Evolution of Routing Techniques

Evolution of Routing Techniques
A Presentation by
Tusharadri Sarkar
Tusharadri Sarkar
December 7, 2009
AGENDA
Delivery, Forwarding, Routing IP and Mask Routing Table Unicast Routing Protocols
Tusharadri Sarkar
December 7, 2009
Some Basic Questions
What is routing? Why is routing required? At which layer is routing done? How does a router work?
Tusharadri Sarkar
December 7, 2009
What is routing?
Routing is the process of selecting a path in a
network along which the packets shall be sent to a destination

Routing consists of
A Router A set of routing protocols A routing information base (RIB) One or more routing algorithms
Tusharadri Sarkar
December 7, 2009
Why is routing required?

For practical limitation of physical
connections
For efficiently managing the network traffic For efficient usage of network resources For catering to different types of services For congestion control
5 Tusharadri Sarkar December 7, 2009
At which layer is routing done?

Generally routing is done at network layer Multilayer layer routing and Cross layer routing is also
prevalent nowadays Firewalls are often integrated with routers

APPLICATION LAYER PRESENTATION LAYER SESSION LAYER TRANSPORT LAYER NETWORK LAYER DATA LAYER PHYSICAL LAYER 6 Tusharadri Sarkar
APPLICATION LAYER SOCKET LAYER ROUTING LAYER LINK LAYER DEVICE DRIVERs
December 7, 2009
Router, Switch and Hub

The basic difference is varying intelligence
HUB SWITCH ROUTER

7 Tusharadri Sarkar
Least expensive and complicated. No intelligence Just directs incoming packets from one port to other
More expensive and intelligent Knows which port is carrying the traffic from which host/interface
Most expensive and intelligent, Most complicated Learns about its neighboring conditions, manipulates data traffic
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How does a router work?

One Two Three
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Packet arrives at the router for delivery Router reads destination IP address Router searches Routing Table Determines next hop of the packet
Router forwards the packet to next hop Packet is said to be routed
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Delivery
The network layer supervises the
handling of packets by the underlying physical network

Every packet undergoes at least one
Direct Delivery and one or more Indirect Delivery
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Direct and Indirect Delivery

Source Destination Source Direct Indirect
Direct
Direct To rest of Network

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Destination
December 7, 2009
Logical addressing: IP and MASK

Internet Protocol address is a logical and global
addressing scheme It uniquely defines the connection of a device/network to the Internet IPv4: 32 bit addressing scheme Address space: 232 = 4294967296 Notations: Dotted Decimal: 117.149.29.2 Notations: Binary: 01110101 1001010 00011101 00000010
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Tusharadri Sarkar

Classful addressing
Classes
1st 0 10 110 1110 1111
2nd
3rd
4th
1st 0-127 128-191 192-223 224-239 240-255
2nd
3rd
4th
Class A Class B Class C Class D Class E Class A B C D E

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No. of Blocks 128 16,384 2,097,152 1 1
Block Size 16,777,216 65,536 256 268,435,456 268,435,456
Application Unicast Unicast Unicast Multicast Reserved

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Tusharadri Sarkar

Mask: A 32 bit number made of n contiguous 1s
followed by (32-n) contiguous 0s (n<32) Default masks for Classful addressing:

Class A B C Binary 11111111 00000000 00000000 00000000 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000 11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000 Dotted Decimal 255.0.0.0 255.255.0.0 255.255.255.0 CIDR /8 /16 /24
Given an IP and its mask, one can calculate: First Address Last Address Range of Addresses

Classless addressing: No more classes but a
block of addresses are assigned, provided the following restrictions are strictly followed
The addresses in the block must be contiguous The number of addresses must be a power of 2 The first address must be evenly divisible by the total
number of addresses allocated
Mask is a better way to define a block An example: Given an IP address
205.16.37.39/28 What are the first, last and the total number of addresses assigned?

Binary equivalent of mask /28:
11111111 11111111 11111111 11110000 (255.255.255.240)
Binary equivalent of the address:

11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111 (205.16.37.39)
First address: Set the right most 4 bits to 0:

11001101 00010000 00100101 0010000 (205.16.37.32)
Last address: Set the right most 4 bits to 1:

11001101 00010000 00100101 00101111 (205.16.37.47)
Number of addresses: 232-n = 24 =16 So, in general a address in classless addressing is
mentioned as: x.y.z.t/n

Network Address
When a organization is allocated a block of addresses,
normally (not always) the first address is treated as the network address It is not assigned to any device, it defines the organization itself to the rest of the world
REST of the WORLD Network Address: 205.16.37.32
205.16.39.33/28
All packets with receiver address 205.16.37.32 to 205.16.37.47 are routed to x.y.z.t/n 205.16.37.32/28
205.16.39.47/28
December 7, 2009
Routing Table
A host or a router maintains a routing table with
an entry for each specific destination The table can be STATIC or DYNAMIC Static Routing Table:
Contains information entered manually by the
administrator at the time of creation Cannot be modified automatically when there is any change in the Internet
Dynamic Routing Table: Capable of updating the table with the help of routing protocols and algorithms automatically Only option for managing any large network of today
Routing Table
Mask Network Interface Next-hop address Interface Flags Reference Count Use
Mask: Defines the mask applied to that entry Network Address: Defines the network address to
which the packet is finally delivered. In host specific routing, this is the destination host address Next Hop Address: Defines the address of the hop for the packet Interface: Shows the name of the interfaces
Routing Table
FLAGS: Defines up to five flags
U (Up): Router is up and running G (Gateway): Destination is in another network H (Host-specific): Network address is host-specific address.
Otherwise the network address is the destination address D (Added by redirection): Routing info is added to host routing table by redirection message from ICMP M (Modified by redirection): Routing info for destination is modified to host routing table by redirection message from ICMP
Reference Count: Defines number of users at this
route at the moment Use: Defines number of packets transmitted through the router for a destination
A quick look at a system routing table
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Network Configuration of a System form the Routing Table

A UNIX server gives the following result with netstat
and ifconfig command

$ netstat nr Kernel IP routing table
Destination 153.18.16.0 127.0.0.0 0.0.0.0

$ ifconfig eth0
Gateway 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 153.18.31.254
Mask
Flags
Iface eth0 lo eth0
255.255.240.0 U 255.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 U UG
Eth0 Link encap:Ethernet Hwaddr 00:B0:D0:DF:09:5D Inet addr: 153.18.17.11 Bcast: 153.18.31.255 Mask:255.255.240.0
What is the network configuration of the server?

Network Configuration from the Routing Table

00:B0:D0:DF:09:5D eth0
Default Router
153.18.16.0/20 Rest of the Internet
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Forwarding
It means placing the packet in its route to its
destination Requires a host or a router to have a routing table When the host has a packet to send or the router has received a packet, it looks up this routing table to determine route to the final destination Routing techniques caters to optimizing this table as maintain a full-fledged look-up table is impossible to maintain
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Forwarding Techniques
Next-hop method Vs Route Method
Routing tables based on routing Destination Host B Destination Host B Destination Host B Route R1, R2, host B Route R2, host B Route Host B
For A For R1 For R2
Routing tables based on Next-hop Destination Host B Destination Host B Destination Host B Route R1 Route R2 Route Host B
Host A
R1
R2 Host B
N1
N2
N3
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Network-Specific method Vs Host Specific method
Routing table for host S based on host-specific method Destination A B C D Next Hop R1 R1 R1 R1 Destination N2 Next Hop R1 Routing table for host S based on network-specific method
System R1 N1 N2
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Default Method: Using a default router
Destination N2 Any other Next Hop R2 R1 Routing table for host A
Host A N1 Default Router R1

R2
N2
Rest of the Internet

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Forwarding Process
In classless addressing, at least 4 columns are required The routing table is searched based on the network address
and mask
Forwarding Module
Extract Destination Address Search Table
Mask
Network Address
Next-hop Address
Interface
Next hop address and interface no. To ARP

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Managing Routing Table in Classless Addressing

Address aggregation: Blocks of addresses of different
interface and mask are aggregated into one single block in routing table Several levels of aggregation are possible
Org 1 Org 2 Org 3 Org 4

28
140.24.7.0/26
m0 m1 m4 m0 m1
140.24.7.64/26
140.24.7.128/26 140.24.7.192/26
m2
R1
m3
R2
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Tusharadri Sarkar
Managing Routing Table in Classless Addressing

Address aggregation: Routing tables for router R1
and router R2
For R2, any packet with destination addresses 140.24.7.0 to
140.24.7.255 are sent to interface m0 regardless of any of the organizations

Mask /26 /26 /26 /26 /0 NA 140.24.7.0 140.24.7.64 140.24.7.128 140.24.7.192 0.0.0.0 NHA Default Iface m0 m1 m2 m3 m4 Mask NA /24 /0 0.0.0.0 NHA Default Iface m0 m1 140.24.7.0
Routing table for R1


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Longest Mask Matching

What happens if Org. 4 is not geographically close to the other
3 Orgs? Can we still use Address Aggregation and assign the block 140.24.7.192/26 to Org. 4?
140.24.7.0/26
m0 m0 m1 m3
m2 m1
Org 1
140.24.7.64/26
R2
m2
m2
Org 2
140.24.7.128/26
R1
Org 4
R3
m1 m0
Org 3
140.24.7.192/26
December 7, 2009
Longest Mask Matching

Answer: YES Reason: LONGEST MASK MATCHING The Routing Table is sorted from the longest mask to the
shortest mask
Mask
/26 /26 /26 /0
NA
140.24.7.0 140.24.7.64 140.24.7.128 0.0.0.0
NHA
Default
Iface
m0 m1 m2 m3
Mask /26 /24

/0
NA
140.24.7.192 140.24.7.0 0.0.0.0
NHA
Default
Iface
m1 m0 m2

Mask
/26 /0

NA
140.24.7.192 0.0.0.0
NHA
Default
Iface
m0 m2
December 7, 2009
Hierarchical Routing
Hierarchical routing can greatly minimize the size of
the routing tables For example, a regional ISP is granted a 16,384 (214) addresses starting from 120.14.64.0/18 It is divided in to 4 sub-blocks each of size 4096 for 3 local ISPs. For them the mask is /20 1st local ISP divides its assigns sub-blocks into 8 smaller blocks for small ISPs. For them the mask becomes /23 Each small ISPs divides them into 128 sub-blocks for households. For them the mask becomes /30, and so on
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Hierarchical Routing
The logical representation is displayed here
120.14.64.0/30 128 Each ISP 3.1
120.14.64.0/23 512 ISP 2.1 512 120.14.78.0/23
Total 4096 120.14.64.0/20
120.14.78.0/30 128 Each ISP 3.8
120.14.64.0/18 ISP 1 Total 16,384
Total 4096 120.14.96.0/22 Total 4 Large Orgs. 120.14.112.0/24 Total 16 Small Orgs.
120.14.80.0/20 ISP 2.2
120.14.96.0/20 Total 4096
ISP 2.3
120.14.112.0/20
Total 4096
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Geographical Routing
The same concept of hierarchical routing can be
extended in geographical routing To decrease the size of the routing tables further, segregation is done in geographical level as well For example, the entire address space is divided into few large blocks One block is assigned to North America, one to Asia, one to Africa, one to Europe and so on So, for all the routers of the ISPs outside Europe, every router will have one and only entry for all the addresses assigned to Europe
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Tusharadri Sarkar
December 7, 2009
Unicast Routing Protocols

Routing protocols are needed to maintain and
update dynamic routing tables A routing protocols is a combination of set of rules (algorithms) and procedures Unicast routing protocols applies where each incoming packet has to be delivered to one and only one destination Router decides the next hope of a packet in a Autonomous System based on Optimization 3 most popular and basic Unicast Routing Protocols are: RIP (Distance Vector routing), OSPF (Path Vector routing) and BGP (Link State routing)
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Autonomous Systems
An Autonomous System or AS is group of
networks and routers under the authority of a single administration Routing inside AS : Intra-domain routing Routing between AS : Inter-domain routing
AS1 AS2
AS3
AS4
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Routing Protocols Scope

Routing Protocols Intradomain Routing Distance Vector (RIP) Link State (OSPF) Interdomain Routing Path Vector (BGP)
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Optimization
The router must always choose the optimum path
between two networks for the packets There is a cost associated with each packet for passing through a network, called Metric The metric is different depending on the routing protocols. For example: In RIP, the hop count is used as the metric In OSPF, the administrator can assign a cost for network based on the type of service required In BGP, the administrator can set the cost based on the policy of the network
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Distance Vector Routing

In DVR, the least cost route between any two nodes
is the route with minimum distance Each node maintains a vector (table) of minimum distance to every node known There are three steps involved: Initialization: At the beginning, each node knows the distance to its immediate neighbors Sharing: Periodically or in triggered time, the nodes share their vectors with other nodes Updating: Based on the shared info, nodes updates their vectors about path to indirectly connected nodes
DVR: Initialization
To A B C D E Cost Next 0 5 2 3 _ _ _ _
A 2
5 4 C 3 4
To A Cost Next 2 4 0 4 _ _ _ _
To
Cost Next 5 0 4 3 _ _ _ _
A B C D E
Cost Next 3 0
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Table of A To A B C D E
40
3
A B
Table of B To Cost Next 3 4 0 _ Table of E

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_ _
D
_
B C D E
C D E
Table of D
Table of C
DVR: Sharing and Updating

Each node will share its routing table on periodic
basis or triggered condition Full routing table needed not be shared. In our scenario, only column 1 and column 2 will be shared. Next Hop Address (column 3) will be calculated based on that Receiving a partial table from its neighbor, a node calculates a temporary updated table Then each row of the old and new table are compared based on the next node entry (col. 3)
If next node entry is different, the row with smaller cost is
chosen. If there is a tie, old entry is kept If next node entry is same, the new entry is chosen
DVR: Updating Table for A

To A B C D E Cost 2 4 0 To A B C D E Cost Next 4 6 2 C C C C C To A B C D E
To A B C D E Cost 0 5 2 3 Next _ _ _ _ C
Cost Next 0 5 2 3 _ _ _ _
Compare
Table Received from C
Modified Table of A
Old Table of A
New Table of A
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DVR: The Finalized Tables

To A B C D E Cost Next 0 5 2 3 _ _ _ _ C
A 2
5 4 C 3
To A Cost Next 2 4 0 5 4 _ _ _ A _
To
Cost 5 0 4 8 3
Next _ _ _ A _
A B C D E
Table of A To A B C D E
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Table of B To A B Cost Next 6 3 4 9 0 C _ _ C _
Cost Next 3 8 5 0 9 _ A A _ A
B C D E
C D E
Table of D
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Table of E
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Table of C
DVR: Two Node Loop Instability

X 2 _ Before Failure X 6 4 A X 10 B X 4 14 A
B
After B receives update from A
X _ After Failure
X 6 4
. . .
X _
Finally After A receives update from B

44
10
X 6
X _
A
4
A
4
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DVR: Preventing Instability

Defining INFINITY: Infinity should be defined as a
smaller number say, 100. In RIP Infinity is often defined as 16. So, the network cant have more than 15 hops anywhere. Split Horizon: Each node sends only part of its table through each interface. In our case, B would not advertize its part of the table to A which contains information about X (i.e. the route of X is through A, so A already knows). Split Horizon & Poison Reverse: While sharing its table with A, B will add a tag to the route information of X (i.e. I know this route comes from you. Please do not use this value).
Routing Information Protocol

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is an
implementation of Distance Vector Algorithm with the following considerations: 1. In an autonomous system, we are dealing with routers and networks (links). Only routers have routing tables, networks not 2. The destination in a routing table is a network always 3. The metric used by RIP is the no of hops needed to reach the destination 4. Infinity is defined as 16 5. The next-node column defines the address of the router to which packet is to be sent
Link State Routing

Domain Topology: Here, each node in the domain has
an entire topology of the domain Link State: For each node, the number of other links and nodes, their connectivity type, cost (metric) and the condition of the links (Up or Down) constitutes link state Shortest Path Tree: Based on the link states, a node can use Dijkstras Algorithm to create a Shortest Path Tree which can used as the routing table There are four sets of operations required Creation of Link State Packets (LSPs) Flooding of LSPs Formation of shortest path tree Calculation of routing based on the tree
Link State Routing:
Initial Condition:
A
State of Links for A
B
5 2
5 2
2
A
3
4 C
4
State of Links for C
5 4
B
3
State of Links for B
3
State of Links for D
3
4 3
D
State of Links for E
December 7, 2009
Link State Routing:

Dijkstras Algorithm: Formation of Shortest Path Tree
START
Set root to local node and move it to tentative list
Tentative list is empty?
YES STOP NO
Among nodes in tentative list, move the ones with shortest path to permanent list Add each unprocessed neighbor of last moved node to tentative list if it is not there already. If neighbor is in tentative list with larger cumulative cost, replace with new one
Link State Routing:
Creation of Shortest Path Tree for node A:

1. Set root to A and move A to tentative list A
Root
Permanent List: Empty

Tentative List: A(0)

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Link State Routing:

2. Move A to permanent List. Add B, C, D to tentative list
Root
2 3 D
Permanent List: A(0)

Tentative List: B(5), C(2), D(3)

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Link State Routing:

3. Move C to permanent List. Add E tentative list
Root
B 5
2 3 D
C E 6
Permanent List: A(0), C(2)

Tentative List: B(5), D(3), E(6)

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Link State Routing:

4. Move D to permanent List.
Root
B B 5
2 3 D
C E 6
Permanent List: A(0), C(2), D(3)

Tentative List: B(5), E(6)

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Link State Routing:

5. Move B to permanent List.
Root
B B 5
2 3 D
C E 6
Permanent List: A(0), B(5), C(2), D(3)

Tentative List: E(6)

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Link State Routing:

6. Move E to permanent List.
Root
B B 5
2 3 D
C E 6
Permanent List: A(0), B(5), C(2), D(3), E(6)

Tentative List: Empty

December 7, 2009
Link State Routing:

Calculation of Routing Table from Shortest Path Tree
Node A B C D E
Cost 0 5 2 3 6
Next _ _ _ _ C
Routing table for node A

We can see that the routing table of A as deduced by Link State Routing is the same as Distance Vector Routing In real scenario, the routing table is determined by the cost assigned to each node by the administrator
December 7, 2009
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

OSPF is based on Link State Routing Protocol Area: A collection of networks, hosts and routers all
contained within an autonomous system Area Border Routers: Summarizes all the information about an area and shares it across Backbone: A special area among all areas in an AS which all other areas must be connected to. The backbone always has area code 0 Backbone Routers: Routers in a backbone. A backbone router can also be area border router Virtual Link: If the connection between an area and backbone is broken the administrator can create an alternate connection between routers
57
OSPF: Implementation
net net net net Area 2 net
net Area 1 ABR
net ABR
net
net
BR
net AS BR
BR
Area 0 (Backbone)
Autonomous System (AS)

Path Vector Routing

Why DVR and LSR are not suitable for inter-domain
routing? Reason: Scalability DVR becomes instable and intractable for a large number of hops (even more than 16) LSR needs a huge amount of resource to calculate its shortest paths. It also causes heavy traffic in the network because of flooding of LSP How path vector routing eliminates them? Well, it is simply derived from DVR, but does not assign hop count as the metric/cost...
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December 7, 2009
Path Vector Routing

Speaker node: In path vector routing, a special
node acts on behalf on the entire AS. It summarizes all the information of that AS, creates a routing table and advertizes it to other ASs What is advertized? Not the metrics but the paths in an AS Policy: Every AS will have a well defined policy Paths are decided upon by the speaker nodes by consulting the policies in neighboring ASs Reason: Different ASs will have different policies & priorities associated with them
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Path Vector Routing

Initialization: At the beginning each SN knows only
about all other nodes inside its AS Sharing: Just as in DVR, the speaker nodes will then share their tables with immediate neighbors periodically or on trigger Updating: On receiving a two column table from neighbor, a speaker node will update its table by adding the nodes not present in its routing table as well as adding its own AS and other ASs that sent the table
Loop Prevention Policy Routing Optimum Path
Path Vector Routing

Dest. A1 A2 A3 A4 A5
A2 A4 A5
Path AS1 AS1 AS1 AS1 AS1

A3
Table of A1 AS1 AS3
Table of C1
Dest. C1 C2 C3
C2
Path AS3 AS3 AS3
Dest.
C3
Path AS4 AS4 AS4 AS4 Table of D1
D1 D2 D3 D4
A1
AS2
B3
C1
Dest. B1 B2 B3 B4
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Path AS2 AS2 AS2 AS2 Table of B1
AS4
D1
D2 D3
D4
B1
B2
B4
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December 7, 2009
Path Vector Routing

Stabilized tables of all AS after update:
Dest A1 A5 B1 B4 C1 C3 D1 D4 Path AS1 AS1 AS1-AS2 AS1-AS2 AS1-AS3 AS1-AS3 AS1-AS2-AS4 AS1-AS2-AS4 Dest A1 A5 B1 B4 C1 C3 D1 D4 Path AS2-AS1 AS2-AS1 AS2 AS2 AS2-AS3 AS2-AS3 AS2-AS3-AS4 AS2-AS3-AS4 Dest A1 A5 B1 B4 C1 C3 D1 D4 Path AS3-AS1 AS3-AS1 AS3-AS2 AS3-AS2 AS3 AS3 AS3-AS4 AS3-AS4 Dest A1 A5 B1 B4 C1 C3 D1 D4 Path AS4-AS3-AS1 AS4-AS3-AS1 AS4-AS3-AS2 AS4-AS3-AS2 AS4-AS3 AS4-AS3 AS4 AS4
Table of A1
Table of B1
Table of C1
Table of D1
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Path Vector Routing

Some important features of updating: Loop Prevention: The instability of DVR is avoided in
PVR; upon receiving a message the router checks to see if its AS is in the path Policy Routing: Upon receiving a message a router checks the path with policy. If an AS in the path is against policy it can ignore that Optimum path: Router find the path that fits the organization best. A path from AS4 to AS1 can either be AS4->AS3->AS2->AS1 or AS4->AS3->AS1. Here we will choose the path with less number of ASs involved
This is not a general rule. There are complex criteria which
are always involved in real scenario

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

BGP was introduced in 1989 Some features of BGP: Types of AS Stub AS: An AS which is connected to another AS. A
stub is either a source or a sink Multihomed AS: An AS which is connected to more than one AS, but it is only a sink or source. Example: A large corporation which is connected to more than one regional or national ASs Transit AS: A multihomed AS that allows flow of data traffic through it. Example: All national and international ISPs

Some features of BGP: Path Attributes Well known attribute: Every BGP router must recognize Well known mandatory attribute: It must appear in the description of a route; e.g. origin, next-hop Well known discretionary attribute: It must be recognized but need not be included always in update Optional Attribute: Need not be recognized by all BGP
routers
Optional transitive attribute: It must be passed to the next router
by the router that has not implemented it Optional non-transitive attribute: It must be discarded if the receiving router has not implemented it

Some features of BGP: BGP Sessions: A BGP session is a connection setup
between two BGP routers for the sake of exchanging router information A session in BGP is a connection at the TCP level.
External BGP Session (E-BGP): Takes place when two speaker
nodes exchange routing information Internal BGP Session (I-BGP): Takes place when a speaker node collects information from other nodes in the its own As
AS1
A2 A4
AS3
C2 C3
A3 A5
A1
C1
December 7, 2009
Reference
Data Communications and Networking
Behrouz A. Forouzen
68
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December 7, 2009
Thank You
69
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December 7, 2009

Evolution of Routing Techniques

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Evolution of Routing Techniques

Some Basic Questions

network along which the packets shall be sent to a destination

Why is routing required?

At which layer is routing done?

prevalent nowadays Firewalls are often integrated with routers

Router, Switch and Hub

HUB SWITCH ROUTER

How does a router work?

Router forwards the packet to next hop Packet is said to be routed

handling of packets by the underlying physical network

Direct Delivery and one or more Indirect Delivery

Direct and Indirect Delivery

Direct To rest of Network

Logical addressing: IP and MASK

Logical addressing: IP and MASK

1st 0 10 110 1110 1111

1st 0-127 128-191 192-223 224-239 240-255

Class A Class B Class C Class D Class E Class A B C D E

No. of Blocks 128 16,384 2,097,152 1 1

Block Size 16,777,216 65,536 256 268,435,456 268,435,456

Application Unicast Unicast Unicast Multicast Reserved

Logical addressing: IP and MASK

followed by (32-n) contiguous 0s (n<32) Default masks for Classful addressing:

Logical addressing: IP and MASK

number of addresses allocated

Mask is a better way to define a block An example: Given an IP address

Logical addressing: IP and MASK

Binary equivalent of the address:

First address: Set the right most 4 bits to 0:

Last address: Set the right most 4 bits to 1:

Number of addresses: 232-n = 24 =16 So, in general a address in classless addressing is

mentioned as: x.y.z.t/n

Reference Count: Defines number of users at this

A quick look at a system routing table

Network Configuration of a System form the Routing Table

and ifconfig command

Destination 153.18.16.0 127.0.0.0 0.0.0.0

Gateway 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 153.18.31.254

Iface eth0 lo eth0

255.255.240.0 U 255.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 U UG

What is the network configuration of the server?

Network Configuration from the Routing Table

153.18.16.0/20 Rest of the Internet

For A For R1 For R2

Host A N1 Default Router R1

Rest of the Internet

Next hop address and interface no. To ARP

Managing Routing Table in Classless Addressing

Org 1 Org 2 Org 3 Org 4

Managing Routing Table in Classless Addressing

140.24.7.255 are sent to interface m0 regardless of any of the organizations

Routing table for R1

Routing table for R2

Longest Mask Matching

Longest Mask Matching

Mask /26 /24

Routing table for R1

Routing table for R2

Routing table for R3

120.14.64.0/30 128 Each ISP 3.1

120.14.64.0/23 512 ISP 2.1 512 120.14.78.0/23

Total 4096 120.14.64.0/20

120.14.78.0/30 128 Each ISP 3.8