\- y^ = la? and hyperbola x^ y* = a^. 108. Find the area of one of the regions bounded by d = sin r and the
line e
\.
ellipse about the tangent at one of its vertices. 110. Find the volume generated by revolving about the y-axis the area bounded by the curve y^ = 3? and the line x = 4. 111. Find the volume generated by rotating about the y-axis the area
109.
Find the volume generated by revolving an
between the x-axis and one arch of the cycloid x = o (<^ sin ^), y = o (1 cos<^). 112. Find the volume generated by rotating the area of the preceding problem about the tangent at the highest point of the cycloid. 113. Find the volume generated by revolving about the x-axia the part of the ellipse ^ xy -\- y^ = I'va. the first quadrant.
114.
Find the volume generated by revolving about
-^ the area
enclosed
115.
J/''
by the curve r" = (^ sin B. The ends of an ellipse move along the parabolas
z*
ox,
ax and its plane is perpendicular to the x-axis. Find the volume and x = c. swept out between x = 116. The ends of a helical spring lie in parallel planes at distance h
apart and the area of a cross section of the spring perpendicular to
axis
is
its
Find the volume of the spring. 117. The axes of two right circular cylinders of equal radius intersect at an angle a. Find the common volume. 118. A rectangle moves from a fixed point, one side varying as the <iistance from the point, and the other as the square of this distance. At the distance of 10 feet the rectangle becomes a square of side 4 ft. What is the volume then generated?
A.
119.
cylindrical bucket filled with oil

if
is
tipped until half the bot-
tom
is
exposed;
the radius
is
4 inches and the altitude 12 inches find
the amount of
120.
oil
poured out.
equal ellipses with semi-axes 5 and 6 inches have the same major axis and lie in perpendicular planes. A square moves with its center in the common axis and its diagonals chords of the ellipses.
Two
Find the volume generated. 121. Find the volume bounded by the paraboloid 12
x'^
-f y*
And
the plane
4.
StIPPLEMENTARY ElXERCISES
161
CHAPTER V
122.
Find the length

i
of the arc of the curve
=
5.
X Vx2
^ In (x
Vi*
l)
between i
and x
3.
123.
Find the arc of the curve 9
!/-
(2
1)'
cut off
by the
line
124.
Find the perimeter of the loop of the curve
9^ = i2y-l)(y-2r-.
125.
a>axis.
Find the length of the curve
x=P+t,
= t^
below the
126.
Find the length of an arch of the curve
z
127.
aV3(2</.
sin2</>),
a cos* 0,
=^ =
(1
co8 3<^).
Find the length of one quadrant of the curve

X
b sin* ^.
128.
Find the circumference of the

r
circle
fl.
=
of
2 sin
+ 3 cos
(I)
129.
Find the perimeter
one loop of the curve
Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the arc of the curve 9 y* = (2 x 1)* between x = and x = 2 about the y-axis. 131. Find the area of the surface generated by revolving one arch of the cycloid x = a {<f> sin <f>), y = a (1 cos (/>) about the tangent at
130.
its
highest point.
132.
t"
a^ sin
133.
Find the area of the surface generated by rotating the curve 2 about the x-axis. Find the area generated by revolving the loop of the curve
J/
9 X*
(2
1)
(i/
2)2
about the x-axis.
Find the volume generated by revolving the area within the ciuê j/2 = X* (1 x^) about the y-axis. 135. The vertical angle of a cone is 90, its vertex is on a sphere of radius a, and its axis is tangent to the sphere. Find the area of the cone
131.
within the sphere.

136.
A cylinder with
a,
radius b intersects
and
is
tangent to a sphere of
radius
greater than
b.
Find the area
of the surface of the cylinder
within the sphere.

137.
cone and
Ls
plane passes through the center of the base of a right circular parallel to an element of the cone. Find the areas of the
it
two parts into which
cuts the lateral surface.
162
CHAPTER
138.
VI
vertical
139.
Find the pressure on a square of side 4 feet if one diagonal ia and has its upper end in the surface. Find the pressure on a segment of a parabola of base 2 b and
if
altitude h,
vertical.
the vertex
is
at the surface
and the
axis of the parabola is
140. Find the pressure on the parabolic segment of the preceding problem if the vertex is submerged and the base of the segment is in the
surface.
141.
diameter,
142.
oil.
Find the pressure on the ends of a cylindrical tank 4 feet in if the axis is horizontal and the tank is filled with water under
of 10 lbs. per square inch at the top of the tank.
a pressure
If
A barrel
the axis
3
is
ft.
in diameter
is filled
with equal parts of water and

oil
horizontal and the weight of

of the pressure in
half that of water,.
find the pressure on one end.

143.
Find the moment

Weights
of
1, 2,
Ex. 138 about the other

(0, 0),.
diagonal of the square.

144.
and 3 pounds are placed at the points
(2, 1), (4,
3).
Find
is
their center of gravity.
145.
to the middle point of the opposite side.

146.
formed by connecting one vertex of a rectangle Find its center of gravity. Find the center of gravity of a sector of a circle with radius a
trapezoid
and
yi
central angle 2 a.
147.
Find the center of gravity of the area within a loop of the curve
x^
x^.
148.
y^
of the area
boimded by the curve
=^
149.
r^
and
its
asymptote x
2a.
Find the center of gravity of the area within one loop of the
curve
a^ sin 6.
Find the center of gravity of the area of the curve x = a sin' </, y = b sin' 4> above the x-axis. 151. Find the center of gravity of the arc of the curve 9 y^ = (2x l)3cutoff by thelinex = 5. 152. Find the center of gravity of the arc that forms the loop of the curve 9 2/2 = (2 X - 1) (x - 2)2.
150.
Find the center of gravity of the arc of the curve x = P 1, t below the x-axis. 154. Show that the center of gravity of a pyramid of constant density is on the line joining the vertex to the center of gravity of the base, J of the way from the vertex to the base.
153.
t?
StrPPLEMENTART EXERCISES
155.
156.
163
Find the center of gravity of the surface of a right circular cone. that the distance from the base to the center of gravity of the surface of an obhque cone is j of the altitude. Is it on the line
Show
joining the vertex to the center of the base?

157. Find the center of gravity of the soUd generated by rotating about the line x = i, the area above the 3>-axis bounded by the parabola y* = 4 X and the Une x = 4. 158. The arc of the curve x* + y* = a* above the x-axis is rotated about the j/-axis. Find the center of gravity of the volume and that
of the area generated.

159.
Assuming that the
specific gravity of sea
water at depth h in
miles
is
find the center of gravity of a section of the water with vertical sides
five miles deep.
160.
By
using Pappus's theorems, find the center of gravity of the

eUip>se
arc of a semicircle.
161.
The
is
rotated about a tangent inchned 45 to

162.
its axis.
Find the volume
generated.
The volume
of the ellipsoid
^+^+is
=1
a quadrant of the
^vabc.
Use
this to find the center of gravity of
elhpse -5
163.
+^
1.
Find the volume generated by revolving one loop of the curve

initial line.
a sin d about the
164.
semicircle of radius a rotates about its

line in
whUe the diameter sUdes along the
which
bounding diameter it hes. Find the
volume generated in one revolution. 165. The plane of a moving square is perpendicular to that of a fixed circle. One comer of the square is kept fixed at a point of the circle while the opposite comer moves around the circle. Find the volume
generated.
166.
by the
x-axis
Find the moment of inertia about the x-axis of the area bounded and the curve y = 4 x*.
167. Show that the moment of inertia of a plane area about an axis perpendicular to its plane at the origin is equal to the siun of its moments of inertia
about the coordinate axes.
Use
this to find the
moment
of
164
inertia of the ellipse ~5
+ rj
its
plane at
168.
its
center.
of inertia of the surface of a right circular cone
Find the moment

its axis.
about
169.
is
The area bounded by the x-axis and the parabola ^^ = 4 ax xrevolved about the x-axis. Find the moment of inertia about the
volume thus generated.
X-axis of the
170.
a right circular cylinder a right cone with the same base and altitude is cut. Find the moment of inertia of the remaining volume about the axis of the cylinder. 171. A torus is generated by rotating a circle of radius a about an axis in its plane at distance h, greater than a, from the center. Find the momeat of inertia of the volume of the torus about its axis.
172. 173.
From
Find the moment
of inertia of the area of the tonos
about
its axis.
The
kinetic energy of a
moving mass
5 y-
is
dm,
where
v is
the velocity of the element of mass dm.
kinetic energy of a
homogeneous cylinder
of
mass
Show
that the
and radius a
rotating with angular velocity

174.
w about
its
axis
is \ Mw'â'^.
Show that
the kinetic energy of a uniform sphere of mass

co
M and
radius a rotating with angular velocity

175.
When
^ Muâ'. a gas expands without receiving or giving out heat, its

is
about a diameter
pressure and volume are connected

pv^
by the equation
where y and k are constant. Find the work done in expanding from the volume vi to the volume V2 176. The work done by an electric current of i amperes and E volts is iE joules per second. If
.
E
where
Eo, h,
Eo cos (Jit,
= h cos
{wt
+ a),
in one cycle. water is pumped from one vessel into another at a higher level, show that the work in foot poimds required is equal to the product of the total weight of water in pounds and the distance in feet its center
are constants, find the
work done
177.
When
of gravity
is
raised.
CHAPTER
178. 179.
VII
Find the volume of an ellipsoid by using the prismoidal formula. wedge is cut from a right circular cylinder by a plane which passes through the center of the base and makes with the base an angle a. Find the volume of the wedge by the prismoidal formula.
StrPPLEMENTABY ExERCISES
16&
180. Find approximately the volume of a barrel 30 inches long if its diameter at the ends is 20 inches and at the middle 24 inches. 181. The width of an irregular piece of land was measured at inter-
vals of 10 yards, the
measurements being
52, 56, 67, 49, 45, 53,

rule.
and 62
yards.
Find
its
area approximately
by using Simpson's
Find the values of the following int^rals approximately by Simpson's

rule:
i2.
f
t
Vj-5
dx.
53.
-ilnxdx.
X*
Jl
186.
187.
+ J*
Find approximately the length of an arch of the curve j/ = sin x. Find approximately the area bounded by the a!>-axis, the curve
,
=
X
and the ordinates x
0,
r.
CHAPTER
the limits:
188.
VIII
E.xpress the following quantities as double integrals
and determine
Area bounded by the parabola y

circle x-
x-
2 x
+ 3 and the line
2x. 189. Area bounded by the
+ y^ =
:
2 a- and the curve
y-
=:r:
190.
Moment
of inertia about the x-axis of the area within the circles
x*-fy*
191.
y*
5,
x'
+ y' 2x 'iy
its
0.
Moment
of inertia of the area within the loop of the curve
x^
x*

x*

z
192.
Volume bounded by the xy-plane the paraboloid
= =
x-
-{-
if
and the cylinder

193.
+ y^
2x
-\-
4.
Volmne boimded by the xy-plane the paraboloid

z
x-
and the plane

194.
+ y^
2y.
cylinder x-
Center of gravity of the soUd bounded by the xz-plane, the -\- z- = o*, and the plane x \- y -{- z = \ a. 195. Volume generated by rotating about the x-axis one of the areas
circle x^ -\- y- = b a^ and the parabola y^ = A ax. In each of the following cases determine the region over which the integral is taken, interchange dx and dy, determine the new limi ts, and so find the value of the integral:
bounded by the
166
ix+y)dydx.
199.
Vx^
+ xy dydz.
Express the following quantities as double integrals using polar

coordinates:
200.
circle r
Area within the cardioid
(1
cos d)
and outside the

circle
r
| a.
201.
Center of gravity of the area within the
a and
outside the circle r

202.
2 a sin
9.
Moment
of inertia of the area cut

T
from the parabola
=
1
2a
COS 9
by
the line y
x,
about the
x-axis.
203.
Volume within the
cylinder r
x^
2/2
2=
= 2 a sin B and = 4 a-.

z
the sphere
204.
205.
Moment
of inertia of a sphere about a tangent line.
Volume bounded by the paraboloid
x- -{ y^
and the plane
= 2x
206.
+ 2y.
Find the area cut from the cone
x^
+ y^ = +
z"^
by the plane
x = 2z-Z.
207. 208.
Find the area cut from the plane by the cone in Ex. 206. Find the area of the surface z^ (x yY = a^ in the
first
octant.
209.
3/
0,
2/
Determine the area of the surface = X, X = 1.
z^
2 x cut out
by the planes
CHAPTER IX
Express the following quantities as triple integrals: 210. Volume of an octant of a sphere of radius o. 211. Moment of inertia of the volume in the first octant bounded by
the plane -
a 212. Center
- = +^+c
about the
x-axis.
of gravity of the region in the first octant
boimded by
xy and the cylinder x"^ ]- y^ = o^. 213. Moment of inertia about the z-axis of the volume boimded by the paraboloid z = x^ + y"^ and the plane z = 2 x + 3. 214. Volume bounded by the cone x"^ = y^ + 2z'^ and the plane
the paraboloid z
3z
j/
6.
Express the following quantities as

cylindrical,
triple integrals in rectangular,
and spherical coordinates, and evaluate one
of the integrals;
SuPPLEBfENTAKY ExERCISES
215.
167
Moment
its
of inertia of a right circular cylinder
about a
line
tangent to
base.
216. Moment of inertia of a segment cut from a sphere by a plane, about a diameter parallel to that plane. 217. Center of gravity of a right circular cone whose density varies as the distance from the center of the base. 218. Volume bounded by the xy-plane, the cylinder 3? -\- y- = 2 ax j/*. and the cone z^ = x* 219. Find the attraction of a uniform wire of length I and mass on a particle of unit mass at distance c from the wire in the perpendicular at one end. 220. Find the attraction of a right circular cylinder on a particle at the middle of its base. 221. Show that the attraction of a homogeneous shell bounded by two concentric spherical surfaces on a particle in the enclosed space
is
zero.
CHAPTER X
Solve the following differential equations:
222. 223. 224.
ydx
sin
{x-xy)dy =0.
X sin y dx
(2x2/-y2+6x)dx
+ cos x cos ydy = 0. + (3y*+x*-2xy)di/ = 0,
225.
x^+y = xh/.
:r^ ax
226. X
+y
-
cot X.
227. 228.
229. 230.
xdy
(1
+ e') dx = 0. + x*) dy + (xy + x) dx = 0.

\y
-\-
xdx
(sin
ydy = x dy
dy 2) dx x) dx
y)
-\-
-\-
(y cos
231.
232.
(e*
+
-
(xy*
+ (e* + + (y +
y dx. x x*) dx 2x) dy = 0. xy) dy = 0.
0.
233.
234.
235.
236.
(l+x2)^+xy = 2y. xdy ydx = Vi* + y2 dx.

(x
y)
dx
+ X dy = 0.
=0.
xdy
c*^-^'
-ydx = x^3^-ry^dx.
dy
237.
238. 239. 240.
+ (1 + e*) dx = 0. + 3y- l)dx + (4x + 6y-5)dy (3y + 3xy + x)dx = (x* + 2xy)dy. (1+ x) dj^ + (xy - x) dx = 0.
(2x
168
241.
{x'y
t/*)
dx
(x3
+ 2 xy^) dy = 0.
243.
244. 245. 246.
2^ +y + ax
ydx =
y
-1^
x2/
0.
(y^
x) dy.
t/2
cot X
cos x.
(x
(x2
y2) (dx
+ dy) =
1
r/^)
(dy
dx).
247
x-'^ 4-^ =
253.
f2-!^.e". dx^ dx
258.
j^
+ aV = sin ox.
260.
= e-*sin2x. ^-^-2y dx
dx'^
261.
j^
+9y =
2 cos 3 X
(e-
3 cos 2a;.
262.
g + 6^+5y =
l)^
Supplementary EIxercises
263.
169
^dxat
y "
xe''.
265.
= co6<. ^+2x = sm/, ^-2y at
in air
According to Newton's Law, the rate at which a substance cools proportional to the difference of the temperature of the substance and the temperature of air. If the temperature of air is 20 C. and the substance cook from 100 to 60 in 20 minutes, when will its temperature become 30? 268. A particle moves in a straight line from a distance a towards a point with an acceleration which at distance r from the point is k fî. If the particle starts from rest, how long will be the time before it
267.
is
reaches the point?
undergoing transformation into another at a amount of the substance remaining untransformed. If that amount is 34.2 when t = 1 hour and 11.6 when t = 3 hours, determine the amount at the start, t = 0, and find how many hours will elapse before only one per cent will remain. 270. Determine the shape of a reflector so that all the rays of light coming from a fixed point will be reflected in the same direction. 271. Find the curve in which a chain hangs when its ends are supported at two points and it is allowed to hang under its own weight. (See the example solved in Art. 57.) 272. By Hooke's Law the amount an elastic string of natural length I stretches under a force F is JdF, k being constant. If the string is held vertical and allowed to elongate under its own weight w, show that the
269.
substance
is
rate proportional to the
elongation
273.
is
5 kwl.
Assuming that the resistance
of the air produces a negative
acceleration equal to k times the square of the velocity,

projectile fired
show that a
upward with a vdocity
vi
will return to its starting point
with the velocity
^-V' g + kvr'
g being the acceleration of gravity.
274. Assuming that the density pounds per square inch is
of sea water
imder a pressure of p
+ 0.000003 p.
170
SUPPLEMKNTART EXEKCISES
show that the surface of an ocean 5 miles deep is about 465 feet lower than it would be if water were incompressible. (A cubic foot of sea
water weighs about 64 pounds.) 275. Show that when a liquid rotating with constant velocity is in equilibrium, its surface is a paraboloid of revolution. 276. Find the path described by a particle moving in a plane, if its acceleration is directed toward a fixed point and is proportional to the distance from the point.
Page 6
2.
|x3
|x'
i
+ l+C.
3.
4.
+ 2x* + C. v^(2I-3)+C.2 ox'
~6. a' X
8.
+ f a* x^ - I x' + C.
2x
+ 31nx + C.
23.
24.
9.
^^ + 4y + 41nj/ + C.
xiCAx^-^x^-e) +C.
In (x
10.
11. 12.
13.
14. 15. ^^-
+ 1) + C. - :r^ + C. x + V2X 27+1 + 1+C. i In (x^ + 2) + C.

1
- P) + C. X + 3 In (x - 2) + C.
i (a*
25.
.
5 In (2x^ "
+
1
1)
Vx^
+ C.
26.
~
(l
^
4 (2
X*
+ C.
1)
17.
18.
- 46(a+6xy +^- 1 (o^ - x*)' + C.

iln(a3
ln(x2
1]'
1
+ C.
+ x3)+C.
27.
" (_i)
^'^
-^^
(^n_ô)-i
+C
+(7.
20
21.
+ ax + 6)+C. 2 Vx + ax + 6 4- C. 1 in (1 - a^) + C. ^
Pages
28. 29.
30.
^"^
ix3-|ln(x3
+ 2)+C.
i.i:8_|a;5îa^^C'^
12, 13
2.
1.
138.
|^ + 30<.
when
3.
t
=
4-
100 < ^ ff^ 3.1 sec, h = 215.3 ft.

Tis^ffT
= -
60.
It
reaches the highest point
sec.
171
172
5.
Answers to Exercises
X
(^
+
t
I,
t^
2.
tions of the path.
12x-22t/
6. 7.
+ 31
The =0.
rectangular equation
These are parametric equais x^ + 4 xy + 4 y^ _
About 53 mUes.
x
J/
10.
(-i -^)
= 6i/ 6y =
-12
About 4 per
t,
= jV3fi,y "-.^ = 4
^fi 4'
+ Vot.
11.
x3-3x2
+ 3x + 13.
8. 9.
y
X
= = =
2X
e*.
-^
x2
12.
f
14.
cent.
15.
t
xoe**, is
where x
is
the
number
at time
xo the
number
at time
0,
and k
constant.
19.
17. 18.
17 minutes.
11.4 minutes.
11.6 years.
Pages
1.
18, 19
6.
(1 cos 2
x+l sin 2 x) + C.
2.
f2x-3\
cos (nt
7.
3.
4.
-i
n
+ a) +C.
8.
9.
5.
-4csc^
2 (esc
+ C.
cot
10.
+ C. tan X + C. - ^ cot 2 X + C, CSC X + C J sec* X + C.

\ sin2 e
11.
12. 13.
1^
+C.
14.
15.
16.
17. 18. 19.
20.
21.
22.
1) + C. + sec 3 x) + C. tan X + X 2 In (sec x + tan x) + C. hi (1 + sin x) + C. e + cos2 + C. sin X + hi (esc x cot x) + C. ism'x + C. ltan*x + C. Itan^x + C. -icosx + C.
i sin (x I (tan 3 X
Hn(l +2tanx)
i
a
In (1
1
+ C.
23.
24.
-Jhi(l -sin2x)
+ C.
+ tan ax) + C
.
.
_.
25.
x V2 = sin-' C. +^
.
-=7-
V2
V3
Answers to Exebcisbs
173
27.
28.
29.
isec-i^ + C! itan-i2y + C. -^ In (x V7 + V7 1* + l) +C.

v7
^^
,
30.
|sec-'Y+C.
31.
32.
33. 34. 35.
V3 ^ 7= + ^- V3 In (2z + V4x^-3) + C. -3 VT^T^ - 2sm-i | + C.

1
V3
7=
m 2J +
2X
V:?T4 + 3ln (x +
'
Vi
+ 4) + C.
8
36.
5ln(4x2-5)+-^ln|^-=-^ + C. V5 2 X + V 5
V3x-9 -
-|= In (x
V3
+ V?"=^) + C.
46.
37.
38.
ein-.(^-^)+C.
-i.->^ + e.
39.
40. 41. 42.
._
Art
-V2-sinx + C'tan-i (sin x)+C.

sec-i (tan x) In (sec
47.
^ (e* i In (1
e"*-*)
+2x + C
48.
49. "0. 51^ 52.
+ C.
^^
In (e*
+ e^*) + C. + e"') + C.
n 2
4344.
45.
x + v'sec' x + 1). _ VT^-ê + C. 1, 2 + lnx ^ 4^2 ^n^ + ^- ^ Vcos^x-8inx + C. 1 _ X* 2 sin ^ + C.

/
,
_1
e "T C.
t^-, (^)
1
^ c. In f:^ + C.
e*
1
53
54
^^_, ^^^
(e*)
'
tan-i
^^ + C.
Page 20
^l*-i^ + 3.
3.
-l._, 2x-l,V9x*
-^ V3
1
In (3 X
+2+
1)
12x
+ 6) + C.
.
1
_,
(2x-
V5
^-
VB'^"
^ +^.
_,
(x-3)V6,_
3
5-
Vl"""
+ ^-
174
1
6.
in^ + +
X
C.
7.
-ln(4x^-4a:-2)+
V3x2 I 3
1 In
6
In^^-^-p-^ +
[3
(a;
C.
8.
-6x + 1 + 4= In
Va
X
^
1)
VQx^ - 18x+3]
+ C.
9.
(3 x2 4- 2
10.
4=
V2
sec-i
tan-i ^^^ + C. + 2) + -^ V5 3 V5 ^^ .t^ + ^ln (2x + 1 + V4x'^ + 4x-l) + C. 2
V2
11.
- =J=+C. Vx2 +
2X 3
12.
Vx2
+ I In (2 X - 1 + +3+
Vl7/
V4x2
-4x-8) + C.
13.
JL,(iilliiÛc.
Vl7
V4e*
Page 26
+ 3 cos' X + C. x + ^ sin^ x + C. 3. f cos' x + f sin' x cos x { C. 4.-3 cos' X + 5 cos^ X + C. 5. I sin^ 1 X - f ^ X + I sin' I X + C. - ^ sinS 3 + C. sin 3 6. - f cos'0 + cos0 + C. 7. 8. sin X + 5 sin^ x + C. 9. cos X + In (esc x cot x) + C. - In cos + C 10. cos^ d I cos* 11. tan X + i tan' x + C. 12. - (cot y + i cot' + I cots y ^ cot^ y + i cot y) + C. 13. tan X X + - sec - + C. 14. 2 tan 15. |sec'|x + C. sec^ 2 X - i sec^ 2 x + i sec' 2x + C. 16. 17. I csc^ X In sin X + C. x + In cos x + C. 18. I sec* X f sec* x + | 19. - i cot X - i cot' x + C. 20. ^tan^x + lntanx + C. 21. |-^ sin (2 ax) + C.
1.
cos X
2.
sin
X sin X
I sin^
sin''
-Jy
(9
2/
_|.
C'.
tf
t'j
sec''
22.
+ j^sin(2ox) + C.
23.
17a
24. 25. 26.
27.
28.
- tV sin' 2 X + C. + ismx + C. I sin 2 X + ^\ sin 4 z + -^^ sin' 2 x + C. tan x + sec x + tan ^ X + C. 2 f sin ^ - cos + C. I
xV^^X
t^ X
sV sin 4
a;
V2sin2x
C*.
29.
I I
Vx2 -oT-
|- In (x
+ ^3? - a") + C.
+ Vx* + a?) + C. + Vx* + a?) + C.
30.
Vx2 Vx2
+ d^ + |. In
+ a^ - ^' In
-^
(x
(x
31.
32.
a^
V x^
-
+C.
a-
33.
-In
+ V o2 X*
ax
+C.
.
34.
-:Î^Zi + C.
^
.
35.
Vo* -x*
36.
+C.
(x^!
(x2
+ a2) - I
a-x
+ a^)* + C.
37.
-^^7^ + C.
X
38.
\/x2-4x ^-^
-^
iln(x-2 + V'x*-4x+5) + +5 " + 2

'
C.
'
39.
^^
- ^^
32
V 2 - -.x - ^^^64 4x^ + ^

+
sin-^
^^
+^+ C ^^'
Page 30
1.
^ + 4x-2In(x31nx -ln(x
1)
121n(x-2) +C.
2.
1)
4-C.
j^(x_-i^(x+2)+c.
l
4.
5. 6.
f In (X
+ lnx- jgln(2x-l)-^ln(2x + l)+C. + 3) - i In (X + 1) - f In (X + 5) + C.

1)
^ln(2xX
-\
-31n(2x-3) +|ln(2x-5)
X
h C.
C.
h In
J>
376
lln(x
8.
+ l)+|ln(x-l)-2^^j+C.
--Ur4^+'"l^)+10.
x-81n(x
l)
3(^
1)3
+g-
13-
2(4^ + ^x
1
,
. ,
^ln^^-Kan-iz +4 + C. X + 1 2 J + 1 ,2x-l C, 1, tan-i 15. 5 In ^: H 7= h 3 Vx2 - X + 1 Vs Va 16. i In (x3 + 1) + C. 2V3^^ 2x-l 1, X- 1 17 6(x + l) 4 x + l 9 \/3
14.
1
.
19.
"-=^ --^+lln -8
a^
Vx2
+ 2X + 4
D*
+
2
V3
tan-x^ + C.
V3
1
)
20.
3 (x
D*
+ In [(x 4-
1]
- ^^
(x tan-i ^
v3
+1 ^
^^^
21.
-1
5
A+1 i_l i_:,A+llnl5+c.

1-x^
22.
23. 24.
3|,(ax
2
+ 6)i-|A(a, + ,)i + C.
4x*
25.
2 - In (x + 3) - 2 tan-i V^T2 + C. + 21n (x* - l) + In (x* + l) - 2tan- x* + C. Hx + l)* + i(x-l) + C.
Vx +
Page 34
1
1.
2[
cos 2 X
+2
sin 2
+C
3,
x sin"! x
+ Vl - r* + C.
2.
|lnx-| + C.
X In (x
4.
^-|^tan-ix-|x + C.
6.
Va
+ 3?) -
Vo
+ x + C.
Answebs to Exercises
6.
7. 8.
177
Inxln(lnx)
^ x8ec-ix
X
9.
600
-Inx +
C.
VF^^ In X - 4 Vj - 1 + 4 taii-i Vx - 1 + C.
- I V^^n _
1
In (x 4.
V^^TT) +
C.
10.
11.
- (1 + e-') In (1 +6*) + C. (x - 2 X + 2) e* + C. - (x + 3x + 6x + 6)e^ + C.
12.
^^sm2x-^^^^^^^^^cos2x + C.
^
13.
Vx'-a^ - ^ In
Va*
(x
+ Vî:^) + C. + V^*T^) + C.
14.
+ x* +|ln
(x
15.
^(28in3x-3coe3x) +C.
lo
-^ (cob
16.
+ sin x) +
C'.
17. 18. 19.
-?(sin2x + 2cos2x) +C.

o
H9ec0tan0
5 cos
T^jj
+ ln(sec + tan0)] + C. cos 5 X + C.

Page 38
1-
f
2.829.
3.
-0.630.
2.
Pages
1.
1
45, 46
12.
V3.
2*
1
2.
3.
3'
13.
-20.
2.
2fc
4. 5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
14. 15.
0.5493.
3-
1.807.
+ 1. 4^2
1.786.
0.2877
0.
16.
17. 18.
0.4055. 0.2877.
\a.
2.
10.
19. 11. 00.
(l-ln2)
178
Pages
1.
49, 50
13.
11.
27r
+ |, 67r-f
4-Y'r.
2.
|V3(4-V2).
i
9.248
irab.
14.
4V3
37ra2.
lira".
4.
5. 6.
7.
17. 18.
ia?.
51.
19.
Tr{
+ 2ab).
8.
20. 21.
22.
X V3.
3ira\
f 7ro6.
9.
A.
11.
12.
âK
f.
Page 52
2.
>2.
4
9.
2a2(l+|V2).
167r3a2.
10.
3.
fa^Vs.
4.
(e"-
11.
1).
^'{i+Hf(.-i).
(lO
m'.
5 ^6.
^ 2
Itt.
13.
14.
15.
+ 9V3)g.
7. 8.
iira^.
|a2.
Pages
3.
.
56, 66
5.
iUirO'
^^'+4-4V
1x2.
47.
-6"'
is
6.
f xa'(l cos* a), where a the vertical angle of the cone 8. \^xa.
9.
the radius of the sphere and 2

13.
fxa'.
Jji^xâ^.
10-
Mxa. Vto^.
5irâK
14. 15^
16.
8xV3.
^gz
"16
11. 12.
îra\
f a' tan a.
V2.
Page 69
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. ^
la".
l-'O+i)
taÂ.
ixo62. îra%.
.4A.
9.
j^
^
'^^
3
'
3 v'2
Answers to Exebcises
Page 63
2.
S.
4.
179
^(lOVlO-l).
ln(2
6.
6a
+ V3).
^8. 9.
"(^-ij*
8a.
2x2a.
5.
^ln2. f 2.003.
Page 64
3.
.
^^^^
a
Vs'
(e
1).
5. 6.
2a [V2
iâ.
+ In (l + ^l
7. 8.
8a.~
ixa.
Pages
66, 67
\
4.
V a^ -
6*
Vâ^.
7.
V'o*-
''2^
6.
6==
+ ^;
Page 69
9.
8x[V2+ln(l +
4xa.
v^)].
V-a*.
10.
1.
fTo.
6. 7.
fxa'a -cos a).

2a/i(x-2).
2^4.
2a.
1^*-
5.
ixaKa + 26V3). |xoK2 V2 - l).

Pages
8.
xaVA
+ 4a^
iaA(9x-16).
71, 72
3.
4.
1.
2. 5.
45,000
33,750
ipofc*,
lbs. lbs.
i*A.
|u'6/j.
where a
IP.
is
the semi-axis in the surface and 6 the vertical

7.
semi-axLs.
6.
300,000
40 xw.
Pages 78-80
1.
i pd'b, where
is
the pressure per unit area, a the width, and 6

4.
the height of the door.

2.
^wa^b.
The
intersection
of
the
3.
^wbh*
{4:C
+ 3h).
medians.
180
5.
(!a,0).
12.
= =
ia.
Itt
_
6.
x=
(a
_ 77, " y
Stt'
4a
46
13.
V2a.
a\
14.
At distance
7.
TT
from the
bounding diameter.
/
8.
P _
(5
256a\
3157rj
IT
1^16.
y-
4e(e^-l)
9.
^=8'
(^ a,
(â, fa).
(0.399, 1.520).
10. 11. 19.
^ a)
16a'
17.
18.
ia.
On
20.
is
At distance
(iO).
the axis i of the distance from the base to the vertex. f a from the plane face of the hemisphere, where a
the radius,
21. 22. 23.
Its distance
from the plane face
is
^ of the radius.
he vertex, a being;
cos a) from the axis at distance f a (1 the radius and a the angle of the sector.
24. 25.
is
On
(|a,0).
The
ira
dista'nce of the center of gravity
from the base
of the cylinder
^j
tan a.
of the radius perpendicular to the plane face.
26.
At the middle
28.
x.:^^. v^ 15
Pages
2.
82, 83
6. 7. 8-
2 xâ^b.
J xa [3 hi (1
+ V2) 2sina).
V2).
3.
4. 5.
^(12V3-1).
7r(36x
"/Tra^.
7ra3(3a
'^''-
V6)V6.
a
10.
TTo' (4 sin
sin' a)
tan a, where a
is
the radius of the cylinder
and 2 a the
vertical angle of the cone.
Pages
1.
84, 85
is
2. 3.
4. 6. 6.
where b is the edge about which the rectangle T^ bh^, where b is the base and h the altitude. i b, where b is the base and h the altitude.
^ a%,
revolved-
â*.
^â*.
^ ira*.
7. 8.
181
i Ma^h, where h
is
the altitude.
iMa\
9.
LO
:
where p
is
the density.
the mass and a the radius.
10. 12.
I 3/a*,
where
is
I TO*
Pages
k
2.
83, 83
(b
a)
2a
au; ft. lbs.,
,
3.
Vt
Vi
h
J
c In
where a is the radius of the earth a a H

,
in feet.
Vt
Vi
4.
25,133
ft. lbs.
5.
^ TTfiPa, where a
is
the radius of the shaft.

is
6.
2~T
-T
(
^^
>
where A
)
the altitude of the cylinder.

radii.
7.
~T
>
where a and b are the inner and outer

radii of the
8. t>.
irab'
7
r
kh
where a and b are the
ends and h the altitude
2xi
9.
10.
2i.
c
Pages
2. 7. 8. 9.
95, 96
11.
12. 13.
8.5.
4.27.
0.785392.
1.26.
0.9045.
4.38.
aX
* *
3L3
14. 1.91.
5L5"*"
10.
21.48.
Pages 102, 103

1.
In If.
7. 8.
f.
15. 16.
4.
2.
hâ\
â\
X.
|a*.
3.
^.
9.
17.
18. 19.
16 hi 2
fa*.
--V
10. 11.
5.
13.
3x.
X.
|o*.
-1.
TO*
12. 13.
20.
(i -f).
6-
-^-
h
ia*.
21.
(Va, -2o)
14.
182
Pages 107, 108
,
va*
ica^
2^
I^.
^
6. 7.
aM2 a -
sin 2 a).
iâaMeTr-S).
8.
On
the bisector at the distance
o a
x
from the center.
9.
^xo*.
\T,a\
ilfa^,
11.
12.
aU4ir -If).
10.
15.
16.
3xa^
^^Trpa\
X5
M being the mass and a the radius of the base.

18,
ia3(3^_4).
l-a3.
i7.
jg
(8V2-9)4^.
lUo
Page 111
1.
3 Vii.
2. 3.
There are two areas between the planes each equal to 2
mofi.
Two
4.
areas are determined each equal to

7.
'
ira^
V2.
4. 5.
ixa2 V3.
îva' (3
a?
(tt
Vs -
l).
8.
9.
2).
8 a'-
8anan-iiV2.
Page lie
1. \.
4.
6.
wahc.
2. 3.
A.
Its distance
is -/j TTO.
^âÂ.
from the base
7.
^.
Page 121
1^s^"--
4.
I^
60
fTra'.
(2/i2
2. 3. 6.
f A,
IT.
where A
is
the altitude.
+ 3a>.
cos a) from the
5.
On
If
the axis of the cone at the distance f o
(I
vertex.
7.
the two planes are
?,
the spherical coordinates of the
center of gravity are r

8.
T = Tâ, 0=0, <^=k' 10 ^

9
Httos.
Page 125
183
kM
2.
4.
kMc ri
~
|
2M.
xa-
cos a), where p is the density, A the altitude, and 2 a the vertical angle of the cone. 6. The components along the edge through the comer are each equal to
2 xArpA (1
2Mk fx
+ >/2l
Pages 130, 131

dx^
Q.
dx
y (x
j/
"
1)
d^
d3?
dx
X dy
+
0.
dx
0.
9.
4y
0.
7.
^+
tan' X
1^
1
ydx =xdy.
Pages 141-143
2.
cot*
3.
4.
+ = .,,,,, + - =
c (x2
x-(^
ys
= c. - 1).
c.
10.
u=cx*
u
x
-?
*.
.
11.
= = ^
cx*e
19 jg
14
L, _
^
,
(;,
5.
6.
7.
8.
+ x-^/-x^/*-y3=c. y^ =cx^{y^ + 1). x' + ^ = ce*"*.

x^
xy
c (y
1).
^
18.
19.
^h-a^'
+ xy + y*) +
-
hi (x
A V3
tan'i
+ c). .^ 16. = X + - + ?* 17. x< + 4y(x-l)*=c ^-^^ =

=y
(x'
^ 15. 7 1
1
_ ^) + c). csinx - a.
(i
,
xVs
25. 26.
c.
20.
21.
22.
X* y* = ex. y* + 2xy=c. x*-4xy + y* =
ys
= =
ce*
1.
|e*
c.
27.
28.
29.
+ ce"*.
^'^
4 = c - e-". y
f
y
y
y*
c =--
"^
23.
24.
e"
x
i
+ In X = + 2y + ln(x + y-2)
c.
= ^ X* + c, or = 2 ex + c*.
/
,
y
^
og.
=c.
30.
= Ec\\ -
f Re]
.
31.
=/e~l'
+ î-q^^^
/i!sina/-Lafcosa/-e"iM
184
32. 33. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41.
2/3
2/2
= = =
6=^-2.
34.
cifi.
2 ax.
X
y2
o In
^
a
+
c)2
Va2
+ Vo" j/2
1/2
c.
+
= = =
(x
a2.
2/
= |e^ + |3e--.
e".
r r r
c sin 0.
a sec
(0
+ c).
a2
o0
= Vr2 =
e*.
o sec"! -
c.
42. 43. 44.
circle.
45. 46.
47.
A straight line. A circle with the fixed point

The
logarithmic spirals r
on
its
circumference or at
its center.
ceô.
0.999964.
Pages 164^156
1.
2. 3. 4.
y y y y
= Ci In X I + C2. X + Cixe^ + C2. = cie'^ + C2e-*. = Ci sin ax -\- d cos ax.

a:2
6.
= ^ a^
In
(cie*<
g-""")
cj.
^-
J/
= l^'-2^1nx = 5^
ci
[e<=i*+<'2
+ c.
8.
+ e-i'^'^t)].
9.
10. 11.
12.
13. 14. 15.
1ft
= = y = = y = y = y =
y
2/
J/ 2/
c-ifi^'.
+ Cae"*. + cix) e'^. Ci cos X + C2 sin x. Ci + Cje"* + cse'*. cic^ + C2e~* + Cs cos x + C4 sin x.
Cie*^
(ci
e* [ci cos (x
V2)
4,
Ci
sin (x V2)].
16.
* ci = e-ir
cos
xVs 2
f-
Ci
sm
xVsl g
Answers to EIxercises
17. 18. 19.
186
y y
!/
20. 21. 22. 23.

24.
y y
J/
2/
= = = = = = = = =
+ cie-' + Cje"^ Cxer' ^. + cjx + Car*) e*. X + 3 + Ci cos X + cj sin X. cicî + C2-^* -he'. - tt^ - xkcie^^ + cê-^"^ - 5
ae'
(ci
-{-c'
25.
+ cos x). i X* Ci + ce*' + X. Cxe-' + (^-^* + ix-A + ê''. cie" + cje"" + #- e".
ce* J (sin
.^
^
'
^
\
^
*/
y
J
'^
/K/^
^
(^Z
26.
r
e*
Ci
cos
a;V3 ^
cj
sin
xVsl ,
I
.
*^^
(2 sin 2
[X
Cx
y^
+ 3 cos 2 x).
v's
X V^~|
I
cos
cj
sin
x*
+ x* 6.
28. 29.
y y 30. y
31. 32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38. 39.
= cie* + ce'- ê*sinx. = Ci(?' + Cj~" + jV ^' (6 sin X cos x). = Ci + Cjx + cjx^ + 046"^ + x^y (4 cos 4 X y = Ci cos 2 X + (ci + J x) sin 2 X. y = e-' (ci + cx + ^x*) + ie*. X = Ci cos <H-Cj8inf + |(e* e~*) y = Ci sin cj cos + 3 (e* e~'). y Cx cos + Cj sin 1, X = (ci + C2) cos + (cj Ci) sin 3. X = CiC* + C3~", y = Cie~' + 3 Cje~" + cos X = Cic' + C26~* + cj cos 4- C4 sin y = Cie' + CjC"' C3 cos C4 sin t. y = X. 2 y* = X + 2.
<
sin
4 x).
<
<
<
<
I.
< <
f,
= f<+|(e-*'-l).
2
j-
^=jk^l
41. 42. 43. 44.
s
6 cos {kt).
About 7 miles per second. About 42? minutes.

<
= V-ln
(5
+ ^^). + 4 V5).
45.
<
= -^
In (9
TABLE OF INTEGRALS
u" du
- n +
=
\
if
is
not
1.
2.
J u r
I
r^ = lnu.
-;;
du
3.
4-
J V? -\- a^ r du ^ = J w c^
I
-o
- tan a
\
,
u a
2a
^7-1^^
u u
\
a a
-\r
5.
e^
du
c".
6.
Ca'^du
In a
Integrals of Trigonometric Functions

7.
I
sin
udu = costt. udu = lu lsm2u =

w dw =
I
If
8.
I
sin^
I (u
sinu cos m).
9.
sin*
J sin 2
^^j
sin 4 u.
10.
j sin^
udu =
f'û
sin u.
ls\n2u
:^g
sin'
2u
?? sin 4 u,
11.
J
costtdw
cos^
J
12.
du = M (iu =
+ +
-J-
sin 2
M =
5 (w
+ sin u cos u).
13.
cos*
i sin 2 M
-g^j
sin 4 u.
14.
cos^
udu ^û
+ \sm2u ^g sin' 2 u +
^'j
sin
4 u.
15.
tan
cot
udu = In costt. udu =

In sin u.
16.
186
Table of Integrals
187
17.
Jsec
udu =
du
In (sec
+ tan u)
In tan
"I"
)*
18.
I
sec* u
tan
u.
19.
j.'sec'
udu =
u du
^ sec
M tan t*
+ i In (sec + tan u).

t*
20
21.
I
esc
In (esc
cot )
In tan
-x*
CSC*
udu = cotu.
udu =
22.
jcsc^
^cscucotu
+ |ln (esc u cot u).
u*
Integrals containing Va*

23.
JV^^^rV* du = I Va-tt
fu^ Vî^r;r du
+ ^ sin-i
a)
^
u*
24.
= 3 (2 u* ^/-z
Vo*
o
+ ^*
*
sin"!
25.
/Va- - u- du J =
u
Va*
;.
u*
+ a In
,
"^q'
26.
27.
du /u' .-
va-
-,
= -
u
:5
-^
/ ^*
a
"'
u-
+
,
a*
2 z
^""
u
'
n a
r
28.
du
v'a*
- V^s^T^
u
J u
u-
"
In
29.
/
fid'
/
du
V g-
30.
- u*)' du =
dh du
'^
(5 a*
2 u*) V^^^TII^
^
5
sin-
H
a
31.
(n(.0-
u*)*
a*
Va*
u*
Integrals containing Vu*

32.
a*
J*
ViiT^î du =
Vu
(2
o*
I"
In (u
Vu^-a*).
33.
J*u*
Vt^^T^ du =
u-a*)
Vi^TT^ ~ ^ ^ ^^+ Vu-rf).
188
Table of Integrals
34
r Vu^ J u
J Vyi Vl/2 -'
g^
^ ViF^r^^ -
a sec"! -
35.
rt2 o2
36.
^-^l^^ = HV^73T2 + ^în(t* + Vîr^^.

V M*
a_
'^
37.
r_^^_. = sec- H. a a
1
a2
dw
V ^2 _
q2
39.
J(m
'^^
a2)*du
=|(2u2-5a2) V2 _
^2
4.|*i
(u+ Vu^-a^).
40
S-,
Integrals containing V^*

41.
+ a* +
Vu^+a^).
(u
J V^^Srp^
Ji/2
'^^
Viii"4r^2
+^
In (u
42.
Vm2
+ a^ dtt = I (2 m2 4- a2) Vm2 + _ |'ln
VîH^).
43.
r^^:Z^d. = VÎ-F^ + aln^^^^+^^. u u

= ln(+V^lHr^2).
44.
fJL=
*'
V U^
-|-
^2
46.
/^
w Vm2
-[-
^l,^V^^ + a^-a
o2
du
48.
J(m*
+ 0^)3 du = |(2 u2+5 a^) v^To^ +^'ln U+

^^
^vH^^)'
49.
^
.
Table of Integrals
189
Other Integrals
60.
J \ ax
l\/?^|dx
+b
- V{ax
+ b)(j)x + q)
6)
^7^ 1n(Vp(qx + a Vap

(px
+ Va(px + g))
oVpx + 5
= ^ V (ax + b)
.
+ g) -
aVap
^-^^ tan-i :^-Pjg^ ^\
e" (a sin 6x b cos bx) r n* J 1. ^51. Je"sm6xdx^ ^-^

et
1.
-62.
fe-cosbxdx =
^"^ (^ în bx
+ a cos 6x)
190
Natural Logarithms
0-609
N
2.3026 9957 3.4012 6889 9120 4.0943 2485 3820 4998
6052
7005 7875 8675 9416 5.0106 0752 1358 1930 2470
1
0.0000
2
0.6931
3
1.0986
4
1.3863
6
1.7918
7
1.9459
8
2.0794
2.8904 3.3322 6376 8712 4.0604 2195 3567 4773 5850
6821
9
2.1972
1.6094
2.7081 3.2189 5553 8067 4.0073
1744 3175 4427 5539
2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9
2.3979 3.0445 4340 7136 9318 4.1109 2627 3944 5109

6151
2.4849 3.0910 4657 7377 9512 4.1271 2767 4067 5218 6250
7185 8040 8828 9558 5.0239 0876 1475 2040 2575 3083
2.5649 3.1355 4965 7612 9703 4.1431 2905 4188 5326

6347 7274 8122 8903 9628 5.0304 0938 1533 2095 2627 3132
3613 4072 4510 4931 5334 5722 6095 6454 6802
2.6391 3.1781 5264 7842 9890 4.1589 3041 4308 5433
2.7726 3.2581 5835 8286 4.0254

1897 3307 4543 5643
2.8332 3.2958 6109 8501 4.0431 2047 3438 4659 5747

6728
7622 8442 9200 9904 5.0562 1180 1761 2311 2832
2.9444 3.3673 6636 8918 4.0775 2341 3694 4886 5951

6913
7791 8598 9345 5 0039 0689 1299 1874 2417 2933
10
11 12 13
6444
7362 8203 8978 9698
6540
7449 8283 9053 9767 5.0434 1059 1648 2204 2730
6634 7536 8363 9127 9836 5.0499 1120 1705 2257 2781
14 15 16 17 18 19
7095 7958 8752 9488 5.0173 0814 1417 1985 2523
5.0370 0999
1.591
2149 2679
3181
7707 8520 9273 9972 5.0626 1240 1818 2364 2883 3375
3845 4293 4723 5134 5530 5910 6276 6630 6971
7301
7621
20
21
2983
3171 3936 4381 4806 5215 5607 5984 6348 6699
3033 3519 3982 4424 4848 5255 5645 6021 6384 6733
7071
3230 3706 4101 4596 5013 5413 5797 6168 6525 6870
7203
3279 3753 4205 4638 5053 5452 5835 6204 6560 6904
7236
3327 3799 4250 4681 5094 5491 5872 6240 6595 6937
3423
3891 4337 4765 5175 5568 5947 6312 6664 7004 7333 7652 7961 8260 8551 8833 9108 9375 9636 9890
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
3566 4027 4467 4889 5294 5683 6058 6419 6708

7104
3660 4116 4553 4972 5373 5759

6131 6490 6836
1'
30
31
7038
7137
7462 7777 8081 8377 8665 8944 9216 9480 9738
7170
7494 7807 8111 8406 8693 8972 9243 9506 9764
7268
7589 7900 8201 8493 8777 9054 9322 9584 9839
32 33 34 35 36
37 38 39
7366 7683 7991 8289 8579 8861 9135 9402 9661
7398 7714 8021 8319 8608 8889 9162 9428 9687
7430 7746
8051 8348 8636
8916 9189 9454 9713

9965
7526 7838 8141 8435 8721 8999 9269 9532 9789
7557 7869 8171 8464 8749 9026 9296 9558 9814
7930 8230 8522 8805 9081 9349 9610 9865

6.0113
40
41
9915
6,0162 0403 0638 0868 1092 1312 1527 1738
1944
9940 6.0186 0426 0661 0890 1115

1334 1549 1759 1964
9989
6.0014
0259 0497 0730 0958
1181 1399 1612 1821
6.0039
0283 0521 0753 0981 1203 1420 1633
1841
6.0064
0307 0544 0776 1003 1225 1442 1654 1862 2066
6.0088
0331 0568 0799 1026 1247 1463 1675 1883 2086
6.0137 0379 0615 0845 1070 1291 1506 1717 1924 2126 2324
42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49
6.0210 0450 0684 0913

1137 1366 1570 1779 1985
6.0234 0474 0707 0936 1159 1377

1591 1800
0355 0591 0822 1048 1269 1485 1696

1903
2005
2025 2226
2046
2246
2106
2305
60
2146
2166
1
2186
2206
2265
2285
Natural Logarithms
191
60O-10O9
N
50
51
1
6.2146 2344 2538 2729 2916 3099 3279 3456 3630 3801
3969 4135 4297 4457 4615 4770 4922 5073 5221 5367
5511
2
6.2186
2383 2577 2766 2953 3135 3315 3491 3665 3835
4
6.2226
2422 2615 2804 2989 3172 3351 3526 3699 3869
5
6 2246
6
6.2265
2461 2653 2841 3026 3208 3386 3561 3733 3902
9
6 2324
6.2166
2364 2558 2748 2934 3117 3297 3474 3648 3818
6.2206
2403 2596 2785 2971 3154 3333 3509 3682 3852 4019
6 2285 6.23a5
52 53 54 55
56
57 58 59
2442 2634 2823 3008 3190 3368 3544 3716 3886 4052 4216 4378 4536 4693 446 4998 5147 5294 5439 5582 5723 5862 5999 6134 6267 6399 6529
66.57
2480 2672 2860 3044 3226 3404 3578 3750 3919

4085
2500
2691 2879 3063 3244 3421 3596 3767 3936
2519 2710 2897 3081 3261 3439 3613 3784 3953. 4118
4281 4441 4599 4754 4907 5053 5206 5352 5497
60
61
3986
4151 4313 4473
4003 4167 4329 4489 4616 4800 4953 5103

52.50
4036 4200 4362 4520 4677 4831 4983 5132 5280 5425 5568 5709 5*48 5985 6120 6254 6386 6516 6644 6771
6896
4069 4232 4394 4552 4708 4862 5013 5162 5309
4102 4265 4425 4583 4739 4892 5043 5191 5338 5482 5624
5765 5903 6039 6174 6307
fr438
62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69
4630 4785 4938 5088 5236

5381
5396 5539
5681 5820 5958 6093 6227 6359 6490 6619 6746 6871
4184 4345 4505 4661 4816 4968 5117 5265 5410

5554 5695 5834 5971 6107 6241 6373 6503 6631 6758 6884 7007 7130 7250 7370 7488 7604 7719 7833 7946 8057
M53
5596 5737 5876 6012 6147 6280 6412 6542 6670 6796
6921
4249 4409 4568 4723 4877 5028 5177 5323 5468 5610
5751 5889 6026 6161 6294 6425 6554 6682 6809
70
71
5525
5639
72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79
5653 5793 5930 6067 6201 6333 6464 6503 6720 6846 6970 7093 7214 7334 7452 7569 7685 7799 7912 8024 8134 8244 8352 8159 8565 8669 8773 8876 8977
9078
5667 5806 5944 6080 6214 6346 6477 6006 6733 6859
6983 7105 7226 7346 7464 75S1 7696 7811 7923 8035 8145 8255 8363 8469 8575 8680 8783 8886 8987 9088
6783 6908
7a32 7154 7274 7393 7511 7627 7742 7856 7968
6567 6695 6821
5779 5917 6053 6187 6320 6451 6580 6708 6834

6958
7081 7202 7322 7441 7558 7673 7788 7901 8013
80
81 82
6933
7056 7178 7298 7417 7534 7650 7765 7878 7991
8101 8211 8320 8427 8533 8638 8742 8845 8947 9048
6946 7069 7190 7310 7429 7546 7662 7776 7890 8002 8112
83 84 85 86 87 88 89
6995 7117 7238 7358 7476 7593 7708 7822 7935
7020 7142 7262 7382 7499 7616

7731 7845 7957
7044 7166 72S6 7405 7523 7639 7754 7867 7979
90
91 92 93 94
8046
8156 8265 8373 8180 8586 8690 8794 8896 8997 9098
8068 8178 8287 8395 8501 8607 8711 8814 8916 9017
9117
8079
8090 8200 8309 8416 8522 8628 8732 8835 8937 9037
9137
8123 8233 8341 8448 8554 8659 8763 8865 8967 9068
9167
95 96 97 98 99
8167 8276 8384 8491 8596

8701 8804 8906 9007
8189 8298 ^405 8512 8617 8721 8824 8926 9027

9127
8222 8330 8437 8544 8648 8752 8855 8957 9058

9157
100
9108
9147
INDEX
The numbers
refer to the pages.
Approximate methods, 90-96.

Area,
Integral, definite, 36.

definition of, 1.
by double integration, 97. bounded by a plane curve, 47-52.

derivative
of, 39.
double, 97.
indefinite, 36.
triple, 112.
of a surface of revolution, 65.
of
any
surface, 108.
Integrals, containing axc,
+ 6x
-f-
Attraction, 121.
19.
Center of gravity, 73-80.
containing (ax
+ &)
29.
Change
of variable, 44.
of rational fractions, 26-29.

of trigonometric functions,
23.
Constants of integration, 1, 128. Curves with a given slope, 7.

Cylindrical coordinates, 116.
Definite integrals, 36. properties of, 41.
Differential equations, 126-156.
21
relation of definite
40.
and indefinite,
Integrating factors, 135

Integration,
1.
by
substitution, 15-19.
exact, 133.
homogeneoas, 139.
linear, 136, 147.
constant of, 1. formulas of, 14. geometrical representation

36.
of,
of the second order, 143.
reducible to linear, 137.
in series, 94. of rational fractions, 23-29.
simultaneous, 153.
solutions of, 128.
with variables separable, 132.
Length
of a curve, 61, 63. Limits of integration, 36, 42.
Exact
differential equations, 133.
Linear differential equations, 136,

147.
Formulas
of integration, 14.
differential
Homogeneous
tions, 139.
equa-
Mechanical and physical applica>

tions, 70-89.
Moment,
Infinite limits, 42.
72.
of inertia, 83.
Infinite values of the inteerand, 43.
Motion
193
of
particle, 5.
194
Order
Index
of a differential equation,
Spherical coordinates, 119.
126.
Summation,
35.
double, 100.
Pappus's theorems, 80. Physical and mechanical applications, 70-89.
triple, 113.
Trigonometric functions, integrals

of,
Pressure, 70.
21-23.
Prismoidal formula, 90.
Trigonometric substitutions, 23.

Variables, separation of, 9, 132.
Polar coordinates, 50, 63, 103.

national fractions, integration
26-29.
of,
Volume, by double integration,

of a solid of revolution, 52. of
99.
Reduction formulas, 33.

Separation of the variables, Simpson's rule, 93.
9, 132.
a soUd with given area of section, 56.
Work,
85.
^<;q'^~V
WNOING SECT.
AUG 2 6
1971
QA
P5
Phillips, Henry Bayard Differential calculus
Applier'
Physic
PLEASE
DO NOT REMOVE
THIS
CARDS OR aiPS FROM

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Differential Calculus

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Digitized by

JOHN WILEY & SONS,

162 pages. $1.60 net.

V 194 pages. Y $1.75 ne f.

and Integral Calculus.

J-^i^ ,oA^ ^^j^ cyK

NEW YORK JOHN WILEY & SONS,

CHAPMAN & HALL,

have continued the

Analytic Geometry, wherein a few cen-

ant, a greater proportion of time

exercises as occur in the text,

Derivative and Differential

Maxima and Minima

Theorem and Indeterminate Forms

X. Series and Approximations

if values of y are determined by values

Thus, U y = 1 x^, y determines a value of y.

a function of x; for a value of

Similarly, the area of a circle

radius; for, the radius being given, the area is

not necessary that only one value of the function

correspond to a value of the variable.

satisfy the equation

each value of x correspond two

determined when values are assigned

values being given to x and

a function of x and y; for, 2 is determined.

do not denote properties of the funcexpressed.

tion but of the

rendered explicit by solving.

For example, the above equaX

one represented by an algebraic

expression which cannot be reduced to rational form.

determined are called

variables are taken as independent

and which as de-

a symbol for Vx^

definite (though perhaps

consider several functions in the

discussion, they are distinguished

(x), /' (x),

of X, g of x) represent (presumably) different functions of x.

of a function should be considered as

representing an operation to be performed on the variable or

f{y+l) = V(y +1)2+1 =

+ xy - y\ + 1 2 - 22 = -1. + + ^^ 22 + (-3)2 + 1 = 14.

find / (y, x).

independent variables docs the volume of a right depend?

numbers can be taken as independent variables?

said to be the limit of the variable.

the volume of a cone or sphere.

limit a function of that variable

may approach a limit.

shall express that

a variable x approaches a limit a by

The symbol = thus means "approaches

Let / {x) approach the limit A as x approaches a; this expressed by lim/(x) = A,

Find the value of

approaches zero, the function given approaches

sin d :r cos 9=0 1

In finding the limits of funcof certain simple properties that

tions frequent use