Afghanistan has long been used as a battleground for strategic wars by larger external powers.

This is in part due to its geographic position between the Middle East, Central Asia and South Asia. In addition, the fragmented and polarised nature of Afghan society, which is made up of many different ethnic groups, has lead to its multiple internal struggles which have gained support from the different external powers. The almost continuous devastation caused to the country for over the past three decades is a testimony to the strength and endurance of its people and the groups who work towards rebuilding their country.

The Rise and Fall of Communism and the Soviet War

In 1978 the Saur Revolution overthrew the existing government and implemented a Socialist agenda. Led by Hafizullah Amin and the military of the Khalq party, the agenda included a move to state atheism, land reforms and declared the equality of the sexes. Reigning President Mohammad Daoud Khan, along with 17 other members of his family, was overthrown and killed just hours after the start of the coup, whilst many members of the traditional elite, the religious establishment and the intelligentsia were also imprisoned, tortured or killed. The revolutionaries went on to free prominent figures of the Khalq party, and Noor Mohammad Taraki was chosen as leader and President. Following this, the Mujahedeen, loosely-aligned opposition forces made up of groups of mostly Pashtun tribesmen, began attacks aimed at overthrowing the Marxist-Leninist government, which was also under attack from separate attacks from other leftwing groups who disagreed with President Taraki. The ruling party in turn requested the support of the Soviet Union in fighting the Mujahedeen resistance, removing the other left-wing opposition and supporting the failing Afghan army. There was an initial, massive deployment of 100,000 Red Army troops into Afghanistan. The US saw this as a prime opportunity to weaken the Soviet Union as part of its Cold War strategy, and they began to provide training and arms to the Mujahedeen resistance groups, along with extra support from other countries such as Saudi Arabia (who had their own agenda) and the UK. There are many varied reports that the financial and military assistance from these external powers ranged from $10 to $40 billion over the nine-year conflict. It officially ended in 1989 with the withdrawal of the Soviet forces. The devastation caused by the conflict left an estimated two million people dead and 1.5 million people disabled, in part due to the massive city carpet-bombing campaigns and the large areas of land mines that still exist today. One third of the countrys pre-war population also fled into neighbouring Pakistan, Iran and further afield, and two million people were internally displaced.

image by US Army, published under the Creative Commons License

By 1992 the Communist government had collapsed and the Peshawar Accord declared Afghanistan to be the Islamic State of Afghanistan. However, many groups refused to acknowledge the new government and the country soon fell into civil war that lasted throughout the 1990s. Working government departments, the police, justice systems and education systems did not have time to reform after the Soviet War and much of the country descended into lawlessness. This led to areas being controlled by different armed factions who in turn were supported by governments and groups in Saudi Arabia, Iran, Pakistan and the US. In the early 1990s in Kandahar, a militia group called the Taliban, began to emerge as a political and religious force, led by Mohammed Omar and with the support of many Afghan refugees from Pakistan, and who supposedly opposed the tyrannical rule of the local governor and began to install greater order into the area. The group gained increasing recognition, power and support and began to take control of much of southern and central Afghanistan.

Implementation of an Islamic state

The Taliban was able to oust the existing, weakened government and take over Kabul in September 1996, establishing the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. Many of the Talibans leaders followed a fundamentalist version of Deobandi and Wahhabi Islam and a strict interpretation of Afghan social and cultural norms. They enforced the most extreme version of Sharia law ever encountered in the modern Islamic world. The Taliban became notorious internationally for its

treatment of women, who had (amongst other things) to wear the burqa (a full face and body covering); were not allowed outside the home without a related male chaperone and were not permitted to work or to be schooled after the age of eight. In some areas of Afghanistan music, dance and other forms of entertainment were also banned and public beatings and executions occurred for those who disobeyed the laws enforced by their police or anyone seen as a political dissident. Many Pakistani nationals joined the Taliban to fight against the United Fronts forces and Osama bin Laden channelled more money into the Taliban, citing them as the only true Islamic state. Bin Laden had been involved in the Soviet War, providing money to different militia groups to fight the Soviet forces. He returned to Afghanistan in 1996 after having to flee Sudan and Saudi Arabia, and allegedly used the country as a base to plan and finance attacks internationally.

image by Dfid, published under the Creative Commons License

At the same time, the United Front, also known as the Northern Alliance, led byAhmad Massoud, fought back against the Taliban stronghold. Western support and financial assistance in the 1990s had dramatically decreased after the end of the Cold War. But with the increase in the number of attacks on US embassies internationally from Islamist terrorist groups, attention began to increase once again with the US attacking suspected bases belonging to bin Laden in Afghanistan in 1998, along with the UN also ordering increasing sanctions on the Taliban. Massoud appealed to the European Parliament in early 2001 for help and warned that there was information about a large-scale attack

on US soil. However, he was killed by a suicide bomb attack on 9 September 2001, two days before the attacks on the Twin Towers that shook the world.

September 11th and the US War of Terror

In the aftermath of the World Trade Center attacks the US government quickly identified Osama bin Laden as responsible and claimed that the Taliban stronghold was harbouring him and refusing to hand him over. They launched a series of aerial attacks on supposed al-Qaida bases under Taliban control and began militarily and financially supporting the Northern Alliance to bring down the Taliban. The Taliban government in Kabul collapsed by December 2001, with many of the Taliban forces moving to the south and along the contested border with Pakistan. Hamid Karzai was installed as the President of the interim government in 2001 and other coalition forces joined the US and UK fight against insurgency attacks in Afghanistan, namely France, German and Italy supplying the most troops. In 2004 the first Presidential elections were held, with Karzi winning 53 per cent of the votes, but with an extremely low voter turnout amid fears of election violence. However, since 2006 there has been an increase in the levels of insurgency led by the Taliban who used mainly improvised explosives and suicide bomb attacks, a UN report has suggested that most of the civilian casualties in Afghanistan are the result of Taliban attacks. The coalition military occupation is now in its tenth year, with approximately 154,000 troops currently stationed there, and an estimated 10,000 people were killed in 2010 alone.

image by US Army, published under the Creative Commons License

The Obama administration pushed towards a final troop surge at the end of 2010, with an extra 30,000 US troops. The US has given a date of July 2011 when they want to start withdrawing troops from Afghanistan and to shift control to Afghan security forces by 2014. However, training of the forces and police has proved extremely difficult with large numbers of suicide bomb attacks at recruitment centres, a drop-out rate of 25 per cent and a high level of drug addiction amongst troops.

Destruction of war
Afghanistan is struggling to rebuild itself amidst the ongoing war despite the billions of dollars of aid that have been pumped into the country. Life expectancy is 44 years, compared to an average of 53 years for other low-income countries worldwide. The government is failing to extend its control or enter into negotiations with the Taliban, while the Taliban in turn refuse to enter any negotiations until all foreign troops leave the country. Much of the Taliban and its leaders are based across the border in Pakistan, where British and US troops cannot be seen to be overtly attacking or occupying, but have made frequent use of drone attacks, which are carried out by unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). The opium trade has increased massively since 2001 and the occupying forces are unable to prevent it, with some of the proceeds allegedly going to members of the Kazai government. Other forms of corruption remain rife in all sectors of society and some areas remain outside of government control.

image by Defense Images, published under the Creative Commons License.

In July 2010 Wikileaks released a huge cache of 90,000 secret military files related to Afghanistan. Revealing how the coalition forces had killed hundreds of civilians in unreported incidents, it also recorded the surge in Taliban attacks and the fear of support to the Taliban from neighbouring Iran and Pakistan. Throughout spring 2011, the Taliban launched a major offensive, targeting government officials and buildings. The attacks took place in Kandahar with the Taliban claiming to take over the city. This inflamed insurgency, fueled by the recent killing of Osama Bin Laden demonstrates how the Afghan government and Western forces are tilting at windmills of extremists groups, trapping the country in a spiral of violence. There is no immediate end in sight to the Afghanistan conflict, and its complex issues and lack of stable governance mean that new conflicts will continue to rise up. However, there is a small but steady increase in the number of groups working towards building civil society on a local level and mediating conflicts. The stance on development in Afghanistan is shifting slightly, with more awareness being given to locally-led projects as opposed to donor-led projects. After more than three decades of conflict the fatigue of war felt by its people is strong, and there is a definite need for a chance of a more tolerable situation in a country where many generations have only known war.

Landlocked and mountainous, Afghanistan has suffered from such chronic instability and conflict during its modern history that its economy and infrastructure are in ruins, and many of its people are refugees. Since the fall of the Taliban administration in 2001, adherents of the hard-line Islamic movement have re-grouped. It is now a resurgent force, particularly in the south and east, and the Afghan government has struggled to extend its authority beyond the capital and to forge national unity. Its strategic position sandwiched between the Middle East, Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent along the ancient "Silk Route" means that Afghanistan has long been fought over - despite its rugged and forbidding terrain.

Great Game

Afghanistan has drawn in military forces from several parts of the world

It was at the centre of the so-called "Great Game" in the 19th century when Imperial Russia and the British Empire in India vied for influence. And it became a key Cold War battleground after thousands of Soviet troops intervened in 1979 to prop up a pro-communist regime, leading

to a major confrontation that drew in the US and Afghanistan's neighbours. But the outside world eventually lost interest after the withdrawal of Soviet forces, while the country's protracted civil war dragged on.
Continue reading the main story

At a glance
Afghanistan has been torn by conflict for decades Nato-led foreign combat troops are due to withdraw in 2014 The Taliban - who were ousted by a US-led invasion - want to restore strict Islamic rule and have been making a come-back Country profiles compiled by BBC Monitoring

The emergence of the Taliban - originally a group of Islamic scholars brought at least a measure of stability after nearly two decades of conflict. But their extreme version of Islam attracted widespread criticism. The Taliban - drawn from the largest ethnic group, the Pashtuns - were opposed by an alliance of factions drawn mainly from Afghanistan's other communities and based in the north. In control of about 90% of Afghanistan until late 2001, the Taliban were recognised as the legitimate government by only three countries. They were at loggerheads with the international community over the presence on their soil of Osama bin Laden, who ordered the bombing of US embassies in Africa in 1998 and the attacks in the US on 11 September 2001. After the Taliban's refusal to hand over Bin Laden, the US initiated aerial attacks in October 2001, paving the way for opposition groups to drive them from power and heralding a long-term, Nato-led military presence. Predictions of the Taliban's demise after the adoption of a new constitution in 2004 proved to be premature - the extremist group came back with a vengeance and violence increased.

Military withdrawal
Amid a rising death toll and the increasing unpopularity of the conflict among Western voters, pressure grew for a withdrawal of foreign forces.

In 2012, the 11th year of the conflict, Nato backed plans to hand over combat duties to Afghan forces by mid-2013. Some 130,000 Nato-led combat troops will leave Afghanistan by December 2014. The alliance says it is committed to a long-term strategic relationship with Afghanistan beyond that date. Foreign military trainers will stay on. Meanwhile, tentative steps towards a negotiated peace agreement were made in 2012, when the Taliban announced they had agreed to open an office in Dubai for talks with US officials.

Drugs trade
Afghanistan's economy depends heavily on the drugs trade. The country supplies over 90% of the world's opium, the raw ingredient of heroin. International bodies and governments say the drugs trade is helping to fuel the Taliban insurgency, which is estimated to receive up to US$100m a year from the trade. The UN Office on Drugs and Crime has called on Afghanistan to target the major traffickers and corrupt government officials, who it says operate with impunity.

Afghans have resolutely defended their independence from foreign influence

Peace Agreements in Central Asia Afghanistan:

Peshawar Accord Afghan Peace Accord (Islamabad Accord) 1993

Year Download
afgan2.pdf afgan1.pdf

See also: INCORE's Country Guide to Afghanistan.

Russia: 1996-1997
Agreement on a Cease-fire, the Cessation of Military Activities, and on Measures for a Settlement of the Armed Conflict on the Territory of the Chechen Republic Khasavyourt Joint Declaration and Principles for Mutual Relations Protocol of the Meeting of the Commissions on the Negotiations Regarding a Cease-fire and Cessation of Hostilities and on Measures to Settle the Armed Conflict on the Territory of the Chechen Republic Protocol of the Meeting of the Working Groups on the Question of a Settlement of the Armed Conflict on the Territory of the Chechen Republic Protocol of the Meeting of the Working Groups, Formed under the Negotiations Commissions, to Locate Missing Persons and to Free Forcibly Detained Persons Peace Treaty and Principles of Interrelation between Russian Federation and Chechen Republic Ichkeria

Year
1996 1996 1996 1996 1996 1997

Download
rus1.pdf rus6.pdf rus3.pdf rus4.pdf rus5.pdf rus2.pdf

See also: INCORE's Country Guide to Russia.

Tajikistan: 1994-1997
Agreement on a Temporary Cease-fire and the Cessation of Other Hostile Acts on the Tajik-Afghan Border and within the Country for the Duration of the Talks Protocol on the fundamental Principles for establishing peace and national accord in Tajikistan "Mise en oeuvre de l'Accord de paix du 23 decembre 1996 - Reunion de Meched-Iran Communique commun" Moscow Meeting Agreement, and Protocol on Commission on National Commission Protocol on Settlement of the Military and Political Situation in the Areas of Confrontation Accord general sur l'instauration de la paix et de l'entente nationale au Tadjikistan Declaration conjointe de la delegation du Gouvernement de la Republique du Tadjikistan et de la delegation de l'Opposition tadjike unie sur les resultats de la serie de pourparlers intertadjiks qui a eu lieu

Year
1994 1995 1996 1996 1996 1997 1997

Download
taj12.pdf taj11.pdf taj4.pdf taj7.pdf taj14.pdf taj1.pdf taj2.pdf

a Moscou Delaration du president E. Rakhmonov, du chef de l'Opposition A. Nouri, et du representant special de l'ONU, G. D. Merrem Joint Statement by the Delegation of the Government of Tajikistan and the Delegation of the United Tajik Opposition Protocol on Military Issues Protocol on Political Issues Protocol on Refugees Protocole d'entente mutuelle The Bishkek Memorandum 1997 1997 1997 1997 1997 1997 1997 taj3.pdf taj13.pdf taj9.pdf taj8.pdf taj10.pdf taj5.pdf taj6.pdf

See also: