1.

The living and non-living components of the Earth contain mixtures o General equations: - acid + base = salt + water - acid + carbonate = salt + water + carbon dioxide gas - acid + metal oxide = acid + water - metal oxide + water = metal hydroxide Atoms: smallest unit of an element (singular) gives an element its chemical properties Molecule: group of atoms joined together gives an element its physical properties can be different elements: molecule of a compound molecule of an element Compound: combination of different elements Mixture: contains different molecules of elements and compounds Matter

Mixtures -------------------------------------> Pure substances

Homogenous Heterogenous Compounds ------------> Elements Biosphere: made of compounds based on the element carbon, eg. carbon dioxide, proteins, carbohydrates, DNA, glucose. Also elements, eg. oxygen. Lithosphere: made of rocks, eg. granite, quartz, marble, sand (silicon dioxide), soils, and mineral ores mixtures of minerals (naturally occurring solid elements or compounds) also mixtures of elements, eg. copper, gold, silver, carbon (as diamond) Atmosphere: made of uncombined lighter elements, eg. oxygen, nitrogen, argon, with small percentages of compounds, eg. water, carbon dioxide Hydrosphere: made up of water, which can contains oxygen, nitrogen, sodium chloride, carbon dioxide Separation techniques: Filtration: uses different solubilities to separate undissolved solid particles (soluble) from a liquid (insoluble), eg. air filter to remove solid particles from air Solution: uses different solubilities to separate constituents of a mixture, eg. separate salt and charcoal mixture Evaporation: uses different volatilities to separate mixtures/solutions, eg. collect salt from seawater Crystallisation: uses different solubilities to separate mixtures containing two or more soluble components, eg. mixture of salt and baking soda Sedimentation: uses different solubilities to separate solid particles from water, eg. mud/soil in water Decantation: uses different states of matter to separate a liquid from a solid, which has been allowed to settle by sedimentation, eg. water off boiled vegetables Sieving uses different sizes to separate solid particles of various sizes by passing them through a perforated barrier, eg. mineral particles Centrifugation: uses different densities and states to separate mixtures of chemicals, and liquids from solids, with a spinning motion eg. separate cream from milk

Distillation: uses different volatilities and boiling points to purify liquids, eg. used in manufacture of spirits involves boiling, evaporating and condensing Fractional distillation: uses different boiling points to separate a mixture of several different liquids, eg. petroleum Separating gases in the air: uses different boiling points to separate oxygen and nitrogen, eg. separate components of air Separating two immiscible liquids: uses different densities to separate two liquids added together, which do not mix with each other, with a separating funnel, eg. oil and water Chromatography: uses different strengths to separate components of a mixture by passing mixture over surface of a substance to which the components of the mixture absorb, eg. pigments found in plant matter Magnetic separation: uses different magnetisms to separate components of a mixture by passing mixture through a magnetic field, eg. mineral sands Gravimetric analysis: involves weighing used to determine the percentage composition of a chemical compound by specifying the percentage by mass of each of the different elements present useful in deciding whether geological samples of ore deposits are economically feasible to mine; also in estimating organic content for pollution purposes eg. where soil contamination might have taken place Naming molecular covalent compounds (non-metal and non-metal): 1. First part: element closer to bottom or left-hand side of periodic table 2. Second part: Add the suffix -ide' to the stem of the name of the second element 3. If a molecule contains more than one atom of one type, indicate the number of atoms with p prefixes mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, and hexa (Note: mono- is not used for firstnamed element eg. N2O4: dinitrogen tetraoxide Naming ionic compounds (metal and non-metal): 1. Positive ion first 2. Valency of positive ion is written in parenthesis after its name 3. Name of negative ion, with suffix ide- added if it is a single atom -

Practicals Separating sand, salt and iron mixture

2. Although most elements are found in combinations on Earth, some elements are found uncombined o o Reactive elements: found in compounds, eg. calcium, sodium, iron, aluminium, chlorine, fluorine Non-reactive elements: found alone, uncombined, in pure form, eg. gold, silver, copper Physical properties of metals, non-metals and semi-metals : Physical Property Metals (left of Non-Metals (right Semi-Metals (zigperiodic table) of periodic table) zag on periodic table) Melting point Usually high Usually low Low Boiling point Usually high Usually low Usually high

Electrical conductivity Heat conductivity Appearance Physical State

High High lustrous

Very low Very low Usually not lustrous Solids, liquids and gases

Low (except for carbon as graphite) Low Variable

Solids at room Variable temp. (except for Hg and Br) relatively high densities Form Malleable and Brittle Variable ductile Uses of metals, non-metals and semi-metals : - Metals: aluminium has physical properties of thermal conductivity, malleability and an attractive lustre used in domestic utensils, drink cans, saucepans, cooking foil, building construction as roofing and window frames, and in boat construction magnesium burns with a bright light used in fireworks, flares and flash bulbs - Non-metals: used as pure elements carbon (graphite) has physical properties of softness and a layer structure that allows layers of atoms to slide over each other, and also electrical conductivity used in lead pencils and as a lubricant, and also in electrodes in batteries and electrolytic processes carbon (diamond) has physical properties of transparency, a high refractive index and dispersive powder, and also a high melting point and hardness used in jewellery and also drill tips sulfur is abundant and is reactive used in vulcanising rubber, and in the manufacture of sulfuric acid, fungicides, insecticides and hydrogen sulfite bleaches phosphorous is reactive used in smoke bombs and the manufacture of match heads helium has a very low density and lack of reactivity used in airships neon has the ability to glow and give out a great deal of light when excited by an electric discharge used in neon lights chlorine used in water treatment because it is a bactericide and algaecide; also used as bleaching agent because of its reactivity in decolouring other chemicals - Semi-metals conductivity varies with temperature and can be increased dramatically if the semi-metal is mixed with very small amounts of other elements property exploited in the use of silicon and germanium as semi-conductors in transistors, silicon chips for integrated circuits and photocells

Practicals Determining metals, non-metals and semi-metals Elements: lead, zinc, magnesium, aluminium, iron, carbon (graphite), sulfur, iodine Tests: - Electrical conductivity: connect a power supply (transformer) and globe/ammeter in series with material sample if there is a reading, sample is metal

Malleability: strike material with hammer if sample flattens out, it is a metal; if it shatters of forms a powder, it is a non-metal Solubility in water: boil a beaker of water and dip sample in for 1 minute if it dissolves or softens, it is a non-metal Lustre: clean surface of sample with abrasive paper if it is shiny, it is a metal Hardness: scratch material with steel knife if material scratches, it is softer than steel; if not, it is harder

3. Elements in Earth materials are present mostly as compounds because of interactions at the atomic level Electrons are considered to exist in energy levels or shells with particular average distances from the nucleus first energy shell holds 2, second holds 8, third holds 18, fourth holds 32, etc. o X A: mass number/atomic mass number of protons and neutrons (the same number of each) Z: atomic number number of protons (Note: isotopes are elements with same atomic number and different mass number) o Cations: positively charged ions formed when one or more electrons are removed from an atom derived from metallic elements Anions: negatively charged ions formed when atom gains one or more electrons derived from non-metals o Lewis electron dot structures: - Formation of ions: ions in square brackets with charge outside top-right of brackets - Simple molecules: molecular covalent compounds joined together by covalent bonds share electrons (Note: carbon atoms always have four bonds around it) o Types of compounds: - Covalent molecular compounds: made up of simple molecules covalently bonded together - Covalent network compounds: do not occur as simple molecules made up of atoms covalently bonded together in an extended three-dimensional network structure formula represents empirical formula of the compound - Ionic compounds: consist of oppositely charged ions held together by electrostatic attraction to form a regular crystal lattice ionic bonding is strong ionic solids are hard, brittle and difficult to cut expressed in empirical formula, which specifies simplest whole number ratio of number of ions of each element in the compound o Writing ionic formulae: 1. Write symbol for both ions (positive first) 2. Write valency of first next to second, second next to first o Ionic equations: half-equations o 4. Energy is required to extract elements from their naturally occurring sources o Physical and chemical changes: Physical changes No new substances formed changes in physical properties without changes in Chemical changes New substances formed with different compositions and properties

Relatively large amounts of energy being absorbed/released Difficult to reverse Eg. electrolysis of water electrical energy breaks covalent bonds between hydrogen and oxygen atoms and new bonds form between hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms produces hydrogen gas and oxygen gas (Note: energy absorbed positive value, energy released negative value) Decomposition of compounds: - Thermal decomposition: heat breaks compounds down into simpler substances chemical change substances altered by changing the nature and arrangement of particles form different compounds or elements eg. in baking, thermal decomposition of bicarbonate of soda (sodium hydrogen-carbonate) to produced carbon dioxide gas used to make cakes rise: 2NaHCO3 (s) Na2CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (g) - Decomposition by electrical energy: electrolysis chemical change electric current passed through substance used to decompose water: 2H2O (l) 2H2 (g) + O2 (g), and extract metals from their ores: eg. bauxite 2Al2O3 4Al + 3O2 - Decomposition by light energy: photolysis substances exposed to light photon of light causes decomposition used to decompose silver salt - silver bromide in black and white photographic film: AgBr (s) Ag(s) + Br(s) (Ag atoms form latent image) Bond energy: energy involved represents strength of bonding between the atoms of the substances stronger bonding, higher energy Breaking bonds: energy absorbed endothermic Forming new bonds: energy released exothermic

composition Relatively small amounts of energy being absorbed/released Easy to reverse Eg. boiling of water heat energy breaks intermolecular forces change of state from liquid to gas molecules move further apart

Practicals: Decomposition of a Carbonate by Heat Aim: To decompose a carbonate using heat and determine the products Method: 1. Set up equipment shown below:

(Note: also need matches and spatula) 2. Heat copper carbonate until solid product remains. Observe colour of limewater and solid product 3. Take solid product and place a small amount in a test tube containing 3-4cm of HCl. Observe colour of acid solution Results: - Limewater bubbled and turned milky - Green copper carbonate turned black - When solid product was mixed in acid, solid disappeared, and acid turned green and became a transparent liquid Conclusion: - Carbon dioxide was on of the products because it turned the limewater milky

The solid product was a compound of copper because the acid turned green The solid product was a base because it reacted with acid. It was copper oxide - Equation: CuCO3 CO2 (g) + CuO(s) The Effect of Light on Silver Halides Aim: To make silver halides (silver compounds with halogens group VII) and determine the effect of light on them Apparatus: - 50mL of: silver nitrate - AgNO3 (aq) sodium halide solutions - NaBr (aq), NaCl (aq), NaI (aq) sodium thiosulfate solution - Na2S2O3 (aq) - 4 petri dishes - 4 pieces of filter paper - Measuring cylinder - Tongs - Piece of cotton wool - Scissors - Paper - Gloves - Safety glasses Method: 1. Using the paper, cut out 4 shapes to fit on filter paper 2. Pour each of the silver nitrate and sodium halide solutions into separate petri dishes 3. Label each piece of filter paper with names of sodium halide solutions 4. Immerse a piece of filter paper in the silver nitrate solution. Place on flat surface and place one shape on top. (This is the control) 5. Immerse another piece of filter paper in silver nitrate solution and then in the corresponding sodium halide solution. Put on a flat surface and place a shape on top 6. Repeat step 5 with the other two sodium halide solutions 7. Leave all pieces of filter paper in bright sunlight for at least 15-20 minutes 8. Remove the shapes and sponge all filter paper with sodium thiosulfate solution (gets rid of undecomposed silver halide Results: The area under the paper shape of the filter papers that were immersed in the silver nitrate solutions did not change colour while the rest of it turned black Conclusion: By combining the silver nitrate with the sodium halide solutions, a silver halide was produced. Ag (aq) + Br (aq) AgBr(s) Ag (aq) + Cl (aq) AgCl(s) Ag (aq) + I (aq) AgI(s) When exposed to UV light, the silver halide was decomposed into silver and a halogen. Ag (s) + 2Br (s) Ag(s) + Br2 (l) Ag (s) + 2Cl (s) Ag(s) + Cl2 (g) Ag (s) + 2I (s) Ag(s) + I2(s) The silver caused the filter paper to turn black, except for the area under the shape of the paper because it was not exposed to light. This reaction is used in photography 5. The properties of elements and compounds are determined by their bonding and structure o Physical properties: can be determined without changing the chemical composition of the substances

Chemical properties: the way in which the chemicals react changes which occur when a substance breaks down or reacts with other substances during a chemical reaction (particles rearranged) Physical Properties Chemical Properties Odour Reactions with oxygen Colour Reactions with water State at room temperature Reactions with acids Taste Reactions with bases Hardness Specific reactions with other substances Density Mechanical strength Hardness Malleability Ductility Electrical conductivity Thermal conductivity Melting point Boiling point Solubility Structure and bonding in substances - Structure of a substance depends upon: The nature of the particles present revealed by the electrical conductivity of the substance in its solid or liquid (molten) state The forces holding the particles together revealed by the melting point of the substance in its solid state - Classification of substances: Solid High Not covalent molecular substance Conductivity of solid Conducting Metallic substance Non-conducting Non-conducting Conductivity of molten state Conducting Ionic substance Non-conducting Covalent network substance Melting point Low Covalent molecular substance Conductivity of solid and molten state

Covalent molecular substances: Low melting and boiling points weak intermolecular forces Non-conductivity lack of mobile ions molecules are uncharged and electrons are localised in covalent bonds or on the atoms Soft solids with waxy appearance weak intermolecular forces Include non-metals Eg. carbon dioxide low melting and boiling point (evaporates into gas to burn), partially soluble in water used as dry ice and gas in soft drinks Other examples: glucose (C6H12O6), wax (C20H42) Covalent network substances (covalent lattice structure): Very high melting and boiling point, extremely hard and brittle, insoluble strong covalent bonding produce rigid three-dimensional network structures Non-conductivity lack of mobile ions electrons localised in covalent bonds and on the atoms Chemically inert bonding extends throughout crystal and the non-polar nature of the bonding makes them resistant to chemical attack Include non-metals Eg. diamond very hard used in drill bits Other examples: sand (SiO2) Ionic substances (crystal structure): High melting and boiling points strong electrostatic attractive forces Non-conductivity in solid state ions occupy fixed positions, are strongly held by nuclei of individual ions and are not free to move Good conductivity in molten state or aqueous solution ions are able to move through the melt and are separated from each other and are free to move in aqueous solution Hardness and brittleness if a layer is displaced, ions of similar charge are forced closer to one another with an increase in repulsive forces and decrease in attractive forces crystal will fracture Include salts, metal hydroxides and metal oxides Eg. sodium chloride brittleness, solubility used as salt in cooking sodium hydroxide conducts electricity in molten state used in electrolytes in batteries Other examples: salt (NaCl), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) Metallic substances (lattice structure): High melting and boiling points strong electrostatic attractive forces between positive metal ions and delocalised electrons High conductivity mobility of delocalised electrons electrons entering one of metal causes a similar number of electrons to be displaced from the other end transfer charge and heat energy High density cations packed tightly together in lattice Malleability and ductility limited resistance to movement of ions delocalised electrons do not belong to any particular ion bonding is non-directional if sufficient force is applied to metal, one layer if ions can be slid over another without disrupting the metallic bonding Lustrous Eg. copper hardness, malleability, insolubility, ductility, high conductivity used in wires and hot water pipes Comparing four classes of substanes: Class Property Melting point Conductivity Solid Melt Metallic Variable hardness High High High Ionic Very hard High None High

Covalent molecular

Covalent network Very high None None Types of chemical bonds: Strong: - Covalent bonding: shared boding electrons are simultaneously attracted to nuclei of both bonded atoms electrostatic attraction between bonding electrons and both nuclei comparatively less energy required - Ionic bonding: electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions within a threedimensional lattice of ions lattice energy comparatively high energy required - Metallic bonding: positive metal ions in sea of free electrons Weak: - Intermolecular forces: holds molecules together Formulae: - Empirical: ratio of number of each type of atom to each other - Molecular: actual number of each type of atom in a molecule of the compound (elements) - Structural: shows actual structure of the molecule Eg. Ethyne: Empirical formula: CH Molecular formula: C2H2 Structural formula: H C = C H (Note: ionic compounds do not have an empirical formula because they do not exist as separate molecules, but are oppositely charged particles joined together in an endless crystalline lattice)

Very brittle Soft brittle solids; can be solids, liquids or gases at room temp. Very hard, brittle

Low

None

None

Practicals Comparing the properties of a compound with those of its component elements